Introduction
Research background and problem statement
Gender inequality in leadership remains a global systemic issue, particularly evident in higher education where women are underrepresented in senior academic leadership roles, highlighting both social justice concerns and international patterns (Aiston et al., 2020) Women leaders face persistent stereotypes and sexist prejudices within organizations, as well as media scrutiny that emphasizes their appearance, clothing, and family responsibilities, contrasting with the focus on their male counterparts’ substantive issues (Cheung & Halpern, 2010) Typically, discussions on gender inequality tend to center on women and their experiences, underscoring the need for a broader understanding of the pervasive biases they encounter.
In highly competitive, research-intensive environments, academic women often face significant barriers to career advancement, with a gendered research productivity gap influencing promotion prospects in the global higher education landscape (Aiston et al., 2020; Kandiko et al., 2018) Cultural expectations in Asian societies further shape these challenges by emphasizing women's roles as dutiful wives and mothers, impacting their career decisions as academics (Chiricosta, 2010) Despite ongoing underrepresentation of women in academic leadership, policy responses remain inadequate, partly due to limited understanding of the perspectives of middle management and male colleagues (Aiston et al., 2020).
Vietnam faces common educational challenges, with women consistently trailing behind men in higher education attainment According to Figure 1.1, the percentage of women earning master's and doctorate degrees remains lower than that of men across all regional groups, highlighting gender disparities in advanced education (GSO) Addressing these gaps is essential to promote gender equality in Vietnam's higher education landscape.
The bar graph in Figure 1.1 highlights the underrepresentation of female scholars, both in rural and urban areas, suggesting they are often viewed as consumers rather than producers of knowledge, which reflects potential gendered power imbalances in academia The data indicating male intellectuals' higher research productivity raises important questions about how this disparity impacts women's experiences in academic leadership and their opportunities for professional advancement.
Shared Percentage of M.A and Doctorate Degree Holders by Region and Sex, 2016
Note Figured bar graph from “Gender statistics in Vietnam” by General Statistics Office of Vietnam, 2018 1
In addition, in the Anglophone sphere, metaphorics on women in academia abound, revolving around the academic institutions and women academics themselves (Amery et al.,
2015) According to Husu (2001, p 173), these metaphors were born in an attempt to
Metaphors such as the "glass ceiling," "pipeline effect," and "chilly climate" are commonly used to illustrate women's struggles with representation, leadership, and work-life balance in academia, highlighting persistent gender inequalities (Amery et al., 2015) Conversely, gender norms and women’s lived experiences are often depicted through metaphors like "mothers/housekeepers" and "the Matilda effect," though there is a noticeable lack of negative metaphors representing men's experiences, who often enjoy privileges like the "glass escalator" in traditionally women-dominated environments (Williams, 1992; Moratti, 2020) These metaphorical frameworks have faced criticism for failing to adequately address both structural and individual agency, especially within non-Western cultural contexts, such as Vietnam, where such stereotypical language and metaphors are largely absent in describing female academics This highlights the need for further research to understand the culturally specific gendered dynamics of academia, particularly as public universities undergo ongoing transformations in academic leadership and gender equality efforts.
Public universities in Vietnam operate within a socialist framework led by the Vietnam Communist Party (VCP), with strategic changes in higher education reflecting the VCP's broader political plans This context creates a "socialist gender regime," where gender-related initiatives like gender mainstreaming are often not fully recognized or prioritized by university leadership Female academics in leadership roles navigate multiple responsibilities across academic, administrative, political, and domestic spheres, with their experiences influenced by temporal and spatial factors Despite ongoing reforms toward autonomy and the transformation into research universities, inconsistencies remain, posing challenges to integrating gender and feminist ideas into the organizational culture.
In the Vietnamese context, feminist theories and the concept of critical mass should be reevaluated to recognize women as a diverse mosaic of individuals with unique needs, necessitating strategic planning to develop this vital human resource Although women academics in urban, modern settings are often seen as having achieved critical mass through quota policies and improved working conditions, their representation, political participation, and professional growth within the socialist gender regime still require thorough analysis.
