The effects of paraphrasing strategy on reading comprehension of non english major students at a univerity in hcmc m,a

INTRODUCTION

Background to the study

Reading is a fundamental aspect of language acquisition that significantly enhances learners' overall language skills It helps students improve their vocabulary, speaking, and writing abilities, while also broadening their understanding of facts and enriching their language experience (Lai et al., 2019) To succeed in language learning, students must engage in regular reading activities, with the primary goal being comprehension—understanding the main ideas and content of texts Effective reading practices are essential for developing proficiency in a new language and supporting academic success.

Academic reading is vital for students' academic success and helps them acquire essential knowledge, which explains why reading lessons are integrated into school and college curricula Although it is a time-consuming and complex activity, effective academic reading requires mastering diverse strategies to overcome comprehension challenges Implementing engaging and strategic reading techniques is crucial for teachers to enhance students' reading comprehension and address difficulties effectively.

The Preview-Question-Read (PS) strategy is a versatile reading technique involving three steps: reading the text, identifying its main ideas and details, and then paraphrasing the content in one's own words (Hagaman & Casey, 2017) This strategy is effective in enhancing students' reading comprehension skills by promoting active engagement with the text and deeper understanding (Surayatika, 2018; Suwana et al., 2018) Implementing strategic reading comprehension (RC) training helps students better grasp, retain, and utilize information from texts, leading to improved memory retention and overall reading performance (Deshler & Lenz, 1989; Hagaman et al., 2016).

Therefore, PS should be taught before or during the summarization in RC (Watson et al., 2012)

Over the past two decades, PS has garnered significant interest among researchers studying RC, with numerous studies involving participants of diverse ages and backgrounds worldwide Despite this, limited research has focused on the impact of PS on the RC of non-major university students, particularly within the Vietnam context Recognizing this gap, the researcher decided to explore how PS influences the RC of non-English major university students in Vietnam, aiming to contribute valuable insights to this underexplored area.

Aims of the study

This study aims to assess the impact of teachers' use of paraphrasing strategies on improving reading comprehension among non-English major students It also investigates students' perceptions and experiences regarding the effectiveness of paraphrasing techniques in the classroom setting The findings will provide insights into how paraphrasing enhances understanding and engagement in reading tasks Ultimately, the research seeks to inform teaching practices to better support language learners through effective paraphrasing strategies.

Research questions

This study investigates the impact of paraphrasing strategy (PS) on the reading comprehension (RC) of non-English major university students in Ho Chi Minh City The research aims to understand how implementing PS can enhance students' ability to understand and interpret texts more effectively Findings suggest that paraphrasing strategies significantly improve reading comprehension skills among non-English majors, highlighting the importance of integrating PS into language learning curricula This study provides valuable insights for educators seeking to boost students’ reading understanding through strategic paraphrasing techniques.

Two subsidiary questions were created to solve the primary research question:

1 Is there a substantial difference in the RC test results of non-English major students who received PS versus those who did not receive PS treatment?

2 What are students‘ attitudes towards their use of PS in the classroom?

Through comparing the test results of the experimental and control groups, the effects of

This study examines the impact of teachers' use of pre-studying strategies (PS) on students' reading comprehension (RC) The hypothesis suggests that integrating PS into RC classes can significantly enhance students' performance on RC tests Implementing effective pre-studying techniques may lead to better understanding and retention, ultimately improving overall reading comprehension skills.

Previous studies have explored the impact of psychological factors on reading comprehension (RC), but limited research has been conducted on how psychological strategies influence non-major university students’ RC, particularly within the Vietnamese context This study aims to fill this gap by examining the effects of psychological strategies (PS) on the reading comprehension skills of non-English major students learning English reading in Vietnam The findings of this experimental research are crucial, as they not only help students enhance their RC skills but also provide valuable insights for developing more effective RC teaching methods in the future.

Scope of the study

This study aims to explore the relationship between students' perceived self-efficacy (PS) and their resilience (RC) among first-year students at Vietnam National University-HCMC University of Information Technology in Thu Duc, Vietnam Conducted over a ten-week period from September 2020 to January, the research focused on two intermediate General English classes, ENG03.L12 and ENG03.L18 The findings provide valuable insights into how PS influences RC in first-year university students, highlighting the importance of self-efficacy in fostering resilience within academic settings. -Boost your academic resilience with tailored insights from Vietnam National University’s study—discover more with [Talkpal](https://pollinations.ai/redirect/2699274).

Organization of thesis chapters

This article begins with an abstract providing a comprehensive overview of the study's purpose, methods, and key findings, enabling readers to quickly grasp the research scope The introduction outlines the study’s background, objectives, research questions, hypotheses, significance, and scope, establishing the foundation for the research The literature review examines existing studies on PS in an EFL setting, highlighting gaps and context The methodology section details the data collection methods, including student RC and questionnaires, used to address the research questions Findings are analyzed and discussed in the results chapter, which presents key results and educational implications The conclusion offers research recommendations and summarizes the study’s educational outcomes, emphasizing its contributions to the field.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Definition of reading comprehension

Woolley (2011) emphasizes that reading is a cognitive process where individual readers interpret texts uniquely, resulting in diverse explanations and assumptions Each reader's critical thinking influences how they extract specific information from a text Consequently, reading involves a continual process of hypothesizing and identifying the main ideas within each paragraph.

Reading is an active skill that requires not only guessing but also verifying information and asking questions to understand content accurately Teaching reading is more complex than other skills because it involves multiple interconnected abilities, making it a comprehensive learning process.

Reading comprehension, as defined by Mikulecky and Jeffries (2007), is the logical connection between the concepts within a text and the reader’s prior knowledge Effective comprehension enables readers to answer questions accurately and explain the content clearly During reading, readers actively think and understand to extract meaningful information from the text, making reading comprehension a crucial skill for meaningful engagement with written material.

Reading comprehension, as defined by Snow (2002), is the process of actively obtaining and producing meaning through interaction with written language It involves three essential components: the reader who is understanding, the text being understood, and the dynamic process of comprehension itself Effective reading comprehension requires engagement from the reader to make sense of the text and integrate new information, making understanding an integral part of the reading action.

According to Sweet and Snow (2003) and Pang et al (2003), reading comprehension involves nine key cognitive components: fluency, vocabulary, world knowledge, discourse knowledge, language knowledge, motivation, purpose and goal, cognition, and metacognition strategies Proficient readers are characterized by strong understanding skills and effortless comprehension, while non-fluent readers require greater mental effort to process text Readability and expressiveness are essential in fluency, which depends on accurate word recognition, automaticity, decoding ease, and the ability to recognize and decode words efficiently Developing these fluency skills enhances overall reading comprehension and supports effective learning.

Reading comprehension, as defined by Shanahan (2014), is the active process of understanding and interpreting information within a text, involving the creation of meaning rather than passive recall It requires dynamic thinking skills, such as filtering information through prior knowledge and beliefs, analyzing the author's organizational structure, and inferring unstated meanings Effective reading comprehension encompasses a range of cognitive behaviors that enable readers to engage deeply with the text and construct meaningful understanding.

Perfetti and Adlof (2012) introduce a comprehension framework that helps clarify the complexities of reading comprehension They explain that reading comprehension occurs when a reader constructs a mental image of the text message This process unfolds across three levels: the word level (lexical process), the sentence level (syntactic process), and the text level, all working together with the reader's prior knowledge Understanding these interconnected levels is essential for enhancing reading skills and developing effective literacy strategies.

Reading comprehension, as defined by Kirby (2007), is the ability to read and understand written material effectively It involves decoding words, grasping terminology, and making meaningful connections between the text and the reader's prior knowledge and experiences Developing strong reading comprehension skills is essential for ensuring overall academic success and promoting lifelong learning.

Reading comprehension is the ability to extract and understand meaning from written material, as highlighted by Lems et al (2009) It involves the capacity to read, recall, and interpret information, enabling readers to uncover deeper insights for future use, according to Souvignier and Mokhlesgerami (2006) Additionally, Pressley (2002) emphasizes that reading comprehension requires a range of cognitive skills that work together to facilitate understanding of written content.

