Using conceptual metaphor in teaching phrasal verbs at hung vuong high school for the gifted, binh duong province m a

Statement of the study problem

Over the past decades, numerous publications have aimed to support teachers and enhance EFL learners’ self-study, but many rely on grouping phrasal verbs (PVs) by themes or base verbs, which often leads to rote memorization In a high school setting, the researcher observes that teachers frequently prepare PV lists with Vietnamese translations and example sentences, then distribute these handouts for students to memorize through follow-up exercises This traditional approach hampers students' ability to use PVs effectively and often results in avoidance, highlighting the need for innovative teaching methods to improve PV learning progress among students.

Conceptual Metaphor (CM) is an innovative approach to addressing challenges in teaching phrasal verbs (PVs), with numerous international studies—such as those by Nguyen and Phan (2009), Yasuda (2010), White (2012), Huynh and Vo (2015), and Kartal and Uner (2017)—highlighting its effectiveness Despite growing interest globally, research on the application of CM in Vietnam remains limited, leaving several aspects unexplored This thesis, titled “Using Conceptual Metaphor in Teaching Phrasal Verbs at Hung Vuong High School for the Gifted, Binh Duong Province,” aims to enhance students' PV learning outcomes through a CM-based teaching method tailored to Vietnam’s educational context.

Aims of the study

This study aims to identify effective methods to enhance student performance at Hung Vuong High School for the Gifted in Binh Duong Province (HVHS) The research focuses on discovering strategies that can improve academic outcomes and overall student development By exploring innovative teaching approaches, the study seeks to provide practical solutions tailored to the needs of HVHS students The findings aim to contribute to optimizing educational practices and fostering excellence among gifted students.

- Investigate students’ awareness of PVs and learning PVs

- Examine the effects of the CM method on learning PVs compared to the conventional method, namely learning a list of PVs by heart

- Explore experimental-group students’ perspectives towards using the CM method in learning PVs

The following research questions are raised to address the aforementioned objectives:

1 What are the students’ perceptions towards phrasal verbs and learning phrasal verbs?

2 To what extent does the use of conceptual metaphor improve the non-English majored students’ efficiency in learning phrasal verbs at HVHS?

3 What are the experimental group’s perspectives on the use of conceptual metaphor in their learning of phrasal verbs?

Significance of the study

Theoretically, this research attempts to yield insight into the effect of the CM on improving PV learning at high school in Vietnam’s context It is because using the

CM method had not yet been a practice that high school English teachers applied to help their students overcome the challenges of learning PVs before this research was conducted

Practically, the results of this study are expected to reinvigorate teachers and students in adopting a more appropriate practice of teaching and learning PVs in

This study explores Vietnamese high school students' perspectives on the Community-Based (CM) method in project-based learning, providing valuable insights into their preferences and acceptance of this innovative pedagogical approach The findings aim to serve as a useful reference for educators and students in similar educational contexts across Vietnam, promoting effective teaching strategies and enhancing student engagement in PV learning.

Scope of the study

This study investigates the impact of the CM-based method on students' learning of passive voice (PV) at a local high school It highlights the PV structures that students are exposed to in their textbooks over three academic years, such as Tieng Anh 10 The research aims to determine how this instructional approach influences students' understanding and usage of PVs in their language learning journey Implementing the CM-based method may enhance students' grasp of PVs, leading to improved language proficiency aligned with curriculum content.

In this study, only paired vowels (PVs) with common particles—specifically "up," "out," "on," and "off"—were considered due to the scale of the textbooks used in the experiment These PVs were utilized to design handouts and tests for data collection, allowing for a focused and in-depth analysis This limitation not only enhances the study's depth but also encourages future research in this field.

This study focuses on the compositional meaning of particles in phrasal verbs (PVs), highlighting how their connotations contribute to the overall meaning The researcher has chosen to explore this aspect to deepen the understanding of the metaphorical significance of particles within PVs Further elaboration on this approach will be provided in Chapter 2: Literature Review.

Organization of thesis chapters

This thesis is comprised of five chapters

Chapter 1, Introduction, provides an overview of the significance of photovoltaic (PV) systems in research, highlighting current gaps in knowledge and technology It outlines the primary objectives of this study to address these gaps and emphasizes the scope of the research, establishing a foundation for understanding the role of PVs in advancing renewable energy solutions.

Chapter 2, Literature Review, establishes a solid theoretical foundation for the study by examining existing research on photovoltaic systems (PVs), the particles present in PVs, and the CM method It also highlights recent empirical findings to enhance understanding of key aspects relevant to the research.

Chapter 3, Methodology, details the research design, encompassing the research site, participant selection, and data collection instruments It outlines the procedures and materials used for data gathering, along with the instructional materials and the data analysis scheme, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the methods employed to analyze the study's results effectively.

Chapter 4, Findings and Discussions, presents the results from tests and questionnaires analyzed using independent t-tests to assess the significance of mean score differences within and between the experimental and control groups The findings highlight the statistical significance of these differences, providing crucial insights into the research outcomes Additionally, the discussion compares and contrasts these results with existing theoretical frameworks and previous studies, offering a comprehensive understanding of the topic and addressing key issues identified through the analysis.

Chapter 5, Conclusion, summarizes the key research findings, highlights their implications for pedagogy, and emphasizes the significance of these results for educational practices It also discusses the study's limitations and provides suggestions for future research to further explore this area.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Definitions of phrasal verbs and their construction

Phrasal verbs (PVs) have historically played a crucial role in the English language due to their widespread use in both spoken and written communication across various registers According to Cervantes and Gablasova (2017), PVs are an indispensable component of English linguistics In the 1980s, PVs were defined as multi-word verbs or combinations of a lexical verb with an adverbial particle, which can follow the verb either continuously or discontinuously (Quirk et al., 1985) Similarly, Joshi (2014) describes PVs as combinations of a verb with additional elements such as an adverb or preposition The American Heritage Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (2005) also provides a definition, emphasizing their status as a key feature of English vocabulary (as cited in White, 2012).

A phrasal verb consists of a standard verb paired with a preposition or adverbial particle, creating a meaning that cannot be simply inferred from the individual words Understanding phrasal verbs is essential for mastering nuanced English communication They often carry idiomatic meanings that differ from the literal definitions of their components Incorporating common phrasal verbs into your vocabulary can improve both your speaking and writing skills Recognizing these combinations enhances comprehension and makes your language use more natural and fluent.

In summary, phrasal verbs (PVs) are constructed by combining a verb with a particle, but their meanings often cannot be deduced solely from their individual components This understanding of PVs as verb-particle constructions will be applied throughout this research, emphasizing that the meaning of a PV is often context-dependent rather than directly inferable from its separate parts.

A phrasal verb (PV) is often misunderstood due to its complex syntactic and semantic features Its formation is similar to prepositional verbs, which can lead to learner confusion To avoid this, it is essential to distinguish PVs from prepositional verbs based on their unique semantic and syntactic characteristics According to Howarth (1998), PVs are classified as composite units within phraseology, identified by their internal structures and external functions in word combinations.

According to Howarth (1998), functional expressions rely on the realization of word combinations in discourse and utterances, while composite units perform syntactic functions within clauses or sentences Particle verbs (PVs), as a type of composite units, are best understood as part of a collocational continuum characterized by collocability, semantic specialization, and idiomaticity This means that PVs’ elements are not freely interchangeable, and their meanings often cannot be deduced from their individual parts but instead carry metaphorical meanings as a whole Huddleston and Pullum (2002, p 284) illustrate this lexicalization process of verb-particle combinations with the example "take in," highlighting its position within this continuum.

(1) We’d better take in the children’s toys [move in the house]

(2) They supplement their income by taking in students [renting to]

(3) I’ve taken in your trousers, because they were too loose [tighten]

(4) Grammar takes in syntax and morphology but phonology [includes]

(5) I thought we might take in a show after dinner [see]

(6) I was too tired to take in what she was saying [grasp]

(7) I’m not surprised he was taken in : he’s as gullible as a child [deceived]

The meaning of the base verb "take" and the interpretation of the particle "in" are straightforward in example (1), aligning with semantic expectations However, in example (7), the sense becomes less transparent, demonstrating how particle meanings can vary based on semantic classification It's important to note that not all phrasal verbs (PVs) transfer the same meanings as "take in"; some may retain literal senses across all contexts, while others are used idiomatically only.

Analyzing phrasal verbs (PVs) involves examining both their semantic and syntactic features, similar to other lexical formations According to Künig (1973), the meanings of PVs can be categorized into three types, including 'directional' meanings, highlighting the importance of semantic classification in understanding their functions within language.

‘aspectual’ and ‘non-compositional’ combinations (as cited in Thim, 2012)

However, after thoroughly studying, Thim (2012, p.13) categorizes the semantic types of verb-particle combinations as in the figure below

Figure 2.2 Semantic classification of phrasal verbs

The ‘directional’ and ‘aspectual’ particles both reflect the senses of particles, justifying their classification as compositional types The directional type interprets motion through space or the action of verbs, while the aspectual type relates to post hoc verb-particle formations, emphasizing the formation process Conversely, the ‘non-compositional’ type is difficult to assign a specific meaning to, as the meaning of a phrasal verb (PV) does not simply derive from its individual components Instead, PV meanings can range from concrete to abstract, highlighting their diverse interpretive nature.

Rudzka-Ostyn (2003, p 1) defines phrasal verbs (PV) as idiomatic multi-word constructions that consist of a verb combined with an adverbial particle and/or a preposition These constructions typically form three common syntactic structures, highlighting their versatility and importance in English syntax Understanding these structures is essential for mastering the complex syntax of phrasal verbs.

1 Verb + particle: slow down, bring up, put off, give away, look into (a murder), think over

2 Verb + particle + preposition: face up to, get down to, come up with, be in for

3 Verb + preposition: refer to, look into (a room), look at, depend on, abstain from, think of

According to Rudzka-Ostyn (2003) in *Word Power: Phrasal Verbs and Compounds*, there are two key features of phrasal verbs: the unification of base verbs and particles, which increases their idiomatic meaning and cohesiveness, and the aspect of passivity However, these features alone do not fully explain the syntactic characteristics of phrasal verbs, indicating the need to consider additional linguistic theories, as discussed by Huddleston and Pullum (2002).

286) elucidate three aspects of PVs compared to free combinations

The first area highlights the flexibility of intransitive locative prepositions in language While these prepositions often appear at the beginning of free combinations, they cannot be positioned within phrasal verbs (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002) For example, Huddleston and Pullum (2002, p 285) provide clear instances demonstrating this restriction, emphasizing the structural constraints of intransitive prepositions in syntactic constructions.

Table 2.1 The differences in changeability between prepositions and particles (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002, p 285)

Down it went Off came his shirt Up do the ratings In went the sun

* Down it broke * Off went the milk * Up pay the patrons

* shows the unacceptable word order

In the second area of particle verb (PV) usage, only a single sequence is permitted; inserting an adjunct such as an adverb of manner between the base verb and particle is not acceptable For example, placing the adverb "slowly" directly in the middle of a PV combination is incorrect Understanding this rule is essential for proper sentence construction and maintaining grammatical correctness in English.

‘He drove slowly down the mountain road,’ yet it is impossible to say ‘*He broke slowly down when hearing the news.’

The final area involves the use of the intransitive locative preposition, where an adverb or adverbial clause follows the verb in a flexible arrangement In phrasal verbs (PV), the object can sometimes be preceded by an intransitive particle or positioned between the verb and the particle, demonstrating versatility in sentence structure.

In conclusion, on the grounds of these analyses, PVs, regarded as multi-word verbs, can be delineated on the understanding of semantic and syntactic interpretations

In semantic interpretation, phrasal verbs (PVs) often carry a figurative meaning, which makes them particularly suitable for the Cognitive Metaphor (CM) method Syntactically, PVs are considered a fixed category, meaning their elements cannot be split or replaced with similar words, and they can typically be substituted with a single verb conveying the same meaning Additionally, particles in PVs must be carefully distinguished from prepositions, as they can significantly influence the metaphorical interpretation of the entire phrase The upcoming section will explore the role of particles in PVs and their impact on the overall meaning.