This case study highlights the interconnectedness of gender mainstreaming, human resource development, and academic leadership, offering valuable insights to enhance university governance It emphasizes that lessons learned can be applied across public universities facing similar challenges, particularly in Vietnam The study explores both the causes of disadvantages faced by women academics and real-life narratives to support gender equality in university leadership Conducted in urban Southern Vietnam, the research considers the coexistence of traditional values with global feminist influences and accounts for the ongoing autonomy and research-driven transformation of Vietnamese public universities, which impact leadership dynamics The findings reveal emerging challenges and dilemmas not only for women academics but also for human resources staff within public universities.
Purpose of the study
A case study on women academics’ experiences at a Vietnamese public university was conducted to:
(i) Provide rich data concerning the experiences of female academics at a public university in the southern, urban context of Vietnam;
(ii) Deepen understanding of how women are empowered in academic leadership in higher education;
(iii) Extend existing research on gender issues and practices in higher education leadership;
Significance of research
This research aims to expand the existing literature on gender equality in academia and provide valuable insights into the gender mainstreaming process within higher education institutions (HEIs) It contributes to understanding how gender mainstreaming is context-specific, both in its implementation and reception, thereby enriching the discourse on women’s leadership in higher education Additionally, the study encourages further exploration in educational management and leadership, highlighting the importance of tailored strategies for promoting gender equality across different institutional contexts.
This case study provides valuable insights for enhancing gender policies related to leadership and professional development in higher education Its findings serve as a useful resource for women academics and public universities in the ASEAN region, where the ASEAN University Network (AUN) influences quality assurance and accreditation Women academics can leverage these insights to reflect on their career progression, while the emphasis on gender in academic leadership encourages Vietnamese public universities to incorporate gender analysis into their institutional strategies, especially as they shift towards research-oriented models.
Previous research primarily focused on women’s work-life balance in northern Vietnam under Confucian influences This qualitative case study shifts the focus to women academics in the urban south, examining the role of higher education institutions in promoting women’s leadership It uncovers micro-inequities faced by female faculty and contextualizes these issues within the frameworks of autonomy and research orientation at public universities Overall, this study aims to complement existing literature by exploring emerging themes of empowering female intellectuals within Vietnam’s higher education sector.
Outline of the thesis
The thesis is organized into six chapters:
Chapter 1 provides the rationale for conducting the study in Vietnam in the context of higher education Chapter 2 constructs a literature review on gender, academic leadership and relevant concepts associated with gender mainstreaming through four parts In this chapter, section 1 introduces the gender outlook in Vietnam Section 2 further investigates the gender concept in academic leadership, both in the global and Vietnames context
Section 3 reviews the bodies of theories related to the study The last section reflects on previous studies and generates the research gap Chapter 3 introduces and provides explanation for the research questions, the conceptual framework and the methodology employed in the thesis In particular, this chapter offers a meticulous presentation of how participants were recruited, why certain instruments were employed, and the categorization of conceptual clusters for data analysis The research reliability, validity and the researcher’s reflexivity are also clarified Chapter 4 presents the results which are organized according to the three research questions in the study Chapter 5 discusses the emerging themes in the study This chapter also revisits the idea of university as a gendered organization and proffers implications in the context of Vietnam In chapter 6, the concluding thoughts are presented, together with the study’s contribution, its limitations and the corresponding suggestions for further research in the field of gender studies and leadership in higher education.
Literature Review
The gender outlook in Vietnam: Feminist views in a socialist country
This section revisits the idea of “the culture of gender” in Vietnam (Dang, 2017) based on previous studies of both Vietnamese and non-Vietnamese scholars
2.1.1 The socio-cultural aspects of gender in Vietnamese society
Vietnam's history highlights that women were not originally oppressed; instead, they played vital roles as heroines in resisting Chinese cultural and political dominance, exemplified by figures like Hai Bà Trưng and Bà Triệu (Nguyen, 2011; Chiricosta, 2010) While these heroic contributions are celebrated, they also reinforced associations of women with sacrifice and endurance, often framed within a nationalist narrative Women are recognized as heroes in the public sphere, yet they continue to hold essential domestic roles as homemakers, reflecting enduring gender norms Traditional Confucian expectations persist in shaping women’s behavior in Vietnam’s domestic domain, blending ideals of gender equality with hierarchical distinctions (Nguyen, 2011; Schuler et al., 2006) As a result, Vietnamese women are socialized into a value-laden concept of womanhood, prized for their hard work, proper conduct, and lifelong dedication to family roles.