Reading comprehension is a crucial skill for mastering any language, serving as the foundation for academic success and broader achievements According to Al Noursi (2014), the ability to read for various purposes is essential for successful learning across educational levels and is a vital survival skill in the 21st century It significantly enhances academic performance by enabling students to understand and apply information from texts through complex cognitive processes Reading comprehension involves a set of abilities that include understanding and synthesizing information from printed symbols, heavily relying on prior knowledge and cognitive skills to facilitate effective learning.

This study adopts Noursi's (2014) definition of reading comprehension because of its relevance to the research context and subject The participants were university students engaging with various academic texts, such as emails, advertisements, letters, invitations, announcements, messages, and memos These materials align with Noursi's concept of reading comprehension, emphasizing understanding and interpreting written academic content.

Definition of paraphrasing strategy

Paraphrasing, as described by McNamara (2007), involves rephrasing text using one's own words to enhance understanding This strategy helps readers convert complex textual information into familiar language, facilitating better comprehension It encourages readers to interpret phrases at their most fundamental level by understanding the meaning of each word Additionally, grasping the basic structure and grammar of sentences is essential for readers to make verbatim texts more relatable and meaningful.

A paraphrasing strategy is a versatile approach that involves three key steps: reading the text, identifying main ideas and details, and transforming the understanding into one's own words (Hagaman & Casey, 2017) This method helps students across all educational levels—elementary, middle, high, and university—to improve their reading comprehension in various subject areas To effectively use this strategy, students must actively read, comprehend the material, and enhance understanding through paraphrasing and questioning.

Escudero et al (2019) identify paraphragings as an effective reading strategy that enables students and readers to quickly grasp the essential elements of a source material This technique functions as a monitoring tool, helping readers stay focused and understand what they are analyzing Additionally, paraphrasing aids in recalling key information after reading, but its success depends on full comprehension of each sentence or the entire text.

Paraphrasing is often misunderstood; it involves more than just changing words and includes various strategies that support effective communication According to Karapetyan (2013), key techniques include altering sentence structures, providing references, maintaining all original information, replacing numbers with fractions, using synonyms, and shifting the word class These tactics enhance the clarity and precision of paraphrased content, making it a valuable skill for writing and academic work.

This study adopts the definition of PS by Hagaman and Casey (2017) because it aligns well with the research subjects—students in non-major English and training programs at an Intermediate General English level As the most recent and comprehensive definition, it effectively encompasses all aspects of the study’s content Additionally, Hagaman's extensive research over the past decade highlights a genuine interest in how PS influences students' reading comprehension, making this definition particularly relevant for the investigation.

The metacognitive process

Metacognitive processes, as defined by Flavell (1979), involve individuals' awareness of their own thinking, active monitoring, and adjusting cognitive activities to improve learning These processes are comprised of four key components: metacognitive knowledge, which encompasses understanding factors that influence cognition such as people, tasks, and strategies; metacognitive experience, involving personal emotional and psychological responses to cognitive tasks; goals and tasks, which relate to the objectives guiding cognitive activities; and actions and strategies, referring to the specific activities learners employ to achieve their cognitive goals Incorporating these elements can enhance effective learning and self-regulation.

Metacognition, defined by Şen (2009) as cognition about cognition, involves examining the brain’s processing during reading or thinking, enabling self-awareness in learning Iwai (2011) summarizes the metacognitive process into three essential steps: planning, monitoring, and evaluating, which are crucial for effective learning Reading comprehension (RC) relies heavily on metacognition, as it helps students develop the ability to speak, think, and interact with others in diverse ways, fostering more adaptive and reflective learning strategies.

Metacognitive reading strategies are activities that enhance students' awareness of their thoughts during reading tasks, enabling more effective comprehension According to the New South Wales Department of Education and Training (NSWDET, 2010), these strategies are planned, intentional, goal-oriented mental activities that help readers plan, monitor, and reflect on their understanding When applying metacognitive strategies, learners actively plan and engage, then monitor their progress, control their approach, react to challenges, and reflect on their performance to improve reading comprehension Incorporating metacognitive techniques in reading can significantly boost students' ability to think critically and verify their understanding throughout the reading process.

Definition of reading strategies

Numerous researchers, including Olshavsky (1977) and Barnett (1988), have emphasized the importance of interactive reading strategies They define reading strategies as purposeful and conscious activities that enable readers to effectively approach and comprehend texts These strategies are described as deliberate, goal-directed efforts to control and modify the reading process, helping readers decode, understand, and make sense of the text.

While the term "reading strategies" highlights the importance of deliberate reader involvement in text comprehension, not all strategies are employed consciously by fluent readers According to Davies (1995), reading strategies encompass both conscious and unconscious mental activities that assist readers in understanding texts more effectively These strategies play a vital role in enhancing overall reading comprehension.

Researchers differentiate between "reading strategies" and "reading skills" to clarify their distinct roles in reading comprehension, as discussed by experts like Carrell (1998), Grabe and Stoller (2002), and Grabe (2009) Carrell et al (1998) define reading abilities as the overall capacity to understand texts, while reading strategies are deliberate techniques employed to enhance comprehension Understanding these distinctions is essential for effective reading instruction and skill development.

Automatic information processing skills encompass a range of abilities, from recognizing grapheme-phoneme correspondences to summarizing stories These skills are often applied unconsciously to texts due to factors like expertise, repeated practice, following instructions, chance, or naive use In contrast, strategies are deliberate, goal-oriented actions designed to achieve specific objectives When a newly learned skill is intentionally utilized, it can evolve into a strategy, enhancing efficiency and development Therefore, strategies that develop from automatic skills tend to be more effective and support ongoing growth in reading and comprehension.

Using reading strategies automatically helps develop into reading skills, which are initially cultivated through conscious and sustained text processing It is widely accepted that distinguishing between reading skills and strategies is challenging because both play crucial roles in effective reading (Grabe & Stoller, 2002).

As a result, reading strategies were given more precise definitions, referring to various approaches to various types of text Wallace (1992), and Singhal (2001) define them as

Effective text processing strategies are essential for improving comprehension and overcoming meaning construction challenges According to Janzen (2002), these strategies are methods that readers use to resolve difficulties encountered while making sense of a text The choice of strategies depends on the text type, reading purpose, and context, enabling readers to adapt their approach for better understanding Implementing appropriate reading strategies enhances overall reading efficiency and helps avoid comprehension failures.

The meta-cognitive process of paraphrasing

RC (Reading Comprehension) is a vital metacognitive skill that has been extensively studied and debated by researchers over the years Effective understanding of a text depends on multiple factors, including vocabulary knowledge, cognitive strategies, metacognitive processes, motivation, and self-regulation It is important to recognize that comprehension often differs from mere reading, meaning what is read is not always fully understood (Pei-shi, 2012) Developing strong metacognitive skills is essential for improving overall reading proficiency and ensuring deeper comprehension.

Early intervention is essential for developing reading comprehension (RC) skills, with class teachers playing a crucial role in equipping students with effective strategies By providing targeted instruction and practice opportunities, teachers help learners transform strategies into lasting skills as their knowledge and understanding grow Consistent support and effort during the formative years lay the foundation for future academic success in reading comprehension.

Paraphrasing, as described by Choy and Lee (2012), employs a step-by-step metacognitive framework rooted in Bloom's taxonomy, including analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, which are vital to modern learning processes It is a comprehensive cognitive and metacognitive activity that involves rephrasing sentences or paragraphs while maintaining the original meaning, but altering lexical and grammatical structures (Khrismawan & Widiati, 2013) Additionally, paraphrasing requires fundamental thinking skills such as comparing and contrasting, identifying similarities and differences, and drawing conclusions, making it an essential component of critical thinking and effective learning.

This approach emphasizes metacognitive goals by encouraging reflection on the paraphrasing process and assessing its effectiveness Key questions to consider include whether the paraphrased version maintains the original meaning, how to improve future paraphrasing techniques, and if the new text has the same impact as the original By analyzing these aspects, you can enhance your paraphrasing skills and ensure your content remains clear and engaging.