Particles in phrasal verbs

To commence, it is necessary to discover the word origin of particle The term particle whose origin is from the word Latin particulla (small part) designates

Elements of uninflecting word classes, such as particles, frequently appear in languages like Classical Greek, German, Dutch, Norwegian, and English (Neagu, 2007, p 122) According to Neagu (2007), particles are considered a subgroup of variables that include prepositions, adverbs, and conjunctions, highlighting their functional role in these languages.

A particle, as defined by the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, is an adverb or preposition that combines with a verb to form a phrasal verb (PV) Despite their similar forms, particles and prepositions are different; prepositions typically indicate motion or position, while particles convey a broader range of meanings, from concrete actions to figurative expressions Understanding this distinction is essential for mastering phrasal verbs and improving English fluency.

2.2.2 The importance of particles in phrasal verbs

Many phrasal verbs (PVs) have literal meanings that are easy to understand, such as "go up" or "move in," which directly describe physical actions (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1983) However, some PVs possess metaphorical meanings, like "bring down" (to make someone lose power) or "turn out" (to be discovered), which are far from their original sense The formation of PVs follows an underlying logic rather than being random (Rudzka-Ostyn, 2003; Rundell, 2005; Holme, 2012) According to Kovács (2011), the meanings of PVs can often be inferred through metaphors, though foreign learners may not always recognize these underlying figurative connections The connotations of PVs are frequently derived from their constituents, particularly the particles.

Numerous researchers, including David (2002), Rudzka-Ostyn (2003), Cappelle (2005), and Gairns & Redman (2011), acknowledge the significant role of particles in shaping phrasal verb (PV) meanings These scholars highlight that particles, when systematically organized, can extend or completely alter the meaning of a verb-particle combination David (2002, p 130) emphasizes that particles can manipulate PV meanings by imposing their own conceptual framework onto the verb The Collins COBUILD Phrasal Verbs Dictionary (2020) further supports this systematic approach by including a particles index that details the meanings of particles and illustrates their relationship with verb-particle combinations For example, the particle "on" in this index frequently indicates continuation, such as activity, journey, or movement, and PVs with "on" generally share senses of ongoing action despite involving different base verbs This organized approach helps clarify the nuanced ways particles contribute to PV meanings.

Table 2.2 Examples of particle on

They just ignored her, and carried on chatting continued

Some legal cases have dragged on for eight years taken longer

While she was pouring out their drinks, she went on talking continued

We sat listening to Miriam as she rambled on talked for a long time

As can be observed from the above examples, the meaning of the whole unit of a

Particles significantly influence the use of PV, and all four examples belong to the same semantic category of "continuation." This raises the question of how these examples are organized within an underlying pattern, which will be further explored in the next section.

2.2.3 The metaphorical extension of phrasal verb particle meanings

Thim (2012) identifies two types of semantic characteristics in particle verbs (PVs): one related to motions and circumstances, and the other to idiomatic units Rodríguez-Puente (2019) emphasizes that particle meanings significantly influence the overall meaning of the PV, especially in the case of idiomatic expressions He further explains that when a verb combines with an idiomatic particle, the resulting compound becomes non-compositional and difficult to interpret, as the individual connotations of both the verb and the particle can no longer be deduced This highlights the complex semantic interplay within particle verbs and the importance of context in understanding their meanings.

This study focuses on the compositional meaning of phrasal verbs (PVs), emphasizing how their particles convey specific meanings By understanding the role of particles in PVs, students can better memorize their meanings and more accurately infer the overall sense of the construction This approach aims to enhance language learning efficiency by making PVs easier to understand and recognize.

According to Rudzka-Ostyn (2003), the compositional meaning of phrasal verbs is influenced by the combination of base verbs and particles, where spatial or prototypical meanings of particles help generate the overall meaning spontaneously If the base verb's meaning is familiar and the particle conveys a clear spatial or prototypical concept, the meaning of the phrasal verb can be easily inferred For example, Collins COBUILD Phrasal Verbs Dictionary (2020) provides illustrative sentences demonstrating this natural semantic composition.

(16) We’ve been digging up potatoes in the vegetable garden

(17) Journalists had dug up some shocking facts about the company

As can be observed, there is a change of semantic interpretations of the PV dig up from literal to figurative meanings in sentences (16) and (17) The PV dig up in

(16) has a literal meaning and refers to a physical action to extract something from the ground by digging Meanwhile, the latter one contains a metaphorical sense of disclosing information

Figure 2.3 Spatial or prototypical meanings of particles (Rudzka-Ostyn, 2003, p 4)

Both multi-verb expressions, despite their different meanings, share a common sense related to the process of discovering or uncovering something Additionally, understanding the meaning of the phrasal verb in the sentence is not difficult, making it easier to grasp the overall context.

The particle "up" retains its primary meaning, allowing us to understand its spatial significance By analyzing the usage of particles like "up," we can accurately interpret their spatial meanings within a context This approach to understanding particles' spatial functions can be visualized through models, such as the one adapted from Rudzka-Ostyn (2003, p 4), which illustrates how particles convey spatial relationships effectively.

Particles in phrasal verbs often extend beyond their literal meanings to convey abstract concepts such as thoughts, feelings, and relationships According to Rudzka-Ostyn (2003), non-spatial meanings may be unfamiliar to ESL/EFL learners, even if they understand the literal components of a phrasal verb Although a phrasal verb may lack its prototypical literal meaning, its figurative sense can often be inferred from the spatial meanings of the particles Examples from Collins COBUILD Phrasal Verbs Dictionary (2020) illustrate how particles communicate abstract ideas beyond their literal interpretations.

(18) I took some cake into work to try to cheer up my colleagues

(19) I waited for half an hour, but she didn’t show up

These phrasal verbs (PVs) may pose challenges for foreign-language learners of English due to their metaphorical senses However, a thorough examination reveals that their figurative meanings derive from their prototypical connotations of movement For example, the particle "up" predominantly conveys the spatial concept of verticality, which helps illuminate the meanings of "cheer up" and "show up"—indicating an increase or appearance This demonstrates how language transfers concrete spatial concepts into abstract domains through metaphor Understanding this process highlights the significant role of metaphor in shaping PV meanings, as discussed by Rodríguez-Puente.

In 2019, it was determined that orientational metaphor, a concept borrowed from Lakoff and Johnson's seminal work (1980, 2003), effectively describes this influence Before analyzing this influence further, it is essential to explore relevant theories related to the broader concept of conceptual metaphor and to interpret PV particles, which will be discussed in the following sections.

Conceptual metaphor and its relation to interpreting phrasal verbs

This section explores the connection between CM and PVs by examining various theories on CM, including its definitions, types, and CM-inspired instruction methods, to clarify how CM relates to the meaning of PVs.

Conceptual Metaphor (CM) is rooted in experientialism, emphasizing that semantics are shaped by individuals' interactions with their environment (Nguyen, 2016) This interactive process and human experience form the foundation of language and thought, suggesting that CM is motivated by these experiential factors (Küveçses, 2010).

Cognitive Metaphor (CM) is widely defined as a conventional mapping from one domain to another, grounded in the works of Lakoff and Johnson (1980, 2003) It involves linking an experiential or concrete domain, associated with bodily activity, to an abstract domain related to concepts According to Kövecses (2010), understanding the source (concrete) domain aids in grasping the target (abstract) domain through this mapping process A classic example of CM is "LOVE IS A JOURNEY," where the features of a journey help conceptualize love, making it easier for listeners or readers to interpret emotional experiences as travel Further details on these domain mappings are provided in Appendix 1 (p 91).

In a nutshell, on the grounds of the aforementioned definitions and justifications,

Cross-domain mapping (CM) involves the relationship between interconnected source and target domains, enabling elements from the source to interpret the meaning of the target This concept is grounded in human practice and daily interactions, reflecting how we naturally associate and understand different domains Further exploration of cross-domain mapping in CM will be discussed in the following section.

Cross-domain mapping in conceptual metaphor (CM) involves relationships such as "TARGET DOMAIN IS SOURCE DOMAIN" or "TARGET DOMAIN AS SOURCE DOMAIN," based on shared abstract and concrete domains like emotion, desire, morality, the human body, health, animals, and tools (Küveçses, 2010) CM adheres to various classification systems, including structural metaphor, orientational metaphor, and ontological metaphor, as introduced by Lakoff and Johnson (1980).

Cognitive metaphors (CM) can be categorized based on four key criteria: conventionality, cognitive functions, nature, and level of generality, as outlined by Kübercšes (2010) These classifications provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how metaphors operate across different contexts, with details summarized in Appendix 2 (p 92).

These kinds appear to relate in several aspects The relation between these categories can be visualized as follows

Figure 2.4 Kinds of conceptual metaphor (Adapted from Kửvecses, 2010)

Rodríguez-Puente (2019) highlights that orientational metaphors effectively illustrate how cognitive metaphors influence the meanings of PVs These metaphors support the concept of image-schema, a key tool for interpreting PV meanings Additionally, both orientational and ontological metaphors significantly shape image-schemas, emphasizing their importance in understanding PV usage This study explores these two types of cognitive metaphors to clarify how image-schemas contribute to defining PVs, enhancing our comprehension of metaphorical language in this context.

Initially, orientational metaphors, which mostly relate to people’s physical and cultural experience in space, are taken into consideration Lakoff and Johnson

According to 2003, metaphors often originate from human body postures, with systems linked to spatial interactions such as “up-down, in-out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral,” which can vary across cultures Kűvecses (2010) suggests that these binary spatial metaphors help conceptualize target domains as parts of the human system, where upward and downward orientations typically represent positive and negative evaluations, respectively This demonstrates how bodily metaphors influence cognitive understanding and cultural differences in spatial symbolism.

Table 2.3 Several cross-domain mappings of upward and downward orientation

HIGH STATUS IS UP LOW STATUS IS DOWN

GOOD IS UP BAD IS DOWN

MORE IS UP LESS IS DOWN

(Extracted from Lakoff & Johnson, 2003, p.17; Kửvecses, 2010, p 40)

These cross-domain mappings are frequently used in everyday conversations The following sentences indicate the CMs “HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN”

HAPPY IS UP: I’m feeling up That boosted my spirits My spirits rose

SAD IS DOWN: I'm feeling down He's really low these days I fell into a depression My spirits sank

The degree of feelings can be represented on the vertical axis, where words indicating an increase—such as "up," "boost," or "rise"—signify positive emotions, while terms like "down," "low," or "fall" reflect negative feelings According to Kövecses (2010), not only does the spatial orientation of up and down relate to positive and negative evaluations, but other conceptual oppositions—such as whole versus not whole, central versus peripheral, in versus out, and front versus back—also convey similar evaluative meanings.

Ontological metaphors play a crucial role in referring to, quantifying, and focusing on abstract concepts, helping us understand complex ideas by representing them as concrete entities This type of conceptual metaphor assists in deriving new abstract entities from existing abstract ideas, though the exact nature of these conceived objects remains somewhat ambiguous For example, the ontological metaphor "THE MIND IS A MACHINE" illustrates how abstract mental processes can be conceptualized as tangible, mechanical objects, making them easier to analyze and communicate.

We’re still trying to grind out the solution to this equation My mind just isn't operating today

The mind is often conceptualized as a machine, characterized by an on-off state, efficiency levels, productive capacity, internal mechanisms, energy sources, and operational conditions (Lakoff & Johnson, 2007) This analogy explains why terms like "grind out" or "operate" are commonly used to describe mental processes, emphasizing a mechanical perspective Additionally, ontological metaphors frame events, actions, activities, and states as containers, providing a structured way to understand complex mental and physical phenomena, thereby enriching our comprehension of cognitive processes and communication.

& Johnson, 2003) Ultimately, it is reasonable to comprehend why the words underlined in the following examples are utilized

I put a lot of energy into washing the windows

I get a lot of satisfaction out of washing the windows

Washing the windows can be seen as a container that produces valuable by-products such as energy and satisfaction, which emerge from the act itself This perspective highlights how physical actions like window cleaning generate beneficial outcomes, emphasizing the importance of viewing everyday tasks as sources of positive results Understanding this concept can enhance our appreciation of routine activities and their potential to contribute to personal well-being.

“get out of” can be extracted

Cognitive metaphors, particularly orientational and ontological metaphors, play a crucial role in helping learners understand the meanings of words and phrases in sentences These cross-domain mappings rely on image schemas, which create a mental framework that facilitates the comprehension of fixed expressions like idioms and phrasal verbs Understanding the relationship between image schemas and phrasal verb interpretation enhances language learning, and this connection will be explored in detail in the upcoming section.