Following Fahey (1998), women's roles in Vietnam experienced reconstruction within the domestic sphere due to economic reforms, yet traditional preferences for segregated gender roles persist As Vietnam progresses economically post-Đổi Mới (1986), women find themselves balancing career advancement with cultural values emphasizing homemaking and family duties (Nguyen & Simkin, 2017) While women's increasing participation in social development signifies progress, the ingrained belief that “men build the house and women make it home” continues to shape expectations around homemaking, childrearing, and maintaining family stability Women who fail to fulfill both public and domestic roles risk social sanctions and damaging their family’s reputation, highlighting the ongoing tension between modernization and traditional gender norms.
2017, p 610) This is one fundamental structural reason that leads to various constraints at different levels in achieving gender equality in the country
Previous research highlights that regional differences between North and South Vietnam significantly contribute to the country's complex gender dynamics, shaped by distinct historical, cultural, social, and economic contexts (Phuong, 2007) Before 1975, Northern men predominantly served in the military, leading to more established domestic roles for Northern women compared to their Southern counterparts (Fahey, 1998) Since the 1980s, globalization has increasingly influenced the South, promoting greater women's participation in the labor market and transforming gender roles in both public and private spheres (Fahey, 1998) Consequently, Southern women tend to be more economically independent and face fewer domestic constraints, creating observable differences in family and work roles across regions These regional variations extend further, reflecting disparities between rural and urban areas and among women of different economic classes (Hoang, 2019).
Vietnam, as a socialist country, has not achieved true classlessness and equality, but it has made significant progress in gender equality There are two forms of gender equality in Vietnam: legal and policy frameworks (de jure) and the actual implementation by gender advocacy institutions (de facto) (Le, 2013) The concept of feminism is complex in Vietnam, partly because the Vietnamese language lacks a direct equivalent for the Western-originated term, which complicates its application (Chiricosta, 2010) Despite advancements, structural inequalities remain invisible and continue to perpetuate gender disparities within the society.
Urban, middle-class women in Vietnam experienced a transformation of their lifestyles amidst the tension between evolving gender subjectivities and the socialist model of moral womanhood promoted by the state (Hoang, 2019) This "self-contradictory gender regime" reflects the ambivalence of the Vietnamese government in reshaping traditional gender roles while maintaining socialist ideals Recent legal and policy frameworks, along with institutional efforts to promote gender mainstreaming, reveal the complex and often conflicting approach of the state toward gender equality and women's empowerment in Vietnam.
2.1.2 The legal and policy framework for gender mainstreaming in Vietnam
Vietnam is a progressive country committed to gender equality, with policies supporting women's rights The Communist Party's first Political Theses in 1930 emphasized the importance of liberating people, social classes, and women during the national revolution Vietnam's 1945 Constitution explicitly affirms gender equality, asserting that men and women are equal under the law The 1960 amended Constitution further reinforced this commitment to women's rights and gender equality.
Women receive equal pay for the same job duties as men, ensuring gender wage fairness The government guarantees maternity leave before and after childbirth, allowing workers and civil servants to take leave while still receiving full wages It actively protects the rights of mothers and children and promotes the development of midwives, daycare centers, and kindergartens Additionally, the state safeguards marriages and family stability to support a harmonious society.
Vietnam's favorable socio-political and economic environment led to the ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 1982, just two years after its enforcement (Le, 2013) In 2006, Vietnam introduced the Law on Gender Equality, aiming to institutionalize CEDAW's principles through comprehensive policies and strategies to achieve gender equality Building on these legal advancements, the first Law on Domestic Violence Prevention and Control (DVPC) was enacted in 2007 and implemented in early 2008, marking a significant shift by bringing domestic violence into the public eye and emphasizing the importance of professional services and international support in addressing this issue.
Vietnam's legal and policy framework for gender mainstreaming is closely linked to its decentralization process, involving four government layers—central, provincial, district, and commune—all overseen by the Communist Party Despite targeted policies like Decision 11-NG/TW, which sets a 30% women’s quota for the National Assembly, local implementation remains weak, with women holding 26.7% of parliamentary seats Challenges such as a top-down approach, limited coordination among government agencies, and low gender awareness hinder effective gender mainstreaming Additionally, the lack of gender impact analyses at various administrative levels further restricts progress toward political decentralization and gender equality in Vietnam.