PS working for me? When students respond to these concerns, they gain a new perspective.

A paraphrasing strategy to improve main idea comprehension

Clark and Hecht (1983) emphasize that reading comprehension is an active mental process involving the reconstruction and interpretation of meaning from a text Successful reading comprehension depends heavily on utilizing effective strategies for sorting, analyzing, and organizing information within the material Developing strong comprehension skills enhances understanding and retention, making it a crucial component of effective reading.

Effective paraphrasing involves students reading each paragraph, identifying the main idea, and selecting two key details They then rephrase this information into complete sentences using their own words, ensuring they understand and convey the core message This strategy emphasizes the importance of students actively engaging with the text to enhance comprehension and retention Additionally, research shows that the paraphrasing approach is more effective for improving reading comprehension compared to other strategies, especially for students struggling with reading comprehension difficulties.

Scads of researchers, who have conducted numerous experiments for years, debate that

Reading comprehension (RC) is a vital metacognitive skill influenced by various factors such as vocabulary, cognitive strategy guidance, metacognitive processes, motivation, and self-regulation It is essential to understand that what students read often differs from what they truly comprehend, highlighting the importance of developing effective reading skills (Pei-shi, 2012) Teaching young students how to read early on encourages the automatic application of reading strategies, enhancing their ability to understand RC texts effortlessly.

Mastering the three key components of Reading Comprehension (RC)—literal, inferential, and critical comprehension—is essential for students to succeed in RC tests Literal comprehension involves understanding main ideas, supporting details, and vocabulary, enabling readers to classify, outline, and summarize information accurately Inferential comprehension requires interpreting implied meanings and intentions within the text, helping readers draw conclusions and recognize the writer’s viewpoints and biases Critical RC involves analyzing the writer’s implications and forming judgments based on prior knowledge and experience Developing proficiency in all three aspects enhances overall reading comprehension skills for academic success.

Mastering the RC section of tests like TOEIC, IELTS, TOEFL, and FCE requires a strong understanding of both literal comprehension and deeper inferential and critical thinking skills Current expert advice emphasizes the importance of teaching students effective reading strategies to enhance their ability to analyze and interpret texts accurately Developing these skills through targeted approaches can significantly improve performance on authentic reading assessments.

A paraphrasing strategy is one that many experienced students say is not as simple as

Effective paraphrasing is essential for enhancing students’ ability to comprehend and accurately reproduce source content while maintaining original meaning, as highlighted by Pei-shi (2012) This strategy not only preserves the integrity of the original information but also encourages meaningful learning and personal interpretation According to Latrobe University’s “Referencing and Paraphrasing Writing” guidelines, students who struggle with paraphrasing often do so due to a lack of proper understanding of the text McNamara (2007) emphasizes that improper use of paraphrasing is closely linked to poor academic writing and comprehension skills, underscoring the importance of mastering this strategy for academic success.

Using paraphrasing as a strategy helps students stay on track with their Reading Comprehension (RC) materials This technique enables learners to reinforce their understanding by rephrasing information in their own words If needed, students can revisit the original resources to verify details and enhance their RC skills Incorporating paraphrasing promotes active engagement with the text and improves overall comprehension.

According to Shi (2012), paraphrasing levels are closely linked to students' understanding of the material Superficial paraphrasing, involving simple word substitutions and sentence reordering, occurs when students do not fully comprehend the content However, as students deepen their understanding, they can make more significant changes, properly credit sources, and add new insights by employing inferential and critical thinking skills, leading to more effective and original paraphrasing.

Definition of attitudes

Attitude refers to how individuals feel about a person, place, thing, or event, with its meaning varying across different contexts In the realm of language learning, attitudes play a crucial role in shaping motivation and engagement, influencing learners’ success and persistence (Abidin et al., 2012) Understanding attitudes toward language learning can help educators develop more effective teaching strategies that foster positive perceptions and enhance learner outcomes.

Wenden (1991) defines attitude as a multi-component construct comprising cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements The cognitive component involves an individual's ideas, beliefs, and perspectives about the attitude object, shaping their understanding and judgments The affective component reflects the person's feelings or emotional responses toward the object, influencing their overall attitude Finally, the behavioral component pertains to the actions or responses exhibited by the individual in relation to the attitude object, demonstrating their intentions and tendencies This comprehensive view highlights the complex nature of attitudes and their different influences on behavior.

Attitude is defined as a favorable or unfavorable reaction to a specific object, comprising three components: feelings (affective), thoughts (cognitive), and behaviors (behavioral) According to Bui and Intaraprasert (2013), students’ attitudes toward speaking English are closely related to their thoughts, feelings, and emotions about the language In the context of language learning, learners’ attitude encompasses their behaviors, cognitions, and feelings toward learning a language, which significantly influence their learning experiences.

Ajzen (2001) defined attitude as the evaluation of psychological objects across four key attributes: good-bad, harmful-beneficial, pleasant-unpleasant, and likeable-dislikeable This comprehensive definition has been widely adopted in prior research, making it a reliable operational framework for assessing attitudes Positive or negative attitudes are expressed based on an individual’s feelings and judgments along these four dimensions, providing a nuanced understanding of attitude formation and measurement.

The importance of attitudes in language learning

Research indicates that attitude is a vital factor in second language acquisition According to Gürsoy (2011), positive attitudes toward the target language, learning, and teaching enhance student motivation, while negative attitudes can hinder progress Weinburgh (1998) emphasizes that understanding learners’ attitudes is crucial because these attitudes influence learning behavior and significantly impact motivation levels Therefore, studying learners’ attitudes is essential for improving language learning outcomes and designing effective pedagogical strategies.

This research focuses on teaching college students RC, emphasizing the importance of readability in reading materials Readability, which influences students' comprehension, can be assessed using over 40 different formulas Among these, the Flesch Reading Ease Formula, developed by Rudolph Flesch, is widely adopted by researchers to evaluate text difficulty and ensure materials are appropriately tailored for learners.

2012) The difficulty of any reading passage written in English is calculated as follows: Easy reading score = 206.835 - (1.015 x ASL) - (84.6 x ASW)

In the formula, ASL represents Average Sentence Length, which indicates the typical number of words per sentence ASW, or Average Syllables per Word, measures the average number of syllables within words, calculated by dividing the total syllables by the total words Additionally, the metric involves dividing the total number of words by the number of sentences to assess sentence complexity These readability formulas, as discussed by Heydari (2012), help evaluate the clarity and accessibility of written content for broader audiences.

The reading ease score, which ranges from 0 to 100, indicates how easily a reader can understand a text—higher scores signify greater readability According to Flesch (1948), these scores can be interpreted using the guidelines provided in Table 2.1 This metric is essential for assessing and optimizing the clarity of written content to enhance reader comprehension and engagement.

Table 2.1 Description and estimated reading grade for Flesch Reading Ease Score

Reading Ease Score Description of Style Estimated Reading Grade

30-50 Difficult 13th – 16th grade (college)

50-60 Fairly difficult 10th - 12th grade (high school)

The department carefully selects books based on the authentic format of the TOEIC tests, including both short passages (questions 147–175) and long passages (questions 176–200) Consequently, researchers must apply specific reading strategies to choose appropriate passages for effective teaching and testing With the advancement of Microsoft Word Office, calculating readability levels has become more efficient, allowing researchers to assess paragraph readability while simultaneously checking grammar and spelling.

2.9 Previous studies on the use of paraphrasing strategy and Gaps

Due to the importance of RC and subsequent to some research on the effects of the PS on

Numerous researchers have expressed concern about various aspects of PS and its impact on students' RC Studies, such as Hagaman and Reid (2008), demonstrate that the "RAP" PS is an effective method for improving RC among secondary school students in the Midwest Their research, which focuses on RC strategies, highlights that training sixth-grade children in the "RAP" PS—based on the self-regulatory model—significantly enhances their RC skills.