Using image schemas in interpreting phrasal verbs

2.4.1 The theory of image schemas

Image schemas are fundamental to understanding orientational and ontological metaphors, as they pertain to spatial relations and human interactions with the environment These schemas serve as the "skeletal frameworks" for source domains, providing essential structures that shape how we map concepts between source and target domains According to Kővécs, 2010, p., image schemas do not serve as explicit structures for mappings but rather as foundational patterns that influence our conceptual understanding Incorporating image schemas into cognitive linguistics enhances our comprehension of metaphorical language and the way humans perceive and relate to their surroundings.

Phrases like "pass out," "space out," "zone out," and "tune out" are grouped under the out image-schema, which signifies a negative or disengaged mental state According to Küvecses, these image schemas reflect a common cognitive pattern associated with detachment or loss of awareness Understanding these expressions through the lens of image schemas enhances comprehension of their negative connotations Using such phrases appropriately can enrich emotional expression in language and communication.

Image-schema Metaphorical extension in-out I’m out of money contact Hold on, please

The term ‘image schema’ was utilized by Lakoff (1987), Johnson (1987), Lakoff and Tuner (1989) to explicate experiential concepts (as cited in Ly Toan Thang,

Johnson (1987) highlights that image schemata form the foundational structures of meaning and inference in human cognition He defines “image schema” as a cluster of knowledge that represents a general procedure, object, percept, event, or social situation, serving as a skeletal framework for understanding specific instances This schema provides a flexible, mental template that can be “filled out” with detailed properties, enabling humans to interpret and make sense of diverse real-life experiences.

Ly Toan Thang (2009, p 215) presents “elaboration” forms of image schemas

Carve out the best piece of meat for yourself

He picks out two pieces of candy

The dog dug the bone out

Figure 2.5 Elaborations of OUT schema

The four elaborations of the basic image schema share the key characteristic of trajector-landmark separation According to Johnson (1987, p 34), the senses of IN-OUT schemata are derived from various bodily movements, manipulations, and experiences, linking them to ontological metaphors These schemas conceptualize physical entities like the human body, mouth, car, bed, and toothpaste as containers Johnson (1987) describes this understanding of IN-OUT orientation as a container schema, emphasizing its basis in embodied experience and spatial relationship.

Table 2.4 List of image schemas

PART-WHOLE NEAR-FAR PROCESS

(Extracted from “The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning,

Imagination and Reason” by Lakoff (1987, p 126)

This cognitive linguist introduces the concept of scale schemas, which, alongside container/containment schemas, encompass orientational metaphors that relate to our understanding of verticality Scale schemas are based on our experiences of quantity and intensity, emphasizing the relationship between magnitude and positioning For example, the "More Is Up" metaphor exemplifies a common scale schema, highlighting how increased quantity or intensity is often conceptualized as moving upward Understanding these scale schemas enhances our comprehension of how language reflects spatial and experiential metaphors in everyday communication.

Lakoff (1987) discusses a variety of image schemas alongside containment and scale schemas, highlighting their importance in cognitive linguistics A selection of these image schemas is provided in Table 2.4 (p 20) within the study, with the full list detailed in Appendix 3 (p 93) These schemas play a crucial role in understanding how humans conceptualize abstract ideas through mental imagery.

Image schemas consist of two essential elements: landmark and trajector According to David (2002), a landmark is “an entity located in all kinds of spatial environments,” serving as a reference point, while the trajector represents the moving figure within that environment, indicating movement or position change Rudzka-Ostyn (2003) describes the landmark as a larger, background entity such as a surface or container, with the trajector being a smaller, mobile subject like an object, person, or feeling These roles can interchange depending on the context, highlighting the flexibility of image schemas (Hampe, 2005) Furthermore, Hampe (2005) emphasizes that image schemas are preconceptual structures that facilitate cross-domain mappings in conceptual metaphors This understanding of landmark and trajector is crucial for analyzing their roles in various sentences and their significance in spatial and conceptual cognition.

Table 2.5 Trajectors and Landmarks in sentences trajectory landmark

He puts his handkerchief in the pocket handkerchief put … in pocket

Ten convicts broke out of the prison convicts broke out of prison

(Extracted from “Word power: Phrasal verbs and Compounds” by Rudzka-

In spatial language, the relationship between trajector and landmark is typically expressed through verbs or phrasal verbs For example, in the sentence “He puts his handkerchief in the pocket,” the handkerchief (trajector) moves from outside the container to inside the landmark (pocket) This illustrates how movement verbs clearly depict the positional relationship between objects in space.

The prepositional phrasal "put in" is used to demonstrate relationships between objects and locations For example, the phrase "Ten convicts broke out of the prison" illustrates how the phrasal verb "break out of" connects the subject "convicts" with the landmark "prison." Understanding these phrasal verbs is essential for mastering English sentence structure and improving language comprehension.

Image schemas are visual representations of conceptual metaphors that originate from human bodily movement, manipulations, and experiences They serve to generalize and standardize images across related concepts with similar characteristics, facilitating the systematization of metaphorical meanings While each image schema conveys different meanings, they typically consist of two key components: the trajector and the landmark The spatial relationships between these elements play a crucial role in representing the meanings of particles in phrasal verbs, which will be further explained in the following section.

2.4.2 The interpretation of phrasal verb meanings using image schemas

Particles in phrasal verbs (PVs) can convey both literal and non-literal meanings, with non-literal meanings often clarified through spatial relationships By utilizing image schemas, particles help reveal the underlying meanings of PVs, highlighting the importance of an approach that considers image schemas as a fundamental framework An effective interpretation of PV meanings relies on integrating image schemas, which serve as a key pillar in understanding these complex linguistic structures.

Exploring how particles are depicted through image schemas is essential for understanding their conceptual foundations According to scholars like Rudzka-Ostyn (1985, 1988), Claudi and Heine (1986), Lakoff (1987), and Johnson (1987), Taylor (2002, pp 337-338) identifies nine key image schemas: containment, a journey with its components, proximity and distance, linkage and separation, front-back orientation, part-whole relationships, linear order, up-down orientation, and mass and multiplex conceptualizations These schemas provide crucial insights into the cognitive basis of particle usage and their semantic functions in language.

Ostyn (2003), the particles mentioned in this book are categorized into seven image schemas as follows

Table 2.6 Particles and image schemas

PARTICLES IMAGE SCHEMAS IMAGE SCHEMATIC

IN - OUT Container / containment schema

UP - DOWN Up - down orientation schema

ON - OFF Linkage & separation schema

Proximity & distance schema (Varied in presentations)

OUT The journey & its parts schema

Mass & multiple conceptualizations (Varied in presentations)

Morgan (1997) proposes a model suggesting that the meanings of phrasal verbs (PVs) are derived from the combination of the base verb and the particle's image schematic transformation This model indicates that PV meanings result from the conceptualization of the individual verb and particle components To illustrate his theory, Morgan provides an example from his study (p 345) that demonstrates how the interaction between the verb and particle contributes to the overall meaning.

Figure 2.6 Mapping for the interaction of verb and particle (Morgan, 1997, p 345)

Morgan (1997) explains the meaning of "figure out" through cross-domain mapping in conceptual metaphor theory The particle "out" is shaped by the container schema, representing visibility, while the base verb "figure" is influenced by the target domain of thinking When these domains merge, "figure out" signifies the process of understanding or knowing.

Morgan’s (1997) model effectively illustrates the interpretation of PV meanings but lacks emphasis on the role of image schemas in framing To address this gap, Leung (2005) introduces the Particle-Based Learning Model (PBLM), which emphasizes the significance of image schematic transformations of particles in understanding PV meanings.

Previous empirical studies on the use of conceptual metaphors in learning

PhV (particle verb) has been identified as a challenging aspect for EFL learners due to three primary reasons Firstly, differences between learners' first language (L1) and English contribute to avoidance; for example, Dagut and Laufer (1985) found that many intermediate Hebrew learners prefer single-word verbs over phrasal verbs Secondly, proficiency levels influence usage; Liao and Fukuya (2004) observed that advanced Chinese graduate students use significantly more phrasal verbs than undergraduates Lastly, the inherent complexity of phrasal verbs adds to learners' frustration; Tran and Tran (2019) highlighted that Vietnamese students struggle with the flexible meanings of particles within phrasal verbs, alongside the L1-L2 differences.

In the scope of this study, the matter of particle meanings is regarded as a motive for seeking methods relating to CM and reviewing relevant literature

Numerous international studies have explored the effectiveness of the CM method for learning PVs, with notable research by Yasuda (2010), White (2012), and Kartal and Uner (2017) These studies highlight the positive impact of the CM approach on language acquisition and proficiency The theoretical foundation for these findings is grounded in cognitive theories proposed by Lakoff and Johnson, which emphasize the role of conceptual metaphors in understanding and learning new language concepts.

(1987, 2003), they all categorize PVs on the grounds of the relationship between

CM and particle meanings These studies are elaborated as follows

Yasuda (2010) conducted her study at a private university in Japan, focusing on 115 first-year English major students with high proficiency scores, to explore the effectiveness of cognitive semantic methods in vocabulary learning The study divided students into a control group that received a simple list of 21 phrasal verbs with Japanese meanings, and an experimental group that received explicit explanations based on cognitive semantics Following the treatment, both groups completed a gap-filling task using credible dictionaries and Google search, designed to assess short-term memory of phrasal verbs Data analysis via ANOVA revealed that cognitive semantic instruction significantly enhanced students’ short-term memory for phrasal verbs However, due to time constraints, the study recommends further research using delayed post-tests to evaluate the long-term retention of vocabulary learned through cognitive semantic approaches.

In a follow-up study, White (2012) conducted one-design experiment in two ESL courses in an American university Contrary to Yasuda’s (2010) study, White

In 2012, a study supplemented experimental data with a questionnaire to assess learner perceptions The research involved 30 participants from non-English-speaking countries, who underwent a four-week instruction program followed by a delayed post-test after three weeks Building on cognitive-based theories and Lindner’s (1981) model, the study introduced an adapted teaching method that utilized pictures instead of symbols to explain the meaning of PVs, following a five-step process including instruction, student compilation, discussion, situation sketches, and drawing shares A paired-sample t-test revealed significant improvements in correct responses from pre-test to post-test, with over half of the participants showing increased scores, indicating that the Communicative Method (CM) approach positively impacts long-term memory of PVs Additionally, the questionnaire results demonstrated that EFL learners found this approach engaging and meaningful for learning.

Kartal and Uner (2017) conducted an experimental study to examine the effects of cognitive motivation (CM) on Turkish EFL learners' phrasal verb (PV) acquisition The study involved 120 non-English speakers with varying proficiency levels, ranging from beginner to pre-intermediate The research aimed to compare traditional instruction methods, such as rote learning, with innovative teaching approaches to determine their impact on PV learning outcomes The control group received conventional PV instruction, while the experimental group was reoriented with alternative methods designed to enhance motivation and engagement The findings highlight the significance of motivational strategies in improving EFL learners' phrasal verb acquisition, emphasizing the importance of interactive and learner-centered approaches in language teaching This research provides valuable insights for educators seeking effective methods to boost vocabulary development in TEFL contexts.

This study investigates the presence of orientational metaphors embedded within particles of PVs, using a material comprising 30 PVs—half extracted from a student's course book and half unexposed—to assess the generalizability of metaphorical knowledge The research aims to determine whether understanding of these metaphors extends beyond familiar contexts Additionally, post-tests adapted from Yasuda's completion tests were employed to evaluate participants' grasp of the metaphors, ensuring the reliability of the findings.

Kartal and Uner's 2010 study stands out because it examined the impact of Content Management (CM) across different proficiency levels Their use of paired-sample t-tests and 2x3 MANCOVA revealed significant differences between groups with and without treatment This indicates that CM has a positive effect on retaining pivotal vocabulary (PVs) regardless of learners' proficiency levels, highlighting its effectiveness in language retention strategies.

Empirical studies by Yasuda (2010) and Kartal and Uner (2017) highlight the positive outcomes of CM approach through categories of PVs, primarily focusing on short-term memory effects However, both studies have yet to explore the impact of CM-inspired instruction on long-term memorization In contrast, White (2012) diverged by examining participants’ comprehension of CM-based instruction through their explanations and images related to PV meanings, grounded in Lakoff and Johnson’s (1987) theory and Lindner’s (1981) model Overall, these studies are mostly theoretical with limited experimental methodologies, indicating a gap in research on practical application and long-term effects of the CM approach.