Despite progress in legal frameworks and Vietnam’s commitment to gender equality, women remain underrepresented in top management and decision-making roles (International Labor Organization, 2015) Social and economic factors, such as workplace restrictions related to reproduction, proposed changes to retirement age, and childcare responsibilities, continue to limit women's career advancement These subtle forms of discrimination contribute to a persistent "glass ceiling," hindering women’s progress into leadership positions and perpetuating gender inequality in the workplace (Morley).
Despite progress, women in Vietnam still face significant barriers to career advancement and leadership opportunities, as highlighted by 2013 data Vietnamese socialism, under a party-led government, has sought to balance traditional cultural values with modern feminist ideas, aiming to preserve national identity rather than eliminate traditional norms This approach has resulted in a unique institutional framework for gender mainstreaming, integrating traditional cultural elements with socialist policies to promote gender equality within the country's socio-political context.
2.1.3 Institutional framework for gender equality in Vietnam
Achieving both de jure and de facto gender equality remains a major global challenge, including in Vietnam In the country, women-focused organizations like the Vietnam Women’s Union (VWU) and the National Committee for the Advancement of Women are tasked with implementing gender policies These organizations play a crucial role in mediating progress toward gender equality across various socio-economic sectors in Vietnam.
The Vietnam Women’s Union (VWU) serves as a key intermediary between the Vietnam Communist Party (VCP) and the people, representing the rights and interests of women across all social strata (Schuler et al., 2006) Its organizational structure, depicted in Figure 2.1, spans four levels of government while maintaining a voluntary membership base Under VCP supervision, the VWU is actively involved in drafting policies related to women, children, families, and various ethnic and religious groups, with departments responsible for implementing decisions from the National Congress Additionally, the VWU conducts effective grassroots activities at provincial, district, and commune levels, ensuring widespread outreach to its members and communities.
However, overall, its political role is consultative, not decision-making (Waibel & Glück,
The Organizational Structure of the Vietnam Women’s Union
The Vietnam Women's Union (VWU) is not regarded as an organization primarily focused on promoting gender activism within the country According to the Political Report of the Central Executive Committee of the Vietnam Women's Union presented at Session XI of the 12th National Women's Congress, the VWU's role and objectives do not centrally emphasize fostering gender activism This indicates that, despite its presence, the organization may prioritize other areas of women's development over active gender activism efforts in Vietnam.
In 2017, the Vietnam Women's Union (VWU) reaffirmed its core values of "Solidarity, innovation, equality, and integration," aligning with the nation's goals of building an "A prosperous people, a strong nation, liberty, justice, and civilization." The organization continued its collaboration with the Vietnam General Confederation of Labour to lead the "Good at national tasks, good at household tasks" movement from 2017 to 2022, a campaign that has sparked controversy due to its implications This initiative, primarily targeting women, subtly promotes the notion that women's primary roles are centered around unpaid domestic work, potentially marginalizing their contributions outside the private sphere The VWU asserts that this focus aims to enhance women’s capabilities as mothers, wives, and family managers, thereby reinforcing their societal and familial status.
Gender and academic leadership in higher education
This article explores the university as an organization shaped by gendered cultures specific to different country contexts, examining both Western and non-Western experiences of women in academia It emphasizes the importance of understanding how academic leadership is conceptualized and recognized differently across environments Additionally, the discussion highlights global discourses on women academics' experiences, reflecting varying perspectives Finally, the article reveals insights from studies on women academic leaders in Vietnam's public universities, illustrating how women's empowerment is intertwined with organizational and individual identities within academic leadership at higher education institutions.
2.2.1 Academic leadership in higher education
School leadership is shaped by multiple factors from an occupational perspective According to Miller (2018), the nature of school leadership encompasses four key dimensions: personal, relational, environmental, and social These interconnected aspects influence how school leaders navigate their roles and impact educational outcomes Understanding these dimensions is essential for developing effective leadership strategies in educational settings.
Dimensions of School Leadership Nature
School leaders play a crucial role in shaping the educational environment by communicating their personal values and beliefs to students, teachers, and staff, fostering a collaborative and values-driven school culture They actively build partnerships with internal and external stakeholders to support their institution’s growth and success Recognizing and valuing staff and teachers' roles and achievements is vital, often demonstrated through decision-making activities such as budgeting, procurement, and facilities management Effective school leadership requires maintaining reciprocal relationships with those around them and understanding the broader social context, as leadership is both an individual trait and a dynamic process influenced by internal and external factors (Miller, 2017; Miller, 2018).