(2010) Following the study, it was found that students' RC skills for expository texts had gotten a lot better because of the practice

According to Karbalei and Amoli (2011), gender does not influence reading comprehension (RC) performance among Indian ESL college students Their study highlights that implementing paraphrasing strategies significantly improves RC, as evidenced by improvements in students' pre-test and post-test scores The research, involving 63 English majors from three Indian colleges, underscores the effectiveness of paraphrasing strategies in enhancing reading comprehension in ESL learners.

Reading is a common challenge for students with learning disabilities, as highlighted by Pakzadian and Rasekh (2012) Effective teachers employ strategies used by proficient readers to help students naturally develop reading comprehension Paraphrasing, as emphasized by Kletzien (2009), is a proven strategy that enables students to understand text content more deeply by reading carefully, interpreting the information, and rephrasing it in their own words without altering the meaning Mastering paraphrasing enhances students' understanding of main ideas and details, thereby improving retention and comprehension When students adopt paraphrasing strategies, they become more active readers and better understand the material they read, leading to improved reading skills and academic success.

Hagaman et al (2012) investigated the impact of picture support (PS) on reading comprehension (RC) among third-grade students The study involved six fluent readers who struggled with comprehension in a Midwestern state Results demonstrated that incorporating PS significantly improved RC, as evidenced by higher text recall percentages and better performance on short-answer questions This research highlights the effectiveness of visual supports in enhancing reading comprehension skills in young learners.

Permadi (2013) explored the effectiveness of Play and Say (PS) as a method for teaching reading procedure texts through an experimental research design The study utilized multiple-choice pre-tests and post-tests as assessment tools, with data analysis conducted using a t-test to measure improvement The research involved a sample of 36 twelfth-grade students, highlighting its focus on adolescent learners and setting it apart from the current study.

According to Rochimah (2014), the use of a Peer Study (PS) significantly enhances students' reading comprehension (RC) The study employed pre- and post-tests to measure the effectiveness of the intervention, demonstrating notable improvements in students' RC skills The research focused on eighth-grade pupils at Nurul Huda Junior High School, highlighting the positive impact of Peer Study on middle school students’ academic performance.

Rinjani et al (2014) found that training students in the RAPQ strategy (Read, Ask, Paraphrase, Question) significantly improves their reading comprehension (RC) The study employed a one-group pre-test and post-test design with random probability sampling, involving 30 second-grade elementary students The research assessments included 40 multiple-choice items to measure students' progress This evidence highlights the effectiveness of RAPQ training in enhancing early learners' reading skills.

Hagaman et al (2016) conducted qualitative research demonstrating that the TRAP strategy (Think, Read, Ask, Paraphrase) effectively enhances reading comprehension (RC) The study evaluated RC through students' responses to short-answer questions, highlighting the strategy's impact on understanding text Despite a small sample size of only seven middle school students struggling with reading comprehension, the findings suggest that TRAP can be a valuable tool for improving comprehension skills among struggling learners.

Hagaman and Casey (2017) highlight that teaching a personalized strategy (PS) within content area texts through the self-regulated strategy development paradigm effectively enhances students' reading comprehension (RC) skills Their research demonstrates that implementing PS has positive impacts on RC and aligns well with the Common Core State Standards, supporting improved academic outcomes for students who struggle with understanding complex texts.

According to Hans (2017), using a PS in the classroom can help students improve their

Using paraphrasing strategies (PS) enables students to readily extract information from original sources, thereby enhancing their reading comprehension (RC) and writing skills İlter (2017) investigated the impact of "RAP," a paraphrasing cognitive strategy training rooted in self-regulatory principles, on improving RC among children struggling with reading The study found significant improvements in the children's text recall and RC abilities, based on a sample of 21 fourth-graders and assessed through a 30-item cloze test, highlighting the effectiveness of paraphrasing strategies in developing reading skills.

Suwana et al (2018) undertake two-cycle action research in order to improve students'

Research design

The researcher has identified experimental research as the most suitable method for this study due to its ability to establish causal relationships between variables This approach involves manipulating one or more independent variables while controlling for others, allowing for precise observation of their effects on dependent variables The study employs a quasi-experimental design focusing on non-English major freshmen at Ho Chi Minh City's University of Information Technology (UIT), with a total of 46 students divided into two classes One class is randomly selected as the experimental group to receive specific interventions, while the other serves as a control group, with both groups comprising 23 students Convenience sampling was used to determine the participants, enhancing the practicality of the research process.

This study examined the impact of teachers' use of paraphrasing strategies in the classroom through a quasi-experimental design, where the experimental group received paraphrasing instruction in reading comprehension (RC) classes, while the control group did not The research focused on how altering the independent variable—students’ reading comprehension—affected the dependent variable—students’ reading strategies—which aligns with Cohen et al.’s (2017) methodology Additionally, questionnaires were utilized to gather students’ perspectives on teachers’ use of paraphrasing strategies, providing valuable insights into their attitudes and experiences in the classroom Incorporating SEO keywords such as "paraphrasing strategies," "reading comprehension," and "reading strategies" enhances the visibility of this research in educational and linguistic research contexts.

Context of the study

The research was conducted at the UIT English Center, part of the University of Information Technology (UIT) in Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City Convenience sampling was employed due to the researcher's three years of experience at the university, facilitating easy access to participants and ensuring efficient data collection.

In reality, the RC texts for university students are far longer and more sophisticated than the ones they read in high school Undoubtedly, given the nature of a foreign language,

RC texts are more challenging for students due to the extensive use of specialized and academic terminology This study relates directly to UIT students' experiences, highlighting that a lack of reading skills can pose significant difficulties for students beginning college Strengthening reading proficiency is essential to help students navigate complex academic texts and succeed in their higher education journey.

Participants

All non-English major students are required to complete TOEIC preparation courses to achieve a minimum score of 500 points for graduation Before beginning their first year, all freshmen must take a placement test that determines their class assignment based on their English proficiency The university mandates that freshmen must score at least 300 points on the TOEIC placement test to meet entry requirements; those who do not are placed in lower-level classes, specifically Basic English 1 and Basic English 2 As detailed in Table 3.1, the six classes are categorized into three proficiency levels according to students' English ability, facilitating targeted language development.

Table 3.1 Levels of English classes based on students' placement test scores

Placement test score Class Level of English proficiency

This study involves 46 first-year non-English major students from Ho Chi Minh City, with participants exhibiting below-average entrance exam scores indicative of intermediate reading ability The students were randomly divided into two classes by the department head, with one class designated as the experimental group and the other as the control group by the researcher for comparative analysis.

During the 12-week semester, students attend five out of 60 weekly periods, focusing on comprehensive English learning All students in the first four classes—ranging from Basic English 1 to TOEIC 3—are required to use two textbooks: "Straightforward from Beginner to Advanced" by Roin Norris and Amanda Jeffries to enhance their general English skills, and a TOEIC preparation book to build a solid foundation for their future exams This structured curriculum ensures effective language development and exam readiness for early learners.

TOEIC test At the same time, intermediate students go through a very intense preparation program that focuses on practicing and taking some simulated TOEIC tests

The researcher selected TOEIC Level 3 students, who have an average placement test score of 400, for three key reasons First, as freshmen and non-English majors, they lack prior training in reading skills, ensuring they are unaffected by existing reading methods Second, their proficiency level positions them between students with basic English skills and those with more advanced proficiency, making them ideal for targeted intervention.

In this study, students with lower abilities were excluded from the experimental group to ensure accurate assessment of the PS's effectiveness ENG04 students were also omitted due to their advanced English skills, which might limit their potential benefit from the PS in reading comprehension Additionally, TOEIC level 3 students began practicing real TOEIC tests during the course, highlighting their increasing engagement with authentic exam materials to improve their language proficiency.

After consulting with the director of the UIT English Center, the researcher was assigned to teach two classes of 23 students each, specifically ENG03.L12 and ENG03.L18 Initially, some students were transferred to other classes at the start of the semester, increasing the enrollment in ENG03.L12 to 25 students Throughout the research, two participants were excluded due to incomplete participation, ensuring the study's validity.