Limited research has addressed the application of Corpus Management (CM) in enhancing students' acquisition of Passive Voice (PV) effectively While cognitive approaches to language learning have been extensively studied, existing literature predominantly focuses on idiomatic expressions, with minimal emphasis on teaching PVs through CM techniques (Tran, 2012; Nguyen, 2016; Pham, 2017; Bui) Integrating CM strategies into PV instruction can significantly improve learners' understanding and usage of passive constructions.

2019) or prepositions (Trinh, 2014; Bui, 2017) So far, there has been a lack of attempt in validating the effects of learning PVs through CM

Nguyen and Phan (2009) conducted a quantitative study on Vietnamese secondary students, involving 124 participants aged 15 to 17, to evaluate the effectiveness of different teaching approaches for phrasal verbs (PVs) The study compared traditional instruction, which explained PV meanings explicitly in Vietnamese, with a cognitive approach that introduced unfamiliar PVs through metaphors and orientational explanations The experimental group, taught using this cognitive-metaphorical method, outperformed the control group in post-test exercises, indicating improved understanding Statistical analysis confirmed that the cognitive approach significantly enhances students' ability to grasp and infer the contextual meanings of PVs, demonstrating its positive impact on language learning outcomes.

Huynh and Vo (2015) conducted a quasi-experimental study with Vietnamese first-year tertiary students to examine the effectiveness of different teaching methods for phrasal verbs The study involved 30 students randomly assigned to control and experimental groups, both learning 20 PVs with various particles like “into,” “up,” “down,” and “out off.” While the control group received conventional instruction, the experimental group was taught using cognitive-based instructions that explained the meanings of PVs through orientational metaphors Data collected through pre-tests and post-tests showed that the experimental group outperformed the control group, confirming that incorporating conceptual metaphors can enhance the learning of phrasal verbs.

Recent local studies reveal that Concept Mapping (CM) is an effective and practical method for teaching and learning phonetic variations (PVs), showing promise in enhancing students’ performance Despite its proven benefits, the CM approach has not received adequate attention in Vietnam's educational context This gap motivates researchers to explore and promote the implementation of CM strategies to improve PV instruction and student outcomes nationwide.

In a nutshell, regardless of different characteristics of participants in the research analyzed above, all of them illustrate that CM plays an essential role in enhancing

PV acquisition and retention, which can be considered an alternative method for EFL/ESL teachers to instruct their students to learn PVs

Previous studies share similarities in methodology, primarily utilizing quantitative research designs such as quasi-experimental approaches They consistently focus on evaluating the effectiveness of using Content Management (CM) in teaching Persuasive Voice (PV) skills The findings across these studies confirm that implementing CM can lead to significant long-term benefits for students’ learning outcomes These results highlight the importance of adopting CM techniques to enhance educational effectiveness in teaching PVs.

Although numerous studies highlight the benefits of the Cognitive Method (CM) in teaching and learning PVs, existing research faces challenges that hinder generalization Most literature merely explains PVs, the cognitive approach, and their relationship without offering a clear interpretation model; only White (2012) referenced Lindner's (1981) model but lacked justification for its selection Additionally, many studies use PV lists based on the cognitive approach for experimental groups, yet they do not explore learners' attitudes or perceptions towards this approach, with White (2012) being an exception, albeit with limited participants Furthermore, current research focuses primarily on immediate post-tests, overlooking the role of long-term memory, which this study aims to address These gaps suggest the need for further research to deepen understanding and improve generalizability.

Table 2.7 Summary of selected studies

Authors Participants Effectiveness of using CM Gaps

- No interpretation model of CM

No justification for using Lindner’s

Uner (2017) x No interpretation model of CM

- No interpretation model of CM

- No justification for PVs used in studies Huynh and

University students x No interpretation model of CM

This study adopts a conceptual framework focusing on key concepts related to the CM-based method in learning PVs, emphasizing students’ awareness of PVs as a factor influencing their perspectives towards this approach The framework considers particles and image schemas as essential components of the CM method, highlighting how the meaning of a PV can be shaped by its particles, which are interpreted through image schemas The research suggests that this method may facilitate students’ understanding of PVs more effectively Additionally, student feedback from the intervention experimental group is analyzed to assess their perceptions of the alternative learning approach.

Research site

HVHS serves as both the researcher's working environment and the high school where this study was conducted, making it central to addressing the identified problem Notable for its distinctive features within Binh Duong Province, HVHS organizes classes based on major subjects into two main groups: natural sciences (Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology) and social sciences (Literature, History, Geography, and English) The school's curriculum is tailored according to Vietnam’s Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) standards and requires specific textbooks like Tieng Anh 10, 11, and 12, with English class hours varying between groups—natural sciences classes have four English periods per week, whereas social sciences classes have six Additionally, English-major students at HVHS undertake more intensive coursework to prepare for regional and national English competitions during the academic year.

In the textbooks used at HVHS, only the Tieng Anh 12 includes a dedicated lesson on teaching and learning phrasal verbs (PVs) While PVs appear throughout most lessons from Tieng Anh 10 to Tieng Anh 12, only Tieng Anh 12, in unit 9 (pages 48-49), provides a specific list of PVs consisting of a verb, an adverb, and a preposition to enhance students' understanding.

Figure 3.1 Lesson of PVs extracted from textbook (Tieng Anh 12, pp 48-49)

Prepositions of Verbs (PVs) are often overlooked in high school English curriculums despite their significant role in language proficiency Consequently, teachers tend to focus on other areas to better prepare students for university entrance exams Typically, lists of PVs along with their Vietnamese equivalents are distributed as bonus exercises to reinforce learning Follow-up activities are then provided to help students practice using PVs correctly in context, enhancing their overall language skills.

Research participants

The study was conducted during the final semester of the 2020-2021 academic year, specifically involving Grade 12 students in natural science classes who did not major in English It took place over a nine-week period, from February 22nd to April 19th, 2021 This research provides valuable insights into language learning among science students in secondary education during this timeframe.

Natural sciences students have fewer English practice sessions per week, with only four periods compared to their social sciences counterparts Most of their English classes (three out of four) are dedicated to studying textbook lessons (Tieng Anh 12) Additionally, they have one extra English period each week focused on consolidating knowledge and practicing skills through additional exercises This intensive session aims to prepare students thoroughly for the upcoming General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) exam in July.

This research received approval from two Grade 12 teachers who permitted the researcher to conduct her study in their classrooms To ensure consistency, classes 12T2 and 12H, taught by the same teacher, were selected for the main study to maintain similar English instruction hours and lesson plans between the experimental and control groups Additionally, class 12T1 participated in a pilot study two weeks prior to the main research The assignment of students to the experimental and control groups was randomly determined by coin toss to eliminate bias and ensure the validity of the results.

As a result, 12T2 was chosen as the experimental group and 12H as the control group Nevertheless, students were not informed about it

The comparability of the two groups was guaranteed based on the score records of student’s final tests (with four skills examined) in the first semester of the 2020-

In the 2021 academic year, student performance was evaluated on a 10-point scale and categorized into five groups: weak, below average, average, good, and excellent According to school statistics, all students from both groups scored at least an average of 5.0, with 100% achieving scores from 5.0 to 10, demonstrating satisfactory academic progress The demographic details of the participants are summarized in the accompanying table.

Table 3.1 Demographic characteristics of participants

Raw count Percentage Raw count Percentage

Score recorded from the 1 st semester final test

Table 3.1 shows that both groups share similarities in the number of students and their overall performance, with all students scoring at or above the average However, a key difference exists in the distribution of performance categories, as the percentage of students within each category varies between the groups Notably, while all students achieved scores from the average upward, the proportion of students in specific performance levels differs, highlighting variations in overall achievement.

In the recent ranking, 12H students demonstrated nearly double the number of excellent performers compared to 12T2 students, accounting for 55.88% versus 29.41% Conversely, class 12T2 exhibited a higher percentage of students achieving good and average performance levels While English proficiency based on test scores does not directly equate to the students’ prior knowledge of PVs, it appears to influence the experimental outcomes to some extent.

Although 68 students were invited to participate in the study, the number of participants changed during the research procedure Due to various causes of absence, at the end of the study, 59 students could follow all sessions of the experiment, especially taking both pre-test and post-test

Due to external factors such as permissions, participants' schedules, and the inability to artificially form groups, the study included 28 students in the experimental group and 31 students in the control group, ensuring similar conditions for all participants to maintain the study's validity.

Research design

This study investigates the impact of using Concept Mapping (CM) in learning photovoltaic (PV) systems through an experimental research design Data were collected from two sources: assessments and questionnaires, providing comprehensive insights into the effectiveness of CM in enhancing PV learning outcomes.

First, since the first research question is how CM has effects on learning PVs, an experimental design needs employing to address this issue According to Creswell

An experimental approach in research allows scientists to assess whether their treatments have a meaningful impact on participants While true experiments are considered the most rigorous method for evaluating new practices, it is often challenging to randomly assign experimental and control groups outside the controlled environment of a laboratory.

In 2018, the researcher faced challenges with randomization when selecting a public high school as the research setting, as creating artificial classes could disrupt Grade 12 students’ schedules To minimize disruptions, a quasi-experimental design was utilized, which is less invasive for the educational institution However, this approach may increase the risk of threats to internal validity compared to true experimental designs (Creswell, 2012), and school administrators and the academic management board generally disapproved of any interruptions to the regular school operations.

In quasi-experimental designs, six common threats include history, selection, maturation, interaction, mortality, and instrumentation, as identified in various studies (Griffee, 2012; Creswell, 2012; Cohen, 2018; Flannelly et al., 2018) Additionally, this study recognized the potential influence of the Hawthorne effect on outcomes To mitigate these threats, several measures were implemented based on Griffee’s (2012) recommendations, such as ensuring similarity in students’ English proficiency through prior semester records to address selection bias Maturation concerns were minimized by conducting the experiment within six weeks, with sessions lasting 45 minutes each, reducing the likelihood of psychological or physical changes affecting results.

Instrumentation remains a challenge, as there are no standardized PV assessments for Vietnamese high school students; therefore, the researcher designed the test worksheets and papers specifically for this study To ensure the reliability and validity of these assessments, a pilot study was conducted before the main testing phase.

Participant dropout due to mortality presents a significant challenge in research studies To mitigate this risk, the current study was integrated into a student curriculum, ensuring consistent participant attendance and reducing attrition rates This approach enhances the reliability of the study outcomes by maintaining participant engagement throughout the research process.

The Hawthorne effect influences study outcomes, as participants are aware they are part of an experiment and experience a modified environment This study was integrated into the students' curriculum during intensive periods when Grade 12 students focus on consolidating their knowledge and preparing for the GCSE exams.

This study utilized a quasi-experimental design with a pre-test and post-test comparison group setup The experimental group received the treatment, while the control group did not, allowing for assessment of the intervention's immediate effects through post-test comparisons Additionally, a delayed post-test was conducted one week later to evaluate the long-term impact of the intervention, aligning with the theoretical framework of Mackey and Gass.

(2005), this procedure can be summarized as follows

Pre-test Treatment Post-test

(O means observation; X means treatment conditions)

This study utilized a quasi-experimental design, administering initial questionnaires to both experimental and control groups to assess students’ awareness of photovoltaic systems and their existing learning methods At the conclusion of the study, a follow-up questionnaire focused solely on the experimental group, providing insights into students’ experiences and perceptions of the practical application These data collection efforts aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of different learning approaches and gather students’ feedback on PV education.

This study leverages the combination of two essential tools to effectively address research objectives, supported by carefully selected research instruments and materials These tools and materials play a crucial role in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the research findings Detailed illustrations of these tools will be provided in the upcoming section, offering a comprehensive understanding of their application within the study.

Pilot study

Before the main research, a pilot study was conducted from February 22 nd to March

A pilot study, as emphasized by Mackey and Gass (2005), is essential for identifying potential issues and refining research methods before the main study In this research, a Grade 12 natural sciences class was selected to participate in the pilot, ensuring the homogeneity of participants based on key characteristics such as the number of students, lesson periods, and proficiency level Students from class 12T1 received the treatment as part of the experimental group and completed pre-tests, post-tests, and delayed post-tests Their feedback was instrumental in finalizing the learning materials and research tools, contributing to the overall validity and effectiveness of the main study.