Recent studies propose that there is a need to have a specific conceptualization of
Academic leadership plays a crucial role in designing development programs within educational institutions, as highlighted by Dinh et al (2020) and Žydžiūnaitė (2018) Recent research indicates a shift from viewing academic leadership solely as individual behaviors to understanding it as collaborative efforts involving leaders and group members, aligning with previous studies on school leadership characteristics (Asgari et al., 2019; Miller, 2018; Wilkinson & Bristol, 2017) Exploring perceptions of academic leadership and motivations to pursue such roles can help policymakers develop effective strategies to engage more individuals in academic leadership development.
Previous theories of school leadership often emphasize institutional factors while neglecting the crucial role of leaders' intellectual capacity as a defining element In exploring various forms of school leadership, Žydžiūnaitė highlights the importance of understanding how a leader's cognitive skills and critical thinking influence effective educational management Recognizing the interplay between institutional structures and leader capabilities is essential for developing comprehensive leadership models that foster school success.
Žydžiūnaitė (2018) distinguishes between intellectual leadership and academic leadership, noting that while these concepts are often interconnected, they have distinct characteristics Intellectual leadership, as described by Macfarlane and Chan (2014), is inherent to scholars and expressed through passion for transformation, personal virtues, commitment to service, and problem-solving skills In contrast, academic leadership requires not only intellectual qualities but also a strong engagement with the higher education institution (HEI), a commitment to its objectives, and the ability to mediate diverse views to ensure success Academic leadership involves a deeper understanding of institutional regulations and structures and integrates the essence of intellectual leadership It positions leaders at the intersection of faculty roles and administrative responsibilities, necessitating managerial skills alongside research expertise Leadership in academia is influenced by social, economic, and policy contexts, emphasizing a reciprocal relationship with the environment that impacts both individual and organizational development.
Research by Blackmore (2007) highlights that much of the existing literature on academic leadership overlooks the influence of disciplinarity, noting the existence of “discipline-related variations” in leadership practices Recognizing these variations underscores the importance of middle leadership roles within higher education institutions (HEIs) Academic leaders at middle management levels are expected to exhibit fair and effective management skills by implementing shared visions, goals, and strategies within their departments and schools This emphasizes the critical role of middle leaders in fostering organizational coherence and academic excellence in HEIs.
Hughey (2006) assert that academic leaders have the mediating role as they are put between the interests of their faculty members and the administration at school
Academic leadership is shifting from traditional transactional approaches to transformative and collaborative styles that foster mutual trust, respect, and an effective reward system (Blackmore, 2007) Empirical research by Asgari et al (2019) highlights the mediating role of leadership behaviors and styles between perceived organizational support and job satisfaction, emphasizing the importance of transformational leadership Today’s academic environment requires leaders to move away from passive, status quo-maintaining transactional leadership towards transformational approaches that build emotional connections with followers, promoting their self-fulfillment and career development (Asgari et al., 2019).
Leadership is deeply intertwined with cultural contexts and social dimensions, including social justice considerations that recognize categories like gender, race, class, and religion (Wilkinson & Bristol, 2017) Within educational settings, gender differences in school leadership often create inherent dilemmas for leaders, as women are frequently judged against male norms related to traits such as assertiveness and decisiveness (Buckles, 2019; Carvalho & Diogo, 2018) University environments often reflect "communities of practice of masculinities," where gender-neutral policies may fail or unintentionally become gender-blind, exacerbating inequalities (Burkinshaw, 2015; Buckles, 2019) To foster more inclusive academic leadership at Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), it is essential to examine systemic gender disparities and understand women’s experiences, which enriches strategies for promoting gender equity in higher education leadership.
From a human resource management perspective, universities embrace a universal goal of creating human capital for the stakeholders and the economic institutions (Tran et al., 2020)
Universities face significant structural challenges related to gender disparities in managing human resources Women academics often experience hurdles in research productivity, balancing diverse work duties, and attaining leadership roles Addressing these issues is crucial for fostering an equitable academic environment and enhancing overall university performance.
Obers (2015) highlights a potential link between the underrepresentation of women in academic leadership and their lower research productivity, emphasizing that academic success relies on social networks and resources such as mentorship, access to information, sponsorship, balanced teaching duties, and international conference participation Women often take longer to establish academic reputations due to societal inequalities that hinder their progress (Muberekwa & Nkomo, 2016) Additionally, women face greater challenges on the tenure track, partly because of higher affiliation needs, which can impede their career advancement compared to their male counterparts (Fritz).