The study involved a total of 46 participants, with 23 students in the control group (ENG03.L12) and 23 students in the experimental group (ENG03.L18) The control class did not receive any special teaching strategies, serving as a baseline for comparison In contrast, the experimental class was taught using the PS (Productive Strategies), aiming to evaluate the effectiveness of this approach in improving student outcomes This setup allows for a clear comparison between traditional teaching methods and strategy-enhanced instruction within the same educational context.

Participant homogeneity is ensured through initial sorting via a university placement test, followed by a pre-test to confirm uniformity Data analysis was conducted using SPSS software to ensure accurate results Both classes study English during periods 1-3 (7:30 a.m to 9:45 a.m.), which promotes shared mental and physical states, contributing to the study's consistency and reliability.

Table 3.2 lists general information about the study participants and the participants' gender

Table 3.2 highlights a significant gender disparity among participants, with a much higher number of males than females However, according to Karbalei and Amoli (2011), there is no correlation between gender and RC performance, suggesting that gender does not influence the outcomes measured in this study.

Procedures for teaching the paraphrasing strategy

The PS used in this study was developed by Schumaker et al (1984), and Hagaman et al

(2016) There are five stages in the procedure of teaching the PS

The first stage involves developing background knowledge through the PS strategy, which includes reading the text, identifying the main idea and supporting details, and paraphrasing the information Students are reminded that PS aids in comprehension and retention, emphasizing its importance in reading comprehension The teacher models analyzing a short paragraph by identifying its main ideas and details on a worksheet, then guides students to practice with additional passages After practicing, students are encouraged to transfer the PS strategy to other reading contexts The session concludes with a review of PS and a reminder of an upcoming quiz to reinforce their understanding.

In the second stage, students focus on discussing the PS, emphasizing the importance of strategic use in reading comprehension They practice identifying main ideas and details to enhance their application of PS in RC, with extended practice time Students review their previous performance through graphs from the baseline period and collaboratively develop improvement strategies Goal setting is a key component, where students and the researcher establish realistic, performance-based objectives, and students use self-monitoring to track progress on charts Once goals are achieved, new targets are set to promote ongoing improvement Additionally, students reflect on whether they have transferred or utilized the PS since their last lesson, reinforcing skill application and fostering independent learning.

In the third stage, the researcher models the process of using Prompt Strategy (PS) through self-direction and self-dialogue, emphasizing that the primary goal of reading is "understanding." Effective modeling allows students to observe the thought processes of proficient readers as they employ PS, demonstrating how it enhances reading comprehension, especially in reading comprehension (RC) The researcher illustrates this by reading an anthology of four paragraphs, verbalizing her thoughts to show how PS is applied in real time This approach helps students grasp the importance of understanding why and how to use PS, providing them with a clear example of strategic reading practices that can improve their comprehension skills.

PS is not a passive process, but needs positive thinking and hard work

In this collaborative learning stage, students and researchers work together by reading the anthology and applying PS to each paragraph, with students leading the process and researchers providing support as needed Students identify the main ideas and details of each paragraph, either verbally or in writing, to enhance comprehension After engaging with the text, students reflect on how PS facilitated their understanding Upon completing an essay, students evaluate their performance by answering targeted questions and comparing their current skills to their previous ones, fostering self-assessment and continuous improvement.

In the final stage of their learning, students demonstrate independent performance by accurately identifying main ideas and supporting details in each paragraph without researcher assistance At this phase, students confidently utilize their prior knowledge and problem-solving skills to independently answer all Reading Comprehension (RC) questions, showcasing their mastery of the material.

Procedures for teaching the paraphrasing strategy in the experimental class 28

In the initial stage, the researcher presents students with a short paraphrase on the board, prompting them to read it aloud and identify the main idea and supporting details, which are then recorded on a worksheet This worksheet guides students to determine the paragraph's topic and additional information, helping them practice essential reading skills The researcher introduces the PS (Primary Skills) method, outlining three steps: reading the text, identifying the main idea and supporting details, and rephrasing the information, emphasizing its role in enhancing comprehension and retention Students then apply these strategies by reading another passage, identifying key ideas and details, and answering related questions Finally, the researcher discusses the transfer of these skills, encouraging students to consider how PS can be applied in various reading contexts to improve understanding.

In the second stage, the researcher guides students in activating goal setting by reviewing graphs of their previous performance and engaging them in discussions to identify ways to improve using the paraphrasing strategy Students collaboratively set realistic, measurable goals aligned with their current abilities and are instructed to monitor their progress using self-monitoring charts When goals are achieved, the researcher supports them in establishing new objectives, encouraging continuous improvement Students are also prompted to reflect on their application of the strategy since the last lesson, and the researcher emphasizes developing a concrete plan to ensure consistent use of each step of the strategy for sustained progress.

In the third stage, the researcher employs the think-aloud method to simulate the use of Paragraph Summarization (PS), encouraging subjects to verbalize their thoughts during a reading task to reveal cognitive processes and gather rich, insightful data (Rubin & Wenden, 1987) Prior to this, the importance of reading for understanding is emphasized, ensuring students grasp how PS can enhance reading comprehension (RC) Effective modeling is utilized by having the researcher read and verbalize thoughts while demonstrating PS on the first two paragraphs, providing students with observable examples of proficient reading strategies and offering assistance as needed.

What is the purpose of the event?

(A) To meet the new staff members (B) To recruit some people for the company (C) To celebrate the opening of a new facility (D) To announce a new policy

In this exercise, I am practicing paraphrasing by reading two paragraphs I begin with step 1, which involves reading a brief paragraph of three sentences, and I find it manageable Moving to step 2, I focus on understanding the purpose of the event by asking myself, "What is the purpose of the event?" and preparing to restate this in my own words.

This article discusses the importance of welcoming new employees, highlighted by an example of a staff lunch invitation aimed at greeting recently hired team members It emphasizes the significance of paraphrasing as a key step to ensure understanding by summarizing information in one's own words The context involves identifying the purpose of the lunch invitation, which is to welcome new hires, and selecting the correct answer that reflects this intent, such as choosing the option that indicates a need to meet and connect with the new employees.

Welcoming someone is a common way to greet new staff members, also known as recently hired employees Recognizing and integrating new team members is essential for fostering a positive work environment This exercise is straightforward due to its brevity and clear main idea I will now demonstrate a longer paragraph as a model, followed by your task to create the third paragraph.

Why might Ms Carter NOT be suitable for the position?

(C) She is not available full-time

(D) She has no formal qualifications

The researcher demonstrates that the phrase "limited experience" contrasts with "five years," indicating insufficient knowledge or expertise Additionally, "not available full-time" is linked to seeking a full-time opportunity, clarifying the context of the responses The analysis reveals that answers A, B, and C are incorrect, with answer D ("I am self-taught") correctly indicating the absence of formal qualifications The researcher then guides students to apply PS (contextual understanding) while reading the third paragraph for deeper comprehension.

What is indicated about Travel Professional Monthly?

(A) It is translated into several foreign languages

(B) It has been published for 10 years

(D) It does not accept submissions from freelance writers

Students are encouraged to read the third paragraph independently, with the researcher available to assist if needed The researcher then prompts students to select and explain their answers, guiding them to understand the correct choice For example, if students struggle to identify the correct option, the researcher clarifies that "has been published for 10 years" (Option B) is the passive form of "has been in print continuously for over two decades," making Option B the correct answer This approach facilitates comprehension and reinforces understanding of passive voice structures.

The fourth stage involves collaboration between students and researchers The researcher

This educational approach supports students throughout each step of their writing strategy, with students maintaining control during this process The researcher provides minimal assistance in the second stage, offering help only upon students’ request, while actively observing their progress After completing their essays, students reflect by answering specific questions, which they then explain and discuss with the researcher, who offers corrections as needed Students are also encouraged to consider how the writing process, particularly Peer Support (PS), enhanced their understanding and skills, reinforcing active engagement and self-assessment.

At the end of the stage, students demonstrate their ability to independently identify the main ideas and supporting details of a paragraph without researcher assistance The researcher provides students with two paragraphs and related questions to practice these skills independently This process helps students develop confidence and proficiency in solving reading comprehension questions on their own, utilizing the strategic approach they have learned Consequently, students become more self-reliant in analyzing texts and answering comprehension questions independently.