During the study, the pilot group received two lessons per week and completed a delayed post-test one week after the final session Since only one group was involved, the post-test results were not processed statistically but instead gathered through student feedback after each session The pre-test and delayed post-test scores were analyzed using paired-samples t-test to measure learning progress, with the results detailed in Tables 3.2 and 3.3.

Table 3.2 Mean scores of piloting group’s pre-test and delayed post-test

Mean N Std Deviation Std Error Mean

Table 3.3 Comparison of pre-test and delayed-post-test mean scores

Sig (2- tailed) Mean Std Deviation

The analysis of test scores shows that the mean score from the delayed post-test (7.515) was higher than the pre-test score (5.824), indicating improvement The significance value (p = 0.000) is below the 0.05 threshold, confirming a statistically significant difference between pre-test and delayed post-test results among the piloting group’s students These findings support the motivation for conducting the main study, which will be detailed in the next section.

After each pilot study session, the researcher gathered participant feedback, with students indicating that the learning materials were easy to follow and useful Participants suggested including the image schema of particles in worksheets to enhance recall when defining PVs, improving learning support During pre-test and delayed post-test assessments, participants reported they could easily infer PV meanings due to similarities in the number of PVs and their corresponding definitions in matching tasks However, since PVs in matching exercises were randomly ordered across tests, the researcher decided to revise the test papers for greater appropriateness Specifically, the matching tasks were to include more definitions than PVs and arrange PVs in order of particles to improve consistency and test accuracy.

Research instrument

For the pre-test and post-test comparison group design, three sets of research instruments were prepared, including pre-test and immediate post-test papers, a delayed post-test paper, and student questionnaires Specifically, one pre-test paper and four immediate post-test papers were used to assess learning outcomes, while a separate delayed post-test measured long-term retention Additionally, student questionnaires gathered qualitative data on attitudes and perceptions These instruments were consistently used across both the experimental and control groups to ensure reliable and comparable results.

3.5.1 Pre-test and post-test papers

The tests and worksheets were designed based on Bloom's taxonomy, focusing on the first three cognitive levels: remembering (R), understanding (U), and applying (A), due to limited exposure time to the new learning method For each level, the research tools incorporated two main types of assessments—matching, gap-filling, and substituting—to evaluate students’ comprehension and skill application effectively.

Figure 3.2 Bloom's taxonomy of learning

Source: Website of Centre for Instructional Technology and Training by University of Florida

The structures of pre-test, post-test and delayed post-test are illustrated in the table below

Table 3.4 Summary of test structures

Types of questions in the test

- Checking students’ memory of PVs in textbook

- Checking students’ knowledge of PVs outside the textbook

- Checking students’ applications of PVs to specific situations

Defining - Checking students’ memory of

- Checking students’ memory of PVs in textbook

CM method by inferring PV meanings

Gap-filling - Checking students’ use of PVs in specific situations

- Checking students’ memory of PVs in textbook

CM method by inferring PV meanings

Substituting - Checking students’ use of PVs in specific situations A

This study utilizes gap-filling and substitution tests inspired by Rudzka-Ostyn (2003) to effectively assess students’ reading comprehension and understanding These standardized fill-in-the-gap tasks serve as valuable tools for evaluating comprehension skills while promoting language development Detailed descriptions of each test paper and its implementation will be provided in the subsequent section to ensure clarity and transparency.

The pre-test paper was carefully designed based on Bloom’s taxonomy, incorporating tasks that progress from remembering to applying levels, as detailed in the pre-test paper (Appendix 14, pp 134-135) Inspired by Jamie Flockhart and Cheryl Pelteret’s 2012 book *Work on Your Phrasal Verbs*, the test consisted of 20 questions, primarily featuring common phrasal verbs encountered in students’ textbooks, along with two unseen items The first task employed a matching format to assess students’ memory and recognition of phrasal verbs, ensuring a structured evaluation aligned with important language learning principles.

Students were tasked with matching ten phrasal verbs (PVs) to their correct definitions Approximately 80% of these PVs were sourced from Grade 10 to 12 student textbooks, ensuring relevance to their curriculum The remaining items were taken from an unseen list (refer to the Appendix), providing a comprehensive assessment of students’ understanding of PVs across different contexts.

Students earn 0.5 points for each correct answer in the assessment Task 2 challenges students’ understanding by requiring them to replace underlined parts with phrasal verbs from a provided box Successfully completing all correct substitutions in Task 2 awards students additional points, emphasizing the importance of mastery in phrasal verb usage This exercise enhances students' comprehension and application of phrasal verbs, vital skills for effective language proficiency.

5 points The time allowance was 15 minutes This test was administered one week before the treatment The format of pre-test was summarized in the figure below

Figure 3.3 The format of pre-test paper

3.5.1.2 Immediate post-test paper as worksheets

The post-test was designed as four worksheets focusing on the particles "up," "out," "on," and "off," to help students practice and reduce test anxiety These worksheets contained three tasks that progress from simple recall to application, based on Bloom's taxonomy Task 1 required students to recall five definitions of phrasal verbs (PVs) provided in the teaching materials, assessing their foundational knowledge Task 2 was a matching exercise involving five PVs—three from the handouts and two from an unfamiliar PV list—to evaluate students’ comprehension Task 3 challenged students to apply their understanding by filling in gaps using the PVs from the previous tasks The overall structure of the post-test aimed to measure learning outcomes effectively, as summarized in the accompanying diagram.

Figure 3.4 The format of the worksheets

Task 1 Match the following phrasal verbs with their appropriate meanings There are 2 extra definitions (0.5 x 10 = 5 points)

Task 2 Replace the underlined part with the PVs from the box, changing the forms of the verbs if necessary (0.5 x 10 = 5 points)

Task 1 Write the definitions of the following phrasal verbs The drawings provided can help you (0.5 x 5 = 2.5 points)

Task 2 Match the following phrasal verbs with their appropriate meanings

There are 2 extra definitions (0.5 x 5 = 2.5 points)

Task 3 Use the phrasal verbs in task 2 to fill in the blanks, changing the form of verb if necessary (1 x 5 = 5 points)

A delayed post-test was used to assess students' long-term memory 10 days after treatment, following the short-term memory test The test replicated the pre-test format with matching and substitution tasks, including four unseen PVs to evaluate understanding of the CM method The tasks ranged from remembering to applying levels in Bloom’s taxonomy, providing insight into students’ retention and comprehension over time The format of the delayed post-test is illustrated in the accompanying figure (See Appendix 16, p 141-142).

Figure 3.5 The format of delayed post-test paper

Questionnaires were used to efficiently gather students’ perspectives without disrupting their learning progress or the school schedule, allowing for large-scale data collection and trend analysis (Cohen, 2018) In this study, two sets of questionnaires were employed: the first administered at the beginning of the study to both groups, and the second administered after the intervention exclusively to the experimental group Each set of questionnaires will be explained in detail.

The pre-study questionnaire was developed to assess students’ perceptions of photovoltaic systems (PVs) and their current learning methods related to PVs This tool aimed to understand students' attitudes and engagement with PV technology, providing valuable insights into their awareness and knowledge levels By focusing on students' attention to PVs, the questionnaire helps identify gaps in understanding and areas for improving PV education, supporting more effective learning strategies in renewable energy topics.

Task 1 Match the following phrasal verbs with their appropriate meanings There are 2 extra definitions (0.5 x 10 = 5 points)

Task 2 Replace the underlined part with the PVs from the box, changing the forms of the verbs if necessary (0.5 x 10 = 5 points)

… in the circumstance of teaching this linguistic aspect at HVHS The table below illustrates the structure of this questionnaire (See Appendix 17, p 143-144)

Table 3.5 Structure of pre-study questionnaire

Awareness of the importance of PVs Rating scale (1-5) The preference of using PVs Close-ended questions Difficulties in learning PVs Close-ended questions

Methods of learning PVs Close-ended questions

Respondents’ suggestions Effectiveness of existent methods Rating scale (1-5)

The questionnaire for the experimental group was designed to assess participants’ perceptions of their treatment over four sessions, utilizing a format adapted from Leung (2005) To minimize neutral responses, it included six Likert scale questions (1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree) focusing on participants’ satisfaction with the materials and teaching approach Regarding materials, the questionnaire addressed aspects of newness, interest, and informativeness, while the pedagogical method questions focused on efficiency and effectiveness, providing comprehensive insights into participant perceptions.

Table 3.6 Structure of questionnaire for experimental group

Students’ perspectives towards the alternative method

The questionnaires were designed in simplified English to suit high school students and administered accordingly The pre-study questionnaire was given to both experimental and control groups during the pre-test session to gather baseline data Additionally, a follow-up questionnaire, aimed at supporting research question 2, was distributed to students through Google Forms after the final session to collect post-intervention insights.

Materials for the research

Phrasal verbs (PVs) appear consistently in Grade 10, 11, and 12 textbooks, highlighting the importance of students learning and memorizing these expressions over three years Therefore, it is essential to identify the most frequently used PVs in students’ textbooks to improve language instruction Additionally, the study emphasizes the need to analyze particles associated with PVs in relation to spatialization metaphors rooted in physical experience These spatial particles serve as cognitive tools, helping students grasp abstract verb meanings by linking them to concrete spatial concepts, which supports the overall objectives of this research.

The researcher identified that no existing tool could effectively detect phrasal verbs (PVs) in a text; therefore, the detection process was conducted manually This manual method involved analyzing the combination of verbs with particles or prepositions to accurately identify PVs The process ensured precise detection by carefully examining verb-particle relationships within the text, addressing the gap in automated tools for PV identification.

Step 1: The content of textbooks (Tieng Anh 10, 11, 12) was converted into the files with the extension *.txt, which is required to detect a text via software or a website

Step 2: The online tool Text Concordance version 3.6 on the website Compleat Lexical Tutor was taken advantage of detecting spatial particles (e.g., up, down, in, on, out, over, and the like) following a verb in texts The figure below is partly illustrated in the output of unit 1 in Tieng Anh 10

Figure 3.6 An extracted output of phrasal verb detection via Text Concordance

Step 3: The verb-particle combinations and their meanings in contexts were identified by using Collins COBUILD Phrasal Verbs Dictionary (2020) For example, it is obviously seen that four PVs are found in the previous output, including ask out, find out, take out and go out To take the first phrasal verb as an instance, after considering the context and definition in the dictionary, the meaning of ask out can be exposed as inviting someone to go somewhere

Table 3.7 Some examples of the PVs detected and their groups of meaning based on particles

PARTICLES GROUPS OF MEANINGS PHRASAL VERBS

The UP movement encompasses actions such as getting up, going up, and picking up, symbolizing rising and elevating It also includes completing tasks, finishing processes, and cleaning up to signify ending or finalizing activities Drawing up plans and setting up environments are key components of establishing and creating new initiatives Additionally, discovering and revealing new information involves looking up, showing up, and uncovering insights These terms collectively highlight different aspects of progress, discovery, and completion in various contexts.

DOWN movement put down collapsing and destroying pull down defeating and suppressing break down, cut down writing and recording pass down, write down

IN movement, entering and arriving come in inserting and absorbing breathe in, take in remaining somewhere live in, stay in being involved and active join in

Discover the different meanings and uses of the word "out," which include leaving or going out, hanging out, and removing or preventing something Learn how "out" can also relate to breathing out, clearing out, and sweeping out spaces It is used in searching, finding, and obtaining, such as trying out or figuring out information "Out" also signifies appearance, like coming out or standing out, as well as producing or creating, including carrying out or setting out tasks Additionally, "out" describes ending or disappearing, like dying out or running out of resources Finally, understand its role in arranging and distributing, such as giving out or handing out, making "out" a versatile term with many common applications.

Through a meticulous three-step analysis, the researcher identified 121 phrasal verbs (PVs) in the student textbooks "Tieng Anh 10, 11, 12," including verb-particle and verb-particle plus preposition combinations (see Appendix 5, pp 98-105) However, as outlined in Chapter 2, the study focuses specifically on PVs with the syntactic pattern “verb + particle,” where the meaning is largely dependent on the particles Notably, 114 PVs are followed by common particles such as “about,” “away,” “back,” “down,” “in,” “into,” “off,” “on,” “out,” “over,” “through,” and “up,” which help categorize their meanings based on Collins’ indexing system Table 3.7 presents part of the list of these PVs from the three textbooks, along with their meaning groups derived from the particle index.