In the current higher education climate, heads of departments serve as academic leaders, role models, and mentors, significantly influencing women academics and their research productivity (Van Knippenberg, 2017; Hart, 2008; Cheung & Halpern, 2010a; Obers, 2015).
There is a common consensus that the marginalization of women's leadership in education is due to male epistemology hegemony (Killingsworth et al., 2010; Morley, 2014)
Killingsworth et al (2010) describe the concept as a "male way of understanding leadership" that marginalizes women's experiences, highlighting gender bias in leadership perceptions Morley (2014) emphasizes that global academia is predominantly male-led, which perpetuates male-dominated leadership structures Additionally, women play a crucial role in envisioning strategies to promote greater inclusion and diversity within systems of knowledge production.
In a similar vein, Burkinshaw (2015) refers to leadership in higher education as
The "communities of practice of masculinities" highlight the systemic underrepresentation of women leaders across various fields Baker (2016) explores the persistent gender gap among university academics in liberal welfare countries like Canada and New Zealand, despite the implementation of equity policies and family-friendly initiatives This ongoing disparity is rooted in deeply ingrained social gender dynamics and is perpetuated by a widespread silence and lack of awareness surrounding the issue.
Morley (2014) emphasizes that gender is an evolving social construct shaped by socio-political and organizational practices, with its meaning varying across different contexts Despite widespread acknowledgment of gender imbalance among senior university academics, progress toward gender equality remains slow, as noted by Airini et al (2011), who highlight work and non-work barriers such as invisible rules and personal circumstances that hinder female leadership development In Hong Kong, women academics face a "foot in two cultures" dilemma—closer social ties to China but academic environments similar to the West—illustrating the disconnect between institutional commitments to gender equality and actual practices (Aiston, 2014) Furthermore, studies reveal that university department chairs often believe gender equality is not an issue (Aiston et al., 2020), a lack of awareness that perpetuates subtle discriminatory behaviors known as "micro-inequities," which are covert and difficult to detect (Aiston & Fo, 2020).
Gender mainstreaming in academic leadership
This section emphasizes the importance of the "self," or female individual, within the context of gender culture and gendered organizations A comprehensive literature review highlights the significance of gender mainstreaming, gendered organizational practices, and women’s empowerment These factors collectively underscore the critical need to prioritize women’s representation and support in academic settings, fostering gender equality and inclusive growth.
According to Zalewski (2010), gender mainstreaming is essential for a comprehensive transformation of institutional and government practices aimed at promoting gender equality Implementing gender mainstreaming strategies ensures that gender considerations are integrated into policies and processes, creating a broad societal impact This approach highlights the importance of embedding gender equality into all levels of decision-making to achieve sustainable social change.
“gender-awareness” to build on the insight of gender ontology (Eveline & Bacchi, 2005)
Gender mainstreaming involves ensuring gender-equal representation and applying a gender perspective at all stages of policy development and implementation across sectors, including education (IEGE 4) In the education sector, this encompasses policies and practices of governments, schools, colleges, NGOs, and the private sector (Leo-Rhynie, 1999) The term emphasizes "doing gender," highlighting a proactive process of fostering gender awareness and transformation within academic institutions (Eveline & Bacchi, 2005) While the distinction between gender equality and gender mainstreaming may be complex for busy campus leaders, they must understand these concepts to support gender mainstreaming initiatives effectively (Yang, 2016) Specifically, in higher education, gender mainstreaming advances gender equality through collaboration among senior leaders, mid-level administrators, and front-line staff.
4 Definition by the European Institute for Gender Equality (https://eige.europa.eu/gender- mainstreaming/what-is-gender-mainstreaming)
Women’s empowerment, as described by Hur (2010), occurs across sociological, psychological, economic, and political dimensions at individual, group, and community levels It involves women redefining their gender roles to expand their possibilities, enabling them to express their true selves within their social environment (Mosedale, 2005; Muberekwa & Nkomo, 2016) Empowerment is also viewed as a political process that helps women exercise power collectively to achieve gender equality (Staudt, 2003) While gender mainstreaming and women’s empowerment are related, they are not synonymous; gender mainstreaming is an organizational concept aimed at creating neutral and inclusive structures, whereas women’s empowerment focuses on addressing individual needs, achievements, and social progress.