Research instruments

This study employed reading tests and a questionnaire survey to address the research questions The pre-test assessed the homogeneity of students before the intervention, ensuring comparable groups Post-tests were conducted to evaluate the effect of the problem-solving (PS) approach on both groups, allowing for a clear comparison of learning outcomes and measuring the impact of the instructional method.

This study investigated whether the use of Peer Support (PS) enhances students' understanding of the course material and improves their performance in post-tests Additionally, the researcher employed a questionnaire to assess students' attitudes toward using PS in the classroom The research tools, including the questionnaire and other methods, are described in detail below to provide comprehensive insight into the study's methodology.

All participants completed a university-conducted placement test before beginning their current classes, but a separate pre-test was also administered for two key reasons First, the university provided a simulated TOEIC test assessing reading and listening skills, whereas the researcher’s pre-test focused solely on reading proficiency Second, the pre-test results helped ensure the homogeneity of both control and experimental groups Using the Flesch Reading Ease Score calculated by Microsoft Word, the test’s difficulty level was matched to participants' proficiency levels To maintain objectivity, the exam content excluded students’ fields of study—technology, social science, economics, business, foreign languages, and art—and consisted of a reading article from the Complete Guide to TOEIC Tests, 3rd Edition, with 20 multiple-choice questions, awarding half a point per correct answer.

Post-tests were administered to evaluate students' reading comprehension (RC) skills effectively To ensure unbiased assessment, the researcher intentionally excluded textbook passages, as they contained key answers readily accessible to students and could influence test performance Additionally, some students needed to review material from previous semesters to grasp the course content, which could skew results Instead, the researcher selected reading passages from reputable sources such as ETS TOEIC TEST 2019 and ETS TOEIC TEST 2020, ensuring fair and standardized evaluation of students' reading abilities while adhering to SEO best practices by including relevant keywords like "reading comprehension," "TOEIC tests," and "evaluation."

These two books are purposefully designed to provide students with extensive practice through a wide selection of real TOEIC tests, enhancing their test-taking skills They feature readability levels and reading paragraph lengths similar to those found in students' textbooks, facilitating a seamless learning experience Detailed information about these books can be found in Table 3.3 and Table 3.4, which outline their specifications and features for effective TOEIC preparation.

Table 3.3 Readability level and length of reading passages in the book ‘ETS TOEIC

The rise of the ethical consumer 33.2 302 words

Selling your country-national branding 48.2 440 words

Changing consumer trend in Japan 51.3 491 words

The Rosetta Stone and the new Rosetta Disk

Table 3.4 Readability level and length of reading passages in the book ‘ETS TOEIC

ETS TOEIC TEST 2020 Reading passages Readability Average length

Pre-test Advertisement, e-mail 42.2 288 words

Mail, letter, and invitation 38.5 359 words announcement message, and memo 47.3 368 words

The Flesch Reading Ease Score for college-level materials should be between 30 and 50, ensuring the passages are appropriate for students' comprehension levels In this study, carefully selected reading passages aligned with this readability range to effectively assess participants' understanding The researcher employed multiple-choice questions, assigning half a point for each correct answer, consistent with the scoring methods used in the placement test, pre-test, and authentic TOEIC test (see Appendix) This approach guarantees reliable measurement of participants’ reading comprehension skills.

B, C, and D for post-test 1, post-test 2, and post-test 3, respectively)

The purpose of the questionnaire was to find out how the teacher‘s PS affects students‘

Research indicates that students' RC abilities and their attitudes towards teachers' use of PS significantly impact learning success According to Cohen et al (2017), questionnaires with scoring scales are essential tools in educational research, providing flexible responses that enable the analysis of frequency, correlation, and other quantitative data This approach effectively uncovers students' attitudes and opinions about instructional practices The questionnaire statements were adapted from established studies by Al-Nofaie (2010) and Al-Homoud Schmitt, ensuring reliability and relevance in assessing perceptions towards PS use in the classroom Optimizing questionnaire design with these references enhances the accuracy of understanding how teachers’ PS strategies influence student outcomes.

The questionnaire was divided into two parts: the first collected participants’ personal information such as gender and age, while the second focused on addressing the research questions The main section included 15 questions, with questions 3–10 assessing attitudes and questions 11–15 exploring perceptions, particularly relevant to the second research question Clear instructions on how to record answers were provided, and responses were recorded using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from (1) = "strongly disagree" to (5) = "strongly agree," ensuring reliable and consistent data collection.

The experimental group participants completed personalized questionnaires to express their attitudes toward the teacher’s use of Peer Support (PS) in reading comprehension (RC) classes These questionnaires were specifically designed to gather insights on students’ perceptions of PS effectiveness (Refer to Appendix E and F for the detailed questionnaires.)

3.6.2.1 The content of the questionnaire

The questionnaire was divided into two sections: personal information and questions The personal information section collected students' gender and age The question section comprised 15 items designed to assess student attitudes (Part 1) and perceptions (Part 2), addressing the study's research questions Part 2 included 10 items categorized into enjoyment, confidence, and students’ reactions to the PS, along with five RC perception items The overall structure of the questionnaire is detailed in Table 4.10.

Table 3.5 The organization of the questionnaire and its related categories

Parts Categories Items Research questions

After completing the questionnaire, it was reviewed by colleagues from UIT and UEF for feedback and suggestions, leading to necessary corrections of any inappropriate points The questionnaire was also translated into Vietnamese to ensure clarity for local participants Students are encouraged to verify their understanding of the questionnaire’s purpose to prevent any misunderstandings (Refer to Appendix 1 and 2 for the English and Vietnamese versions of the questionnaire.)

3.6.2.2 The content of the questionnaire on attitudes and perception

The attitude and perception questionnaire was primarily adapted from the comprehensive research conducted by Al-Homoud and Schmitt (2009), who developed a well-designed tool to examine the key factors influencing attitudes and perceptions.

This study explores the development of attendants' attitudes and relative confidence (RC), supported by questionnaires demonstrating strong overall reliability Researchers expanded the original categories by including enjoyment and students’ reactions to the PS, aiming to capture students' overall feelings and motivational factors influencing attitudes Each category in the adapted questionnaires, such as confidence and RC, consisted of specific items selected to accurately measure these constructs, ensuring comprehensive assessment of student responses.

This study adapted the questionnaires by using a 5-point Likert scale, with the middle option labeled as uncertain to reflect students' potential difficulty in providing clear responses While the original Al-Homoud and Schmitt questionnaires utilized a 6-point scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree, the revised scale accounts for ambiguity in student perceptions Table 3.3 provides a comprehensive summary of the attitudes and perceptions expressed through the questionnaire responses, highlighting key insights into student viewpoints.

Table 3.6 A summary of the questionnaire on attitudes and perception

Confidence 3-6 Adapted from Al-Homoud & Schmitt

Perception RC 11-15 Adapted from Al-Homoud & Schmitt

Table 3.7 The summary of the questionnaire

Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure

Table 3.8 The Cronbach’s Alpha statistic of the questionnaire

Table 3.9 The total statistics of all items in the questionnaire

Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted

The study demonstrated high questionnaire reliability, as evidenced by a Cronbach's Alpha of 804, indicating excellent internal consistency Additionally, all corrected item-total correlation values exceeded 0.3, confirming that each item contributed meaningfully to the overall measurement Furthermore, the fact that removing any item resulted in lower Cronbach's Alpha values suggests that all questions positively impacted the reliability, underscoring the questionnaire’s strong psychometric properties.

Data collection procedure

The researcher planned to conduct experiments every 12 weeks throughout the semester to evaluate the effectiveness of Peer Support (PS) in the Reading Comprehension (RC) class To ensure authentic teaching activities and improve research accuracy, participants were kept unaware of the experiment's purpose A pre-test assessed students' English proficiency at the start, while post-tests measured the impact of PS on their RC skills Additionally, questionnaires provided insights into students’ perceptions of their teacher’s use of PS in the classroom.