COBUILD PVs Dictionary (2020) (See Appendix 6 for the complete list, pp 106-

3.6.2 Selection of phrasal verbs for study

Due to the impracticality of verifying all 114 PVs identified in textbooks through conceptual metaphor analysis, the list of verb-particle combinations must be filtered using two specific inclusive criteria to ensure relevance and accuracy.

1 Particles commonly follow various base verbs to form different PVs

2 The quantity of PVs in textbooks sharing similar senses based on particles is in high number

Regarding criterion (1), six particles occur in large number According to Collins

According to the COBUILD Phrasal Verbs Dictionary (2020), the most common English particles are "up," "out," "off," "in," "on," and "down," with "up" and "out" being especially prevalent These particles frequently appear in textbooks and are essential for understanding English phrasal verbs The selection of phrasal verbs for this research was based on their frequency and semantic groups, focusing on those containing "up," "out," "on," and "off," which meet the established criteria Consequently, these PVs were chosen to develop the educational materials for the study, ensuring relevance and coverage of common usage.

To ensure participants understood the new practice, the researcher included several unfamiliar PVs in the post-test, identified through a mini-test involving first- and second-year students at universities in Ho Chi Minh City These test-takers, alumni of HVHS, had achieved at least B1 or IELTS 6.0 before university, indicating greater knowledge of PVs compared to current participants It is therefore reasonable to assume that the study subjects had only limited mastery of the PVs, as errors were common even among university students The Google Form-based test comprised 32 multiple-choice questions featuring PVs with one of four particles: “up,” “out,” “on,” and “off.”

To ensure the reliability of the test, the researcher utilized Google Forms' features, such as restricting each participant to a single submission and shuffling questions in every form Additionally, test-takers were instructed not to offer any support, further maintaining the integrity and accuracy of the results.

To meet the testing requirements, the provided PVs must not appear in the list of PVs in Appendix 5 (pages 98-105) and must have particles belonging to the meaning groups specified in Appendix 6 (pages 106-108) Additionally, these PVs should be among the most common verb-particle combinations, ensuring relevance and familiarity for effective language comprehension and testing purposes.

In respect of criteria (a) and (b), it is easily found in the index of the particle in

The researcher utilized the Collins COBUILD Phrasal Verbs Dictionary (2020) to ensure accuracy, with the most popular phrasal verbs highlighted by the symbol  Based on this, 32 phrasal verbs were selected to create a multiple-choice question (MCQ) test, detailed in Appendix 10 (pages 127-128) Analysis of the test results led to the identification of 14 unfamiliar phrasal verbs, including throw up, drag on, break out, move off, shoot up, catch on, knock out, start off, drink up, plan on, burn out, show off, dig up, and build on.

To enhance teaching effectiveness, it is essential to develop two distinct versions of handouts for both control and experimental groups The control group's handout (Version 1) features a conventional presentation commonly found in standard course books and workbooks, ensuring ease of understanding In contrast, the experimental group's handout (Version 2) is designed based on conceptual metaphor and image schema principles, as previously discussed These tailored materials aim to evaluate the impact of innovative pedagogical approaches on learning outcomes.

Phrasal verbs (PVs) with particles "up," "out," "on," and "off" were categorized based on their meanings and examples, without grouping them solely by their particles This approach helps clarify the function and usage of each PV, aligning with current educational resources on PVs Detailed information can be found in Appendix 7A A portion of the control group handout is included, with the full version available in Appendix 7A, pages 109-113.

- get up: to get out of bed E.g He always gets up early

- bring up: to care for a child E.g She brought up five children

Data collection procedure

Following the pilot study that refined the research tools, the main research was conducted in three key stages: pre-test administration, intervention with an immediate post-test, and a subsequent post-test This structured approach ensured comprehensive data collection and assessment of the intervention's effectiveness.

Students' understanding of particle verbs (PVs) was initially assessed through a pre-test consisting of matching questions and writing tasks, conducted one week prior to the intervention Immediately after each session, students took a post-test focusing on the specific particle learned, to measure immediate learning gains To evaluate the long-term retention of PVs, a delayed post-test with a similar format to the pre-test was administered ten days after the four-session intervention to both the experimental and control groups Since test results may not fully reflect students’ actual reception of PVs, this comprehensive testing approach provides a clearer picture of both immediate and sustained learning.

At the start of the study, a pre-study questionnaire was administered to both experimental and control groups prior to the pre-test, providing valuable insights into students’ awareness of photovoltaic systems (PVs) and their learning strategies; this data collection helps establish a baseline for comparing the effectiveness of the educational interventions.

After the completion of Session 4, the experimental group students received a questionnaire through Google Forms to gather their perspectives on the teaching methods used to learn photovoltaic systems This data collection addresses Research Questions 1 and 3 by providing insights into students' experiences and perceptions of the instructional approaches.

3.7.3 Summary of the data collection procedure

The procedure of the study is summarized as follows

Table 3.9 The procedure of the study

Pilot study Pilot group: February 22 nd - March 13 th , 2021

(Note: Final examination in this period)

Delayed post-test April 19 th , 2021 April 19 th , 2021

The study analyzed data collected from pre-tests, immediate post-tests, delayed post-tests, and questionnaires using SPSS version 20 and Microsoft Excel SPSS was primarily employed to compare mean scores between and within groups, ensuring accurate statistical analysis Microsoft Excel complemented this by creating visual charts that enhance data interpretation and presentation The combined use of these tools effectively illustrates the study’s results, providing clear and insightful findings.

Initially, the analysis for tests is considered As this study goes in the direction of the quantitative approach, the data analysis follows the basic rules of this approach

The pre-test and delayed post-test were designed with the same format to facilitate direct comparison of results An independent t-test was used to compare mean scores within groups and between control and experimental groups For the immediate post-test, the independent t-test was solely employed to compare mean scores between groups, accounting for the four different lessons.

The data analysis involved examining questionnaires completed by both control and experimental groups at the study's outset, using frequency and percentage distributions to identify trends and variance The second questionnaire, structured on a Likert scale, was analyzed with an independent t-test to compare mean scores between groups, providing insights into participants’ perspectives on the pedagogical approach they experienced.

A summary of data analysis is shown in the following figure

Note: EG = experimental group; CG = control group; RQ = research question

This study primarily employed a quantitative approach using a quasi-experimental design to evaluate the impact of cooperative learning (CM) on students’ performance in PVs over time, supported by descriptive analysis of students’ perspectives towards CM-based instruction Mean scores from pre-test, immediate post-test, and delayed post-test were collected to measure learning outcomes, with comparisons made between experimental and control groups to determine the effectiveness of the CM method Data analysis, including paired-samples t-tests, addressed research question 2, revealing whether CM significantly enhances students’ PV performance Additionally, the study analyzed questionnaire scores to explore students’ awareness of PVs and their perceptions of the pedagogical approach, addressing research questions 1 and 3.

This chapter presents the results from a 6-week data collection period, focusing on participants' performance across pre-test, immediate post-test, and delayed post-test to evaluate the effectiveness of the CM-inspired approach on learning PVs The analysis aims to identify significant differences in test scores, providing insights into the method’s impact on learning outcomes Additionally, participants’ responses to questionnaires offer valuable information on their preferences for this alternative learning approach, highlighting student attitudes towards the CM-inspired method for mastering PVs.

Students’ performance on tests

The research findings for question 1 are based on students' performance on tests, with both experimental and control groups participating in the same assessments to compare their results An independent samples t-test was conducted to analyze the differences between the two groups' means Prior to analysis, the normality of the pre-test scores for each group was checked using SPSS boxplots to identify and exclude outliers, ensuring accurate comparisons The boxplot results, shown in Figure 4.1, confirmed the data distribution suitable for statistical testing, providing a clear basis for interpreting group performance differences.

Figure 4.1 Normal distribution of pretest scores

The data analysis revealed that neither the experimental nor the control group data followed a normal distribution, necessitating the exclusion of three cases—number 20 in the experimental group, number 39, and number 45 in the control group—due to their outlier results Consequently, the study analyzed test scores from 27 students in the experimental group and 29 students in the control group using SPSS.

4.1.1 Pre-test scores between two groups

Pre-test scores showed negligible differences between the experimental and control groups, as demonstrated in Figure 4.1 An independent samples t-test was conducted to confirm this similarity, with results detailed in Tables 4.1 and 4.2 (refer to Appendix 19A, p 146 for comprehensive data).

Table 4.1 The pre-test mean scores between two groups

GROUP N Mean Std Deviation Std Error

Table 4.2 The comparison of pre-test mean scores between two groups

Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of

According to Table 4.1, the control group's average pre-test score was slightly higher at 7.431 compared to 7.222 for the experimental group However, there was no significant difference in mean pre-test scores between the two groups, indicating comparable baseline performance before the intervention.

The analysis presented in Table 4.2 shows a 2-tailed significance value of 0.519, indicating no statistically significant difference between the two groups' pre-test scores, as this value exceeds the 0.05 threshold Additionally, Table 4.1 reveals comparable standard deviations and standard errors for both groups, suggesting they had a homogeneous level of PVs This similarity in group characteristics provides a suitable foundation for the validity of the study.

4.1.2 Immediate post-test results between two groups

In chapter 3, it is explained that immediate post-test papers were created as worksheets for students to practice following PV instructions A total of four immediate post-test worksheets were developed, covering the words UP, OUT, ON, and OFF These worksheets aimed to evaluate students’ understanding and retention of the targeted vocabulary immediately after instruction.

The CM method demonstrated positive effects on PV learning outcomes, as evidenced by the analysis using an independent samples t-test to compare the mean scores of the experimental and control groups' immediate post-test results The results, presented in Table 4.3 and illustrated in Figure 4.2, clearly highlight the significant improvements observed in the experimental group compared to the control group, supporting the effectiveness of the CM approach in enhancing learning performance.

Table 4.3 The immediate-post-test mean scores between two groups

GROUP N Mean Std Deviation Std Error

Figure 4.2 Mean scores of four immediate post-test results between two groups

Figure 4.2 illustrates the mean scores of the experimental and control groups in immediate post-intervention tests, highlighting both similarities and differences between the groups The data shows that the UP particle dominates in both groups, with the experimental group scoring significantly higher (around 9) compared to the control group (over 8.2), indicating the effectiveness of the intervention The OUT particle ranks second in the experimental group with an average score of over 8.9, whereas it has the lowest score in the control group at approximately 6.4, emphasizing the disparity between groups Conversely, the OFF scores exhibit a reverse trend, suggesting variations in participant responses across different particles after the intervention.

The study found similar ON results between the two groups, as confirmed by statistical analysis The significance value was used to validate these findings, indicating no substantial difference between the groups Detailed statistical results obtained from SPSS are included in Appendix 19B (pages 147-148).

Table 4.4 The comparison of immediate-post-test mean scores between the two groups

Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of

Table 4.4 shows that the significance values for UP (0.001) and OUT (0.000) are both well below the 0.05 threshold, indicating significant statistical differences between the experimental and control groups in the immediate post-test for these measures In contrast, the ON results display a much higher 2-tailed significance of 0.933, suggesting no significant difference between groups for this measure Interestingly, despite the control group’s higher mean OFF scores reported in Table 4.3 and Figure 4.2, Table 4.4 reveals no statistical difference in OFF scores between the two groups, with a 2-tailed significance of 0.104 This discrepancy highlights a divergence between the statistical analysis and the visual data representations.

4.1.3 Delayed post-test scores between two groups

Ten days after the treatment, both the experimental and control groups were subjected to the same conditions to assess the long-term effects of PV learning methods on memory retention The delayed post-test results were analyzed using an independent samples t-test to determine significant differences between the groups The findings indicate that the PV learning methods had a notable impact on enhancing long-term memory retention, as evidenced by the statistical analysis.

Table 4.5 The delayed-post-test mean scores between two groups

Figure 4.3 Mean scores of delayed-post-test results between two groups

Figure 4.3 shows that the experimental group achieved a higher mean score (8.241) on the delayed post-test compared to the control group (7.017) Although this suggests better performance in the experimental group, the results do not confirm statistical significance Therefore, further analysis is needed to compare the mean scores between both groups and determine the effectiveness of the intervention.