Research by Parpart et al (2003) highlights that empowerment begins with developing individual power—both emotional and material—which serves as the foundation for collective political action through women’s organizations This collective power enables women to advocate for fundamental change not only for themselves but also for their peers Kabeer (2005) conceptualizes empowerment via three interconnected dimensions: agency (the "power to"), resources, and achievements, emphasizing that true empowerment involves enhanced capacity to make choices, access necessary resources, and attain meaningful outcomes.
“the medium through which agency is exercised In Kabeer’s words, the indicators of
Resources such as education, employment, and political participation are crucial components of women’s empowerment The synergy of individual agency and these resources leads to significant achievements and positive outcomes resulting from women’s efforts (Kabeer, 2005) This comprehensive approach indicates that women’s empowerment practices can effectively contribute to gender mainstreaming initiatives, fostering equality and inclusive development.
Gender mainstreaming and women’s empowerment both originate from Moser’s (1993) definitions related to gender needs, with gender planning being closely aligned to the concept of gender mainstreaming, aimed at achieving gender equity in developing societies Moser (1993) also noted that women’s empowerment emerged as a response to dissatisfaction with the original Women in Development (WID) approach, emphasizing self-empowerment to enhance women’s self-reliance and internal strength Both approaches recognize the importance of practical (short-term) and strategic (long-term) strategies to address gender disparities, working towards the liberation of gender practices and discourses.
2.3.2 Contextualizing the women’s empowerment approach
Chung and Halpern’s (2010) model of step-by-step leadership development integrates work and family roles to highlight the importance of gender mainstreaming and women’s empowerment in pancultural women’s leadership This model features three key stages—parental encouragement, self-efficacy and motivation, and organizational and family support—that facilitate leadership growth, aligning with Kabeer’s (2005) and Parpart et al.’s (2003) concepts of “resource” and “power with.” While organizational policies and practices from higher education institutions play a role, it is ultimately women who generate the personal power necessary to navigate challenges, advance their careers, and craft their own success stories.
Step-by-step Model of Leadership Development
Note From Chung and Halpern (2010, p 191)
Previous research has emphasized the importance of examining institutions and organizations through a gendered lens (Acker, 1990; Burkinshaw, 2015; Wharton, 2012) Acker (1990) defines a gendered organization as one marked by distinctions between male and female that influence advantage, disadvantage, exploitation, control, action, emotion, meaning, and identity She introduces the concept of “gendering,” which occurs through five interconnected processes: divisions, symbol construction, interactions between men and women, individual identity, and organizational logic Burkinshaw (2015) expands on Acker’s framework by addressing the gender-neutral myth in higher education, proposing the idea of “higher education leadership communities of practices of masculinities.” Her research highlights how leadership in education involves exchanging masculinities, with leaders adopting or being subjected to femininities, which are often perceived as “other” in relation to dominant masculinities through processes of comparison and subordination.
12) In other words, whether the leaders in a “gendered” higher education institution are male or female, the leadership that they perceive aligns with the masculine leadership traits
Wharton (2012) highlights that work relations are imbued with gendered meanings, functioning as self-perpetuating institutions with established boundaries, rules, procedures, and communication channels, often unconsciously reproducing gender inequalities This underscores the importance of examining social interactions within organizations to understand how gender dynamics persist Fritz and van Knippenberg (2017) emphasize that aspiration plays a key role in career advancement, noting that the psychological connection between individuals and their organizations can actually enhance female leadership aspirations, especially given women’s typically stronger communal orientation Consequently, research often focuses on root issues related to women, recognizing that organizational identification significantly influences their career ambitions.
Organizational identification and logic are closely linked to micro-politics within organizations, an underworld involving influence, networks, coalitions, rumors, gossip, sarcasm, and the denial of personal strategies to support or resist change (Morley, 1999) Micro-politics reveal contradictions and micro-inequities in academic institutions, highlighting the importance of context-specific indicators for gender mainstreaming and women’s empowerment (Aiston & Fo, 2020; Santillán et al., 2004) These dynamics challenge the assumed gender-neutrality of bureaucracy and recruitment processes, particularly in higher education institutions (O’Connor et al., 2020), where gender bias often manifests through informal power practices.
Rethinking the concept of critical mass is essential, especially for Vietnamese higher education institutions (HEIs), where aiming for a critical threshold can inadvertently create barriers that hinder progress Achieving critical mass alone is insufficient; without a key actor recognizing gender issues, meaningful change remains difficult (Burkinshaw, 2015) However, contrary to some assumptions, studies show that a critical mass of women can foster more collaborative, supportive, and collegial leadership cultures within institutions Burkinshaw (2015) emphasizes that there is no universal truth in leadership and gender research, highlighting the importance of contextual understanding Ultimately, women’s empowerment must be approached within specific social and institutional contexts, recognizing women not as passive or homogenous but as agentic individuals with proactive roles in driving gender mainstreaming efforts.
Reflections on previous literature
Previous research consistently reveals a persistent systemic gender inequality faced by female academic leaders in higher education Future studies should focus on identifying context-specific discrepancies, evaluating the effectiveness of gender mainstreaming strategies, and pinpointing key factors that either hinder or promote progress toward gender equality in academic leadership.
Previous studies in Vietnam highlight key barriers women face in their careers, such as work-life imbalance, networking challenges, and lack of self-confidence These research findings underscore the importance of implementing quotas to increase women's representation in decision-making positions Addressing these obstacles is vital for promoting gender equality and empowering women in leadership roles across Vietnam.
Nguyen, 2011; Nguyen, 2013; Tran & Nguyen, 2015; Tran & Nguyen, 2020) However, a
A “critical mass” of women alone does not ensure a fair and equitable environment for all individuals Instead, having a critical actor or leader may be more influential, though this approach presents its own challenges Universities function as microcosms of political culture and are also gendered organizations, influenced by gendered power dynamics (Tran, 2018; Acker, 1990; Burkinshaw, 2015) The specific environment, working relationships, invisible rules, and personal circumstances vary across universities and cultures, highlighting the need for further research into the contextual limits, theoretical frameworks, and methodological approaches to understanding gender equity in higher education (Airini et al., 2011; Cheung & Halpern, 2010).
Several studies in Vietnam have focused on female leadership, emphasizing the importance of understanding the country's unique social context (Dang, 2017; Tran & Nguyen, 2015; Vu, 2019) Vu (2019) developed a comprehensive theoretical framework for female leadership across various sectors, highlighting opportunities and challenges faced by women Dang (2017) examined the experiences of female academics in middle-level leadership positions, using insights from Cheung and Halpern to analyze these women's perspectives within Vietnam's social environment.
The 2010 model provides a foundational framework for understanding academic leadership A large-scale survey by Tran and Nguyen (2015) highlighted indicators of the progress of female intellectuals in Vietnam’s northern provinces Despite comprehensive research methodologies in these studies, there is a gap concerning the exploration of university leaders' intellectual dimensions, such as their leadership activities and intellectual aspirations, which are often not translated into measurable factors Additionally, the interaction between teaching, research across disciplines, and leadership responsibilities within Vietnamese universities remains underexplored, indicating a need for more focused investigation into these interconnected aspects of academic leadership.
Apart from the study of Dang (2017), most other research studies on gender equality in higher education in Vietnam are contextualized in the northern part of the country Dang
This study is contextualized within the southern, urban Mekong Delta area, addressing a gap in previous research that often overlooked this region By incorporating Parpart et al.’s (2003) framework on global forces mediating gender relations, the research examines the gender mainstreaming process at a public, research-oriented university in Vietnam’s largest southern city Focusing on this specific urban context, where women are often assumed to have achieved gender equality in both public and private spheres, offers a nuanced understanding of gender dynamics in academia The revised geographic focus and theoretical approach aim to deepen insights into gender mainstreaming and women’s experiences within Vietnamese higher education.
Previous research tends to focus on identifying barriers, cultural norms, and stereotypes in women’s career development and challenges in implementing gender practices According to Airini et al (2011), shifting the narrative from highlighting women’s disadvantages to sharing success stories benefits both individuals and organizations Global changes in higher education have introduced neoliberal ideologies that significantly influence women academics' career progression (Obers, 2015) In the socialist gender regime of Vietnam, exploring academic leadership through stories of success and difficulty offers valuable insights into emerging challenges and lessons learned Instead of solely investigating disadvantaged cases, it is crucial to research progressive examples to understand how gender mainstreaming can be contextualized and deepened through individual and institutional perspectives.