When consulting with the director about conducting research at the university, the researcher was advised to limit the study's scope due to tight teaching schedules and potential negative student reactions As a result, the experiment was shortened to three reading lessons and three post-tests over 10 weeks in September 2020, instead of the planned six lessons Students needed to be informed in advance about the experiment’s purpose and give their consent, which was facilitated by distributing a detailed consent form before obtaining approval from the UIT English Center director To ensure familiarity with question formats, multiple-choice questions similar to TOEIC tests were recommended for the assessments Ultimately, all students willingly participated, completing tests and questionnaires, marking a positive start for the research.

On September 4, 2019, the researcher conducted a pilot study at the research site to ensure the validity and reliability of the research tools Initially, she collaborated with another teacher to test the questionnaire with students, assessing its effectiveness To prevent misunderstandings, the researcher translated the English questionnaires into Vietnamese and sought evaluation from two lecturers to verify the equivalence of both versions Additionally, she involved ten students she had previously taught and had strong relationships with to complete the questionnaire, allowing for the identification and correction of confusing questions before distributing the tools to all participants.

In 2019, the researcher conducted a pilot study to ensure the validity and reliability of the assessment tools She first collaborated with a lecturer to have students take a test for initial validation To prevent misunderstandings, she translated the English questionnaires into Vietnamese and sought evaluation from two lecturers to confirm the equivalence of both versions Additionally, she asked 10 well-acquainted students to complete the questionnaire, allowing her to identify and correct any unclear questions before distributing the tools to all participants.

On September 11, 2020, the researcher initiated an experiment involving two groups Despite the ENG03 courses lasting only 12 weeks, the study extended over a 10-week period, with the six-week military course prolonging the overall duration from September 2020 to January.

In 2021, a study was conducted to assess reading comprehension (RC) through a structured teaching process involving experimental and control groups Participants first took a pre-test to ensure homogeneity, as they were classified based on a university placement test The experimental group, ENG03.L18, and the control group, ENG03.L12, underwent a series of instructional activities, beginning with warm-up questions related to the reading texts and vocabulary introduction Under the researcher’s guidance, participants engaged in activities analyzing the texts to improve comprehension Following the instruction phase, participants took a post-test to evaluate their understanding Although confidentiality was maintained, participants wrote their names in pencil on their tests for accurate scoring and analysis This research method aimed to systematically measure the effectiveness of reading strategies, adhering to ethical standards and improving reading comprehension skills.

In the end, participants completed the third post-test, and the questionnaire on their attitudes towards the use of the PS was distributed to experimental group participants

The questionnaire was collected immediately after completion Participants also wrote their names in pencil, as in the post-tests.

Data analysis procedure

All data, including pre-test, post-test, and questionnaires, were analyzed using SPSS 25 statistical software The initial stage involved data encoding, where the experimental group was coded as "2" and the control group as "1." Participants in the experimental group were assigned codes such as ES1, ES2, ES3, based on their order in the class list, while control group participants were coded as CS1, CS2, CS3, to ensure clear identification during analysis.

The study analyzed pre-test and post-test scores for both groups by calculating average scores, standard deviations, and minimum and maximum values An independent-sample t-test was conducted on pre-test scores to assess homogeneity between groups using Levene's test Additionally, the differences in post-test scores were examined through independent-sample t-tests to test the research hypothesis and address the primary research question effectively.

3.8.2 Analyzing data from the questionnaire

In the questionnaire, all items were coded for efficient software analysis The gender question required respondents to select "male" or "female," with a coding scheme assigning "1" to "male" and "2" to "female." For the age question, respondents' ages were categorized numerically, where "1" represents 18 years old, and subsequent numbers correspond to age groups accordingly This coding approach ensures accurate data processing and analysis.

―19‖, the number ―3‖ ―20‖, the number ―4‖ ―21‖, and the number ―5‖ ―22‖ For questions

1 to 15 of the questions part, the coding of the Likert 5-point scale was shown in Table 3.5

Table 3.10 Coding scheme for the two Likert scales

Likert scale in Section Code

The data were analyzed descriptively using frequency and percentage to facilitate comparisons within each section Additionally, the study examined participants' perceptions in the experimental group regarding their teacher's use of PS in the classroom, providing insights into its impact on student engagement and learning experiences.

This chapter outlines the research methods used to examine the impact of teachers' psychological skills on students' reading comprehension and to gather students' perspectives The study utilized a combination of pre-tests, post-tests, and questionnaires to collect data The findings derived from these methods are analyzed and discussed in the following chapter, providing valuable insights into the influence of teaching strategies on student learning outcomes.

This chapter presents the key findings of the research, starting with an analysis of test scores from four assessments conducted across two groups—comprising one pre-test and three post-tests—to address the primary research question Additionally, the study explores participants' perceptions of teachers' use of paraphrasing strategies in receptive comprehension (RC) classes, based on questionnaire data These results provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of instructional strategies and student attitudes, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of the research topic.

Descriptive analysis of the tests

4.1.1 Descriptive analysis of the pre-test results

An independent samples t-test was conducted using SPSS 25 to assess the homogeneity of participants’ English proficiency based on pre-test scores The results in Table 4.1 indicate that the experimental group had a mean score of 6.3913, while the control group’s mean score was slightly higher at 6.5435, demonstrating comparable baseline English proficiency between the two groups.

Table 4.1 Descriptive statistics of the participants' scores in the pre-test

Pre-test score Group N Mean Std Deviation

Table 4.2 The participants’ homogeneity in RC competence

Score of the pre-test

Equal variances not assumed Levene‘s Test for Equality of Variances

Sig .042 t-test for Equality of Means t 287 287 df 44 41.946

The independent sample t-test revealed that although the mean scores of the two groups differed, the difference was not statistically significant, as indicated by a Sig (2-tailed) value of 776, which exceeds the 0.05 threshold (see Table 4.2) This suggests that the RC abilities of both groups are homogeneous, meaning participants were equally qualified to participate in the research.

4.1.2 Descriptive analysis of the post-test results

Post-tests were conducted on both the experimental and control groups, with results summarized by mean scores and standard deviations An independent sample t-test was performed to compare the average scores between the two groups, providing insights into the effectiveness of the intervention and addressing the primary research question of the study.

After completing the sixth week of the study, the first post-test was conducted on the two groups of students The results are shown in Table 4.3

Table 4.3 Results of post-test 1 of the experimental and control groups

Table 4.4 Independent samples t-test for post-test 1 of the experimental and control groups

Score of the pre-test

Equal variances not assumed Levene‘s Test for

Sig .036 t-test for Equality of T -2.926 -2.926

The analysis from Table 4.3 indicates that the experimental group achieved a higher mean score of 7.5217 compared to the control group's mean score of 6.3043 The difference between the two groups was statistically significant, with a mean score difference of 1.2174 and a p-value of 0.006, which is below the standard significance threshold of 0.05 This suggests that the experimental group outperformed the control group due to the successful integration of the PS into the RC class, highlighting the positive impact of this intervention on student performance.

The results of post-test 2 were used to test students‘ comprehension skills in the eighth week of the study, using the same procedures as post-test 1 for analysis

Table 4.5 Results of post-test 2 of the experimental and control groups

Table 4.6 Independent samples t-test for post-test 2 of the experimental and control groups

Score of the pre-test

Equal variances not assumed Levene‘s Test for

Sig .591 t-test for Equality of Means

The experimental group achieved a higher mean score of 7.6739 (SD = 1.01812) compared to the control group’s mean score of 6.8043 (SD = 1.22232), as shown in Table 4.5 Statistical analysis in Table 4.6 reveals a significant difference between the two groups, with a p-value of 0.012, which is below the 0.05 threshold This indicates that the implementation of the PS positively impacted participant scores, resulting in significantly higher results in the experimental group compared to the control group.