Table 4.6 The comparison of delayed-post-test mean scores between two groups

Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

The 2-tailed significance value indicates the statistical difference in mean scores between the two groups Specifically, Table 4.6 shows that this significance value was much lower than 0.05, confirming a statistically significant difference in the delayed post-test scores For detailed output data, refer to Appendix 19C, page 149.

4.1.4 The comparisons between pre-test and delayed post-test scores within groups

Although there was no statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups on the delayed post-test, analyzing the within-group score changes from pre-test to delayed post-test is essential to determine the impact of the CM method on PV learning A paired-samples t-test was conducted on the pre-test and delayed post-test scores to assess these changes The results, displayed in the accompanying table processed through SPSS, provide insights into whether the CM method positively influenced learners' progress over time.

Table 4.7 The comparison between pre-test and delayed post-test within groups

EG_DELAYED -1.1071 1.4360 2714 -4.080 000 Pair 2 CG_PRETEST -

Table 4.7 reveals two distinct situations: in the experimental group, there was a statistically significant difference between pre-test and delayed post-test results (t = -4.080, p = 0.000), indicating the effectiveness of the intervention Conversely, the control group showed no significant change before and after the conventional method, with a significance value of 0.175, suggesting that the traditional approach did not produce notable improvements.

Furthermore, the change of mean scores before and after treatment within the two groups are visualized in Figure 4.3 to verify the effects of the alternative and conventional methods

Figure 4.4 The differences of mean scores within each group

Students’ responses to the questionnaires

The pre-study and post-study questionnaires was designed with two specific aims:

(1) to explore students’ perceptions on PVs and PV learning, which affects students’ perspectives towards the alternative method; and (2) to investigate experimental participants’ perspectives towards using CM method

This study used two sets of questionnaires to gather data, with a pre-study questionnaire completed by 59 participants to assess initial attitudes The post-study questionnaire was distributed to 28 participants from the experimental group to evaluate changes after the intervention The targeted focus of the research was to investigate students’ attitudes towards using the Concept Mapping (CM) method to comprehend the meanings of pictorial videos (PVs).

4.2.1 Students’ awareness of phrasal verbs

Considering students’ perceptions is essential when evaluating the use of phrasal verbs (PVs) in English language learning Students recognize the importance of PVs for fluency and comprehension, highlighting their central role in mastering the language Their preferences for certain PVs influence their motivation and engagement, while addressing the difficulties associated with PVs can enhance learning outcomes Exploring effective learning strategies helps students overcome challenges, and assessing the effectiveness of current teaching methods ensures that PV instruction is both efficient and impactful Overall, taking these five aspects into account can significantly improve PV acquisition and language proficiency.

4.2.1.1 The importance of phrasal verbs in English language

The question about this aspect was designed as a 5-point rating scale The results can be summarized through the table below

Table 4.8 Summary of rating scale about the importance of PVs

Total Strongly disgree Strongly agree

The data in Table 4.8 indicates that no respondents selected points 1 and 2, suggesting that most participants recognize the significance of phrasal verbs (PVs) in English When asked to evaluate the role of PVs on a 5-point scale, approximately 86.5% of responses rated above 4, demonstrating a strong positive perception of their importance across both groups.

The experimental group demonstrated a higher appreciation for the importance of Power Videos (PVs) in learning English compared to the control group This significant difference highlights the effectiveness of PVs as a valuable learning tool The increased recognition of PVs' benefits among students in the experimental group strengthens the overall findings of the study, emphasizing the role of multimedia resources in enhancing language acquisition.

4.2.1.2 The preference of using phrasal verbs

The appreciation of phrasal verbs (PVs) does not necessarily indicate a preference for using them To explore this further, item 2 in the pre-study questionnaire examined students' verb preferences Interestingly, the results showed minimal difference in choices, with over half of the students favoring PVs, while approximately 42.2% preferred one-word verbs The accompanying graph visually represents these findings, highlighting students' nuanced attitudes toward PVs versus single-word verbs.

Figure 4.5 The preference of using PVs

4.2.1.3 Difficulties in learning phrasal verbs

Based on the literature review, four key challenges in learning photovoltaic systems (PVs) were identified These difficulties were assessed through pre-study questionnaire item 3, which allowed respondents to select multiple problems they faced during their learning process The responses collected are detailed in Figure 4.6, providing valuable insights into the common obstacles encountered by learners.

Phrasal verbs One-word verbs

Figure 4.6 Difficulties in learning PVs

The primary issue identified in the chart is the semantic aspect, specifically the definitions of phrasal verbs (PVs) Over 75% of respondents agreed that the meanings of PVs hinder their acquisition, highlighting the significance of semantic understanding in learning these expressions Proficiency level was also a notable challenge, with nearly half of students citing it as another difficulty when learning PVs Additionally, differences between L1 and L2 and syntactic aspects were recognized as obstacles, receiving 24 and 21 responses respectively Addressing these semantic and linguistic challenges is crucial for improving PVs mastery among learners.

4.2.1.4 Existent strategies of learning phrasal verbs

PV items are incorporated into the university entrance exam, motivating students to memorize them diligently The pre-study section explored the various PV learning methods students used, offering four options based on existing literature: rote learning, contextualization, verb grouping, and particle grouping, with space for students to specify additional techniques The collected data provides insights into students' preferred PV learning strategies and their application in exam preparation.

Syntactic aspect Semantic aspect L1-L2 differences Level of proficiency

Figure 4.7 Existent strategies of learning PVs

According to the data, over 75% of respondents have attempted to learn phrasal verbs (PVs) by heart, making this the most common method The second and third most popular strategies were grouping PVs with synonyms or related words and contextualizing them within sentences In contrast, grouping particles was significantly less common, with only 8 out of 59 respondents using this method Additionally, two students shared their unique techniques for memorizing PVs; despite differences in their approaches, both focused on increasing exposure through additional exercises or placing notes with PVs around their rooms to reinforce learning.

4.2.1.5 The effectiveness of existent methods

The final item in the pre-study questionnaire assesses students’ satisfaction with their current learning methods Participants rated the effectiveness of their existing strategies on a 5-point scale, providing valuable insights into their perceptions The summarized results of this item are presented in the accompanying table.

Table 4.9 Summary of rating scale about the effectiveness of existent methods

To facilitate having a closer inspection, the following graphs visualize the table summary of the respondents’ satisfaction about their current methods to learn PVs

Figure 4.8 The effectiveness of existent methods

Most students are dissatisfied with their current learning methods, with 60% rating their effectiveness as 3 or below, indicating room for improvement Despite this dissatisfaction, approximately 42% of students believe their learning strategies are effective In the experimental group, the percentage of students rating their methods similarly to the overall population suggests consistent perceptions across groups Although the dissatisfaction levels among experimental group participants are comparable to those in the control group, the experimental group shows a slightly higher proportion of dissatisfaction, highlighting the need for improved learning interventions.

1 2 3 4 5 latter one That could assume that participants from experimental group might desire to have another learning method more effective than the existent one

4.2.2 Students’ perspectives towards the conceptual metaphor method

To assess student satisfaction with the CM method, a post-study questionnaire was administered to participants in the experimental group The questionnaire consisted of two sections: students' perspectives on the handouts related to PVs and their views on the overall effectiveness of the CM method.

The reliability of the post-study questionnaire, which consisted solely of Likert scale items, was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha test The results, displayed in Tables 4.10 and 4.11 and processed with SPSS, demonstrate the internal consistency of the questionnaire items.

Table 4.10 Summary of case processing

Table 4.11 Reliability of post-study questionnaire

Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items

According to Table 4.10, 100% of experimental group participants provided acceptable responses, indicating high data validity Additionally, Table 4.11 reveals that the scale demonstrated a reasonably strong Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.763, signifying good internal consistency among participants after the research Based on the Cronbach's alpha test results, it can be inferred that the items effectively captured respondents' perceptions of egalitarian conditions.

4.2.2.1 Satisfaction of the material of conceptual metaphor method

Student satisfaction with learning materials is primarily reflected through three key aspects: being informative, providing new insights, and maintaining interest A summary table of mean scores highlights how each of these components contributes to overall learner engagement, emphasizing the importance of well-designed materials in enhancing educational experiences.

Table 4.12 Summary of mean scores of question items 1-3

Q1: The learning material is informative

Q2: The learning material is new

Q3: The learning material is interesting

Summary of the chapter

This study’s findings indicate that the Cognitive Method (CM) significantly enhances PV learning among HVHS students, with those receiving the treatment outperforming their peers in mastering particles UP and OUT in post-tests To further improve PV acquisition, especially for ON and OFF particles, it is essential to enhance learning materials and methods to aid memorization The experimental group also demonstrated superior performance in delayed post-tests, highlighting the effectiveness of the CM approach Positive feedback from participants in the questionnaires underscores students' appreciation of PVs' importance in English and their willingness to explore innovative learning techniques Given the limited scope and timeframe, the responses gathered provide valuable insights to refine the CM-inspired methods for more effective PV learning.

This study investigates the effects of CM on learning PVs by addressing three key research questions First, it explores students' awareness of PVs and their understanding of the learning process Second, it examines the impact of the CM method on students' ability to learn PVs at HVHS Third, it analyzes students' perspectives on the alternative method following the treatment Through the collection of statistical test data and quantitative questionnaire results, the study provides clear insights into these research questions, highlighting the effectiveness of the CM approach in enhancing students' learning of PVs.

This chapter summarizes the key findings of the study, highlighting the main insights gained It offers practical suggestions for teachers and students to enhance their engagement and performance Additionally, it discusses the limitations encountered during the research, providing a balanced view of the study’s scope Finally, the chapter proposes recommendations for future research to build on these findings and address existing gaps in the field.

5.1 Summary of the major findings

The analysis of pre-test and delayed post-test scores demonstrated that participants in the experimental group showed significant improvement following the intervention, confirming the effectiveness of the program.

The experimental group’s test scores showed no statistically significant difference compared to the control group; however, their mean scores were higher than the control group’s average, indicating a potential positive trend Additionally, the within-group comparison revealed significant improvement among experimental group students from before to after the treatment, highlighting the effectiveness of the intervention.

During the intervention, four different post-test papers were administered to both groups Results showed that only two of these tests from the experimental group significantly outperformed their peers, indicating that implementing the CM method can enhance students' understanding This suggests the need to extend the duration of exposure to the new method for more consistent and improved learning outcomes.

(3) Thanks to the significantly statistical difference between the groups in post- test scores, CM method had a positive effect on learning PVs through four particles UP, OUT, ON and OFF

The analysis of data from pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test indicates that the CM-inspired approach positively impacts the learning of PVs, addressing Research Question 2 Despite minor deviations, the statistical results suggest that this instructional method is a reliable predictor of improved PV learning outcomes Overall, the findings highlight the promising potential of CM-inspired instruction to enhance teaching and learning of PVs.

To address the second research question, two sets of questionnaires were used to gather students’ perspectives on photovoltaic (PV) systems and their satisfaction with the new method The study found that students generally hold a positive attitude towards PV technology, recognizing its environmental benefits and potential for sustainable energy Additionally, the results indicated a high level of satisfaction with the new instructional approach, suggesting its effectiveness in enhancing students’ understanding and engagement with PV concepts Overall, these findings highlight the importance of incorporating innovative teaching methods to improve student perception and learning outcomes related to photovoltaic technology.

The pre-study questionnaire revealed that all participants, from both experimental and control groups, recognized the essential role of phrasal verbs (PVs) in English language learning, often preferring PVs over one-word verbs when appropriate However, despite this awareness, they continued to encounter challenges in comprehending the meanings of PVs and selecting effective learning strategies, highlighting the need for targeted instructional methods to improve their understanding.

During the research period, students' methods of absorbing photovoltaic (PV) concepts closely mirrored the instructional approaches used by their teachers, highlighting the influence of teaching strategies on student learning Participants recognized that their current learning methods and provided instructions were insufficient, demonstrating openness to adopting new and more effective PV learning techniques This willingness to embrace innovative approaches was confirmed by the positive responses received from the post-study questionnaire completed by experimental group participants.

Participants who scored above 4 on the 6-point Likert scale in the post-study questionnaire demonstrated high satisfaction with the CM method for learning PVs However, to enhance student engagement and comprehension, teachers should consider modifying materials and teaching methods to make the learning experience more interesting and understandable Optimizing instructional strategies can further improve learning outcomes and student satisfaction with the CM approach.

The study findings from two questionnaires effectively address Research Questions 1 and 3, demonstrating that students who participated in the CM method over four weeks responded positively to their learning experience The experimental results and quantitative data from the questionnaires confirm the significant impact of the CM method on enhancing PVs among non-English-major students at HVHS These outcomes highlight the effectiveness of the CM approach in improving learning engagement and comprehension in this student group.

During and after the study, there are some suggestions proposed to both teachers and students when applying CM method into teaching and learning PVs

This study, while primarily focused on learning PVs, offers valuable insights that can influence pedagogical approaches Teachers can act as facilitators and instructors, guiding students in accessing the CM method effectively Based on the research findings, several recommendations are proposed for educators to enhance student engagement and learning outcomes in this area.

Recent questionnaire results indicate that students are increasingly recognizing the importance of phrasal verbs (PVs), highlighting the need for educators to focus on teaching their correct usage Teachers should emphasize the proper application of PVs in language learning while cautioning students against overusing them in written communication to ensure clarity and effectiveness.

The test results were not statistically significant due to time constraints, indicating that teachers should prioritize teaching PVs from Grade 10 in alignment with their lesson plans whenever possible It is important to allow students sufficient time to understand the CM method and absorb a large number of PVs effectively, ensuring better comprehension and learning outcomes.

Limitations of this study

This study demonstrates that a CM-inspired approach positively impacts students' learning of PVs at HVHS However, it has certain limitations related to the research methods used.

Due to the small sample size, caution is necessary when generalizing these findings to the larger population However, the study maintained scientific rigor by randomly selecting participants with teachers’ permission and randomly assigning roles to experimental and control groups These methodological steps support the validity of the results, which offer valuable insights and suggestions for the future of teaching and learning Personalized Videos (PVs).

The present study's primary limitation is the constrained timeframe, which impacted the ability to assess long-term memory accurately Although delayed post-tests were administered ten days after the final session, extending the experiment's duration could have provided more comprehensive insights into retained knowledge Unfortunately, the study was conducted during the second semester and coincided with final exams, restricting the researcher’s ability to prolong the testing period without disrupting students’ ongoing academic commitments.

A key limitation of this study is the absence of follow-up interviews after the post-study questionnaire, which restricted deeper insights into the effectiveness of the CM-inspired approach and learning PVs Additionally, students needed more time to review for their university entrance exam in July 2021, leading to dissatisfaction among school administrators and teachers with ongoing interventions Incorporating interviews after the treatment could have provided more comprehensive understanding and enriched the findings by exploring participants' perspectives in greater depth.

Recommendations for further study

This study has proposed some questions in need of further investigation

To ensure valid and generalizable results, large randomized populations should be recruited for the study, and true experimental research designs should be employed instead of quasi-experiments Extending the duration of the experiment is also recommended to collect more accurate and reliable data, which will enhance the robustness of the findings and support comprehensive conclusions.

Further research is needed to gain deeper insights into participants' perspectives on the CM-inspired approach and PV learning Understanding which aspects of this alternative method satisfy students and identifying the key challenges they face will help optimize its implementation These findings can enhance the effectiveness of the method, leading to more targeted and student-centered educational strategies.

This chapter summarizes the key findings of the study on the impact of communicative methods (CM) on learning phrasal verbs (PVs) at HVHS Based on these findings, practical suggestions are provided for both teachers and students to enhance their English language proficiency, particularly in mastering PVs The article also offers recommendations for future research to guide other scholars interested in this field Ultimately, the results aim to serve as a valuable reference for teaching PVs at high schools in Vietnam and similar educational contexts worldwide.

Bui, P H (2017) Vietnamese students learning the semantics of English prepositions GEMA Online® Journal of Language Studies, 17(4), 146-158 doi: 10.17576/gema-2017-1704-10

Bui, P H (2019) A cognitive linguistic approach to teaching English idioms to EFL students: Experimental results 3L: Language, Linguistics, Literature®,

Cappelle, B (2005) Particle patterns in English: A comprehensive coverage

Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D (1983) The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL teacher's course Rowley: Newbury House

Cervantes, I M., & Gablasova, D (2017) Phrasal verbs in spoken L2 English: The effect of L2 proficiency and L1 background Learner Corpus Research: New perspectives and applications London: Bloomsbury, 28-46 doi:

Cobb, T Text Concordance v.3.6 [computer program] Accessed March 2021 at https://www.lextutor.ca/conc/text/

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K (2018) Research methods in education London: Routledge

Collins COBUILD Phrasal Verbs Dictionary (4th ed.) (2020) HarperCollins

Creswell, J W (2012) Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research Boston: Pearson

Dagut, M., & Laufer, B (1985) Avoidance of Phrasal Verbs—A Case for Contrastive Analysis Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 7(1), 73–79 http://www.jstor.org/stable/44488547

Davies, Mark (2008-) The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) Available online at https://www.english-corpora.org/coca/

David, G Y U L A (2002) Spatiality Underlying the Conceptual System of

Figurative English (Doctoral dissertation, PhD dissertation Debrecen:

Debreceni Egyetem Kossuth Egyetemi Kiadója)

Flannelly, K J., Flannelly, L T., Jankowski, K R B., & Jankowski, K R B (January 20, 2018) Threats to the internal validity of experimental and quasi- experimental research in healthcare Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy, 24(3), 107-130 doi: 10.1080/08854726.2017.1421019

Flockhart, J., & Pelteret, C (2012) Work on your phrasal verbs: [master the 400 most common phrasal verbs; CEFR level: B1+/intermediate+] London:

Garnier, M., & Schmitt, N (2015) The PHaVE List: A pedagogical list of phrasal verbs and their most frequent meaning senses Language Teaching

Griffee, D T (2012) An introduction to second language research methods New

Goodale, M (2000) Collins COBUILD phrasal verbs workbook HarperCollins Publisher

Hammond, C (July 01, 2005) The Wider Benefits of Adult Learning: An Illustration of the Advantages of Multi-method Research International

Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8(3), 239-255 doi: 10.1080/13645570500155037

Image schemas are fundamental cognitive structures that shape our understanding of the world and underpin meaning in language, as introduced by Hampe (2008) They serve as mental templates derived from bodily experiences, influencing how we interpret spatial, temporal, and conceptual relationships Cognitive linguistics emphasizes the importance of these schemas in explaining language patterns and meaning construction Hart (2017) highlights the role of language in embodying these schemas, particularly through the use of complex phrasal verbs that reflect spatial and metaphorical concepts Additionally, Holme (2012) discusses how understanding image schemas can enhance second language acquisition by providing learners with cognitively grounded frameworks for grasping new vocabulary and grammatical structures Integrating insights from cognitive linguistics into language teaching can improve comprehension and fluency by leveraging innate mental schemas.

Quarterly, 46(1), 6-29 http://www.jstor.org/stable/41576027

Howarth, P (1998) Phraseology and second language proficiency Applied linguistics, 19(1), 24-44

Huddleston, R., & Pullum, G (2002) The Cambridge Grammar of the English

Language Cambridge: Cambridge University Press doi:10.1017/9781316423530

Hulstijn, J H., & Marchena, E (1989) Avoidance: Grammatical or semantic causes? Studies in second language acquisition, 11(3), 241-255 http://www.jstor.org/stable/44488230

Huynh, N T., & Vo, T T D (2015) The application of conceptual metaphors in teaching and learning English phrasal verbs – The case of Vietnamese EFL students doi: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4282.0245

Johnson, Mark 1987 The Body in the Mind The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason Chicago: Chicago UP

Kartal, G., & Uner, S (2017) The effects of conceptual metaphors on the acquisition of phrasal verbs by Turkish EFL learners European Journal of

Kửvecses, Z (2010) Metaphor: A practical introduction Oxford University Press

Kurtyka, A (2001) Teaching English phrasal verbs: a cognitive approach In M

P Martin Pütz (Ed.), Applied Cognitive Linguistics: Language pedagogy

Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter doi: 10.1515/9783110866254.29

Lakoff, G (1987) Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M (2003) Metaphors we live by London: University of Chicago Press

Laufer, B., & Eliasson, S (1993) What causes avoidance in L2 learning: L1-L2 difference, L1-L2 similarity, or L2 complexity? Studies in Second Language

Acquisition, 15(1), 35–48 https://www.jstor.org/stable/44487587

Leung, C H (2005) The Particle-based Learning of English Phrasal Verbs: A Conceptual Metaphor and Image Schema Based Approach (Doctoral dissertation, Chinese University of Hong Kong)

Liao, Y., & Fukuya, Y J (2004) Avoidance of Phrasal Verbs: The Case of Chinese Learners of English Language Learning, 54(2), 193–226 doi:

Lý Toàn Thắng (2009) Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận: Từ lý thuyết đại cương đến thực tiễn tiếng Việt, Hà Nội: Khoa học xã hội

Mackey, A., & Gass, S M (2005) Second language research: methodology and design Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers

McCarthy, M., & O'Dell, F (2004) English phrasal verbs in use Ernst Klett Sprachen

McCarthy, M., & O'Dell, F (2017) English phrasal verbs in use: Advanced: 60 units of vocabulary reference and practice: self-study and classroom use

Morgan, P S (1997) Figuring out figure out Metaphor and the semantics of the English verb-particle construction

Neagu, M (2007) English verb particles and their acquisition: A cognitive approach Revista espaủola de lingỹớstica aplicada, (20), 121-138

Nguyen, N V (2016) Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy in Cognitive Semantics Ho Chi Minh: HCMUP

Nguyen, P Q N., & Phan, T B H (2009) Conceptual Metaphor and Its Application in Teaching Phrasal Verbs to English Majors at Thuc Hanh High School, HCMC HCMC University of Education, 13-26

Nguyen, T M (2016) A contrastive analysis on metaphor about power in English and Vietnamese idioms from Cognitive linguistics perspective (Doctoral dissertation)

Particle (n.d.) In Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries Retrieved March 6, 2021, from https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/particle

Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., & Leech, G (1985) A comprehensive grammar of the

Rodríguez-Puente, P (2019) Delimiting the Scope of the Study: What Are Phrasal Verbs? In The English Phrasal Verb, 1650–Present: History, Stylistic Drifts, and Lexicalisation (Studies in English Language, pp 46-106) Cambridge:

Rudzka-Ostyn, B (2003) Word Power: Phrasal Verbs and Compounds In Word Power: Phrasal Verbs and Compounds doi: 10.1515/9783110197235

Rundell, M (2005) Understanding phrasal verbs: Is there a system MED

Stauffer, D (1996) Phrasal Verbs A paper presented at the XXIII MEXTESOL National Convention Zacatecas, Mexico

Taylor, John Robert 2002 Category Extension by Metonymy and Metaphor In

Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast Edited by René

Dirven and Ralf Pửrings Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp 323–47

Thim, S (2012) Phrasal Verbs: The English Verb-Particle Construction and its

History Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton doi: 10.1515/9783110257038

Thom, D (2017) How to Teach Phrasal Verbs Using Conceptual Metaphors

Student Theses, Papers and Projects (English, Writing and Linguistics) 1

Tsaroucha, E (2020) Embodiment and Image Schemas: Interpreting the Figurative Meanings of English Phrasal Verbs Languages, 5(1), 6 doi: 10.3390/languages5010006

Tran, H Q (2012) An Explorative Study of Idiom Teaching for Pre-Service Teachers of English English Language Teaching, 5(12), 76-86 doi:

Tran, N T & Tran, Q T (2019) The Use of Phrasal Verbs in English Language Research Proposals by Vietnamese M.A students VNU Journal of Foreign

Trinh T H (2014) Giới từ trong thành ngữ tiếng Anh (có so sánh với thành ngữ tiếng Việt) (Unpublished doctoral dissertation) Hochiminh: University of Social Sciences and Humanities

White, B J (2012) A Conceptual Approach to the Instruction of Phrasal Verbs

Yasuda, S (2010) Learning phrasal verbs through conceptual metaphors: A case of Japanese EFL learners TESOL Quarterly, 44(2), 250-273 doi:0.5054/tq.2010.219945