Table 4.7 shows the results of the last post-test 3 conducted in the tenth week of the study

Table 4.7 Results of post-test 3 of the experimental and control groups

Table 4.8 Independent samples t-test for post-test 1 of the experimental and control groups

Score of the pre-test

Equal variances not assumed Levene‘s Test for

Sig .617 t-test for Equality of Means

The experimental group achieved a higher mean score (8.8696) compared to the control group (7.5), indicating improved performance The greatest mean difference between the groups was observed in the third post-test, highlighting the significant impact of the treatment Statistical analysis in Table 4.8 revealed a significant difference in mean scores, with a p-value of 0.002 (two-tailed), which is below the 0.05 threshold This confirms that the treatment group performed significantly better than the control group in the RC test Additionally, Table 4.9 presents the detailed results of all three post-tests, supporting these findings.

Table 4.9 Summary of the results of the three post-tests

Test Group Mean Mean difference t Sig (2-tailed)

Post-test 1 experimental group 7.5217 1.2174 -2.926 0.006 control group 6.3043 Post-test 2 experimental group 7.6739 0.8696 -2.622 0.012 control group 6.8043 Post-test 3 experimental group 8.8696 1.3696 -3.359 002 control group 7.5000

The study confirmed that the initial English proficiency of both groups was comparable, ensuring homogeneous starting points After controlling for potential influencing factors such as English level and physical and mental state, the experimental group demonstrated significantly better post-test results compared to the control group, highlighting the effectiveness of the therapeutic intervention As shown in Table 4.9, the greatest mean difference across the post-tests occurred at the final assessment, indicating notable improvement in the experimental group These findings support the hypothesis that the use of the PS enhances reading comprehension (RC), as the experimental group outperformed the control group in RC scores after the post-test.

Questionnaire

After completing the final post-test, students provided feedback through questionnaires on how the paraphrasing strategy benefited their reading comprehension (RC) classes Part 1 of the questionnaire collected personal information from participants, while the discussion of their opinions began with Part 2, which focused on their experiences and perceptions of the strategy's effectiveness This feedback offers valuable insights into the impact of paraphrasing techniques on language learning.

4.2.2 Descriptive analysis of the questionnaires

Table 4.10 Results on students’ enjoyment of PS

N Min Max Mean Std Deviation

Q1 I enjoyed the paraphrasing strategy in RC

Q2 I didn‘t enjoy the paraphrasing strategy in RC

Most students showed a strong interest in PS, with mean scores ranging from 4.3 to 4.6, indicating high levels of engagement Their responses to item 1 consistently ranged from 4 to 5, demonstrating that students’ preferences for PS were very consistent Conversely, the majority of students disagreed with item 2, with answers mostly between 1 and 3, which supports the conclusion that students generally liked using PS.

Table 4.11 Results on students’ confidence

Q3 Thanks to the paraphrasing strategy,

I became more confident about RC

Q4 The paraphrasing strategy taught me that RC is not so difficult

Q5 Even after reading the paraphrasing strategy, I still feel frustrated RC

Q6 After the paraphrasing strategy, I feel that I can spend less time doing

The confidence category was less preferred by students, similar to the enjoyment category, indicating lower engagement in this area According to Table 4.16, students only slightly agreed that the PS helped boost their confidence in reading comprehension (RC) While most students believed that the PS increased their confidence overall, some still found RC to be challenging, highlighting varying perceptions of difficulty and confidence.

The analysis of confidence-related questions reveals that among the three positive items (3, 4, and 6), question 3 received the lowest agreement, with a mean score of approximately 4, indicating that students felt only somewhat confident in reading comprehension but were not fully prepared for active reading engagement Additionally, item 5, a negative statement about reading confidence, had a mean score of about 1.7 (SD = 0.57277), suggesting that students only slightly disagreed, which implies that some students still find reading comprehension to be a challenging process These findings highlight that students' confidence in reading comprehension remains relatively modest, and reading can still be perceived as a troublesome activity.

The confidence category received mean scores of 4.0 to 4.1, indicating moderate confidence levels among students In comparison, the enjoyment category had higher scores, demonstrating that students found using PS in RC to be more engaging and enjoyable These results suggest that while students felt reasonably confident, they experienced greater enjoyment when utilizing PS during RC activities Overall, the data highlights the positive impact of PS on student engagement and satisfaction in the learning process.

Table 4.12 Results on students’ reactions to future use of PS

Q7 I will recommend the paraphrasing strategy to other people

Q8 In the future, I will continue to use the paraphrasing strategy in RC

Q9 I will use the paraphrasing strategy only when I am required by teachers

Q10 I will not use the paraphrasing strategy anymore when I do the RC tests

Table 4.17 reveals that students are generally positive about future use of the PS, with item 8 achieving the highest mean score of 4.4, indicating strong student agreement to continue using PS While most students would recommend the PS to others, as reflected by a mean score of 3.8 for item 7, this score is slightly lower than their willingness to use it themselves, suggesting a preference for personal use over recommendation The high standard deviation of 0.778 for item 7 indicates diverse student opinions regarding recommending PS Moreover, the data shows that students do not strongly agree with the notion they would stop using PS in the future, as evidenced by a low mean score of 1.9 for an anti-usage statement, though the high SD of 0.864 suggests varying attitudes among students about discontinuing use.

The mean score of 1.8 for item 9 suggests that students were uncertain whether they would use the PS only when prompted by the teacher However, the standard deviation of 0.576 indicates that some students agreed with the statement Overall, nearly all students in the experimental group expressed their willingness to continue using the PS and to recommend it to others, demonstrating a positive attitude towards its usefulness and application.

Table 4.13 Results on students’ perception

Q11 The paraphrasing strategy helped me increase my word recognition

Q12 Even after the paraphrasing strategy, my reading speed is still the same

Q13 The paraphrasing strategy helped me improve my RC

Q14 After the paraphrasing strategy, I become better at finding the main idea and details of a text

Q15 The paraphrasing strategy helped me deepen my vocabulary knowledge

Students generally perceive the PS as effective in enhancing their reading comprehension (RC), with many indicating noticeable improvement Specifically, students strongly agreed that the PS boosted their ability to recognize words within texts Notably, the four positive items (11, 13, 14, and 15) received mean scores of 4 or higher, highlighting that most students felt they gained significant knowledge about RC after engaging with the PS This suggests that the PS has a positive impact on students' reading comprehension skills.

Discussion

The study revealed that students who utilized PS showed significant improvements in their reading comprehension (RC) from pre- to post-tests, as confirmed by quantitative analysis of both groups' results in Section 4.1 This finding aligns with previous research (Rochimah, 2014; Rinjani et al., 2014; Nirwana, 2020) discussed in Section 2.9, which also reported positive effects of similar interventions However, a limitation of the study was the reliance on multiple-choice tests, which may impact data quality; Hagaman et al (2016) addressed this issue by using multiple-choice assessments in their research To enhance reliability, some studies have employed qualitative or mixed-method research designs (Hagaman et al., 2016; Suwana et al., 2018), suggesting a need for diverse approaches in future research.

The questionnaire revealed a strong student preference for PS, aligning with previous studies by Suwana et al (2018), Nirwana (2020), and Arizena & Mayasari (2021), which also reported similar findings Karbalaei and Amoli (2011) found that university students favor PS because they believe it enhances their reading comprehension (RC) The current study supports this, indicating that students perceive PS as beneficial for improving word recognition, increasing RC skills, and helping them identify main ideas and details in texts (see Section 4.2.2.4) Effectively applying PS in reading comprehension boosts students’ confidence and reduces the time needed to complete RC tasks (see Sections 4.2.2.2).

Summary of the chapter

This chapter presents a detailed analysis of the data and questionnaires collected from the tests, highlighting their relevance to the research objectives The results from three post-tests demonstrate that incorporating power statements (PS) significantly improved the experimental group's ability to understand and read texts compared to the control group Consequently, the experimental group consistently achieved higher scores on the post-tests Additionally, questionnaire responses revealed that students held a positive attitude toward teachers' use of PS, feeling more confident and motivated Students in the experimental group expressed satisfaction with their learning experience, especially when classroom reading comprehension (RC) classes coincided with PS sessions, indicating the effectiveness of PS in enhancing engagement and learning outcomes.

This chapter analyzed the research data and discussed key findings derived from the data analysis These insights laid the foundation for the subsequent chapter, where conclusions were drawn to address the two initial research questions.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS