A ims a nd re s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s
The study aimed to examine the relationship between students' English Language Proficiency (ELP) and their learner autonomy To achieve this goal, the research focused on answering specific questions regarding how ELP levels influence students' ability to independently manage their learning processes The findings indicate a significant correlation between higher ELP and increased learner autonomy, suggesting that enhancing English proficiency can positively impact students’ self-directed learning skills This study underscores the importance of integrating language proficiency development into strategies that promote learner independence, ultimately improving educational outcomes.
1 H o w au to n o m o u s are the stu d en ts at IIS?
2 W h a t is the E L P level o f the IIS students?
3 W h at is the relatio n sh ip betw een the stu d e n ts’ E L P and th eir learn er auto n o m y ?
S cop e of t h e s t u d y
This study focuses on students' English Language Proficiency (ELP) at IIS, examining how their proficiency levels influence their learning experiences It also investigates the degree of learner autonomy among students and explores the relationship between their ELP and learner autonomy Understanding these connections can provide insights into how language proficiency impacts students' ability to independently manage their learning process, which is essential for developing effective language instruction strategies.
S ignificance of t h e s t u d y
EFL students at IIS face significant challenges in their field of study, primarily due to their limited English proficiency This language barrier hampers their academic performance and communication skills, affecting their overall learning experience Addressing these issues is crucial to improving their educational outcomes and ensuring they can successfully engage with the curriculum and academic materials.
Effective communication and handling of English after graduation remain essential skills for students Despite graduating, IIS students often lack sufficient proficiency in language use and components expected at this stage In modern second and foreign language teaching, fostering student autonomy in learning has become a key focus, emphasizing the importance of equipping learners with the skills to become more independent.
Research since 2007 emphasizes the importance of learner autonomy in language learning, supported by numerous justifications for its promotion (Finch, 2002) The development of autonomy inherently leads to improved language acquisition, forming a core hypothesis in the field with significant implications (Benson, 2001:183) According to the Principles and Guidelines of the ELP (European Language Portfolio) established by the Council of Europe (2000/2004), the ELP functions as a tool to foster learner autonomy Therefore, exploring the relationship between students' ELP usage and their autonomy is crucial for enhancing language learning outcomes.
The researcher aims to determine the levels of English Language Proficiency (ELP) and learner autonomy among IIS students, understanding how these factors relate to each other Identifying this information will help improve English teaching and learning processes at IIS Ultimately, the findings aim to enhance students’ ELP and promote their learner autonomy, contributing to more effective language education.
O rgan iz at io n o f th e t h e s i s
T his th esis is d iv id ed into five chapters.
C h a p te r 1, ‘In tro d u c tio n ’, deals w ith the ratio n ale, specific pu rp o ses, aim s, research q u e stio n s, scope, sig n ifican ce and o rg an iz atio n o f the study.
C h a p te r 2, ‘L iteratu re re v ie w ’, rev iew s the literatu re rele v an t to learner au to n o m y ,
L an g u ag e p ro fic ie n c y (L P ) in general and E n g lish language pro ficien cy (E L P ) in particu lar, cla ssifica tio n system s o f LP and E L P It also su m m arizes som e studies on lea rn er a u to n o m y th at h av e been c o n d u c te d so far T he resu lts o f prev io u s stu d ies into facto rs a ffe c tin g learn er au tonom y, and the effect o f learner au to n o m y on successful learn in g are also en c lo se d in this chapter.
Chapter 3, "Methodology," details the research methodology, including information about participants, sample selection, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques, ensuring a comprehensive overview of the study's scientific approach.
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Chapter 4, titled "Results and Discussion," presents the key findings derived from data collection and analysis, supported by SPSs version 16.0 This section compares current results with previous studies to contextualize the findings and highlight advancements or differences observed.
Chapter 5, "Implications and Conclusion," summarizes the key findings of the study and discusses their practical significance It highlights the implications for future research and real-world applications while acknowledging the limitations of the current study The chapter offers valuable suggestions for further investigation to enhance understanding and address existing gaps, providing a comprehensive conclusion to the research.
Following Chapter 5, the references include books and materials directly or indirectly cited in the study, ensuring proper academic attribution The appendices cover surface and deeper levels of language proficiency, providing comprehensive insights into students' language skills Additionally, the appendices detail levels of English proficiency and corresponding student actions, offering valuable context for understanding language development stages.
L evels o f E n g lish L a n g u a g e, D esc rip tio n s o f S even L evels o f E n g lish L an g u ag e
This article outlines the proficiency standards based on Wisconsin Administrative Rules and English proficiency level descriptions adapted from guidelines issued by the North Carolina Department of Education It includes details on the questionnaire in both English and Vietnamese versions, as well as the TOEFL test and converted TOEFL scores Additionally, the article covers interview questions and the coding scheme used for the questionnaire, providing a comprehensive overview of assessment methods for evaluating English language proficiency.
S tu d e n ts' T O E F L S co res w ill be fo llo w ed the referen ce section.
This literature review examines key definitions of learner autonomy, factors influencing it, and the role of language proficiency, particularly English language proficiency (ELP) It summarizes relevant studies on learner autonomy and language proficiency, providing a foundation for investigating the relationship between students' language skills and their autonomy The findings discussed here establish the basis for further exploration of how language proficiency impacts learner autonomy, which is elaborated in the subsequent chapter.
LEARNER AUTONOMY
D efinition o f learner autonom y
The term "learner autonomy" was first coined in 1981 by Henri Holec, known as the father of learner autonomy Since then, various definitions have emerged, reflecting different perspectives based on the writer, context, and level of debate Learner autonomy has been interpreted as a personal human trait, a political measure, or an educational movement, highlighting its multifaceted nature in language learning and education.
T h is is because a u to n o m y is seen either (o r both) as a m ean s or as an end in ed ucation
T h e co n cep t o f auto n o m y em erg ed from the ch an g in g so cio -p o litical lan d sc a p e o f the
The 1970s marked a period of increased social awareness, emphasizing respect for the individual in society (Holec, 1979) While learner autonomy is widely regarded as an important and worthwhile goal, defining what learner autonomy entails can be challenging due to differing perspectives and interpretations.
The article discusses various perspectives on the implications of language education, emphasizing the importance of diverse approaches It highlights that different viewpoints contribute to a comprehensive understanding of effective language teaching strategies Additionally, the significance of integrating multiple methods to enhance language learning outcomes is underscored, reflecting ongoing debates among educators and researchers.
For a d efin itio n o f au tonom y, D im itrios T h a n a so u la s quotes H olec (1981: 3, cited in
Benson and Voller (1997) define "taking charge of one's learning" as a vital skill that is not innate but acquired through natural methods or formal, deliberate education This ability involves taking full responsibility for all decisions related to learning, including setting objectives, defining content and progressions, selecting methods and techniques, monitoring acquisition processes, and evaluating outcomes Developing this skill empowers learners to manage their educational journey effectively and independently.
Little (1991:4) describes autonomy as a capacity for “detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action,” emphasizing the importance of developing awareness about one’s learning process Autonomy is not a fixed trait but a skill that grows with practice or diminishes without activity, requiring learners to understand and take responsibility for their learning An autonomous learner actively participates in setting goals, planning, executing learning activities, and regularly reviewing their progress, meaning they critically reflect and take charge of their education According to Little, autonomous learners generate ideas, seek opportunities, and are proactive agents in their learning process, rather than passively reacting to external stimuli Learner autonomy involves a dynamic process cultivated through educational experiences, where the learner influences their learning environment without relinquishing the teacher’s role in guiding the process.
Autonomy is defined by Littlewood (1996: 97) as learners' ability and willingness to make independent choices This ability relies on possessing knowledge of available alternatives and the necessary skills to implement the chosen option Willingness to exercise autonomy is driven by motivation and confidence in taking responsibility for decision-making, reflecting both the psychological and practical aspects of independent learning.
Wenden (1991:15) defines autonomous learners as individuals who have acquired effective learning strategies, understand the process of learning, and possess the attitudes necessary to apply these skills and knowledge confidently, flexibly, appropriately, and independently, without reliance on a teacher.
Benson (1997) argues that autonomy should be understood from multiple perspectives, including technical, psychological, socio-cultural, and political-critical viewpoints He emphasizes that autonomy is a multi-dimensional construct of capacity that manifests in different forms depending on the individual and the context According to Benson (2001), autonomy varies for different individuals and even for the same person across different situations or times, highlighting its dynamic and context-dependent nature This comprehensive view underscores the importance of considering diverse dimensions when analyzing autonomy.
Benson and Voller (1997) identify five key ways learner autonomy is utilized in language education, including situations where learners study entirely independently and for skills that can be learned and applied through self-directed learning They also emphasize that learner autonomy relates to an innate capacity often suppressed by traditional institutional education, the exercise of learners' responsibility for their own learning, and learners' right to determine the direction of their educational journey Incorporating these aspects of learner autonomy enhances personalized and effective language learning experiences.
Learner autonomy is fundamentally about learners taking responsibility for their own learning and enjoying the freedom of choice However, this freedom is always conditional and constrained, reflecting that autonomous learners are interdependent, which indicates a continuum of degrees in learner autonomy The extent of learner autonomy depends on various factors such as the learners' ability to assume responsibility, personal constructs, teacher support, peer support, and the availability and flexibility of the learning environment.
M c D e v itt, 1997) T h ese factors, indeed, h av e co n tin u a in them selves F o r ex am p le,
H iggs (1988:42) agrees that “ som e learn ers are m ore ready for in d ep en d en t learn in g th an others".
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Autonomy in learning does not mean learning in isolation or without a teacher or external guidance, nor does it refer to specific skills, behaviors, or teaching methods It is characterized by a learner's readiness and capacity to take charge of their own learning to meet their individual needs and goals Autonomy involves developing the abilities and attitudes necessary for self-directed learning, which can be cultivated to varying degrees depending on the individual.
According to Thanassoulas (2000), the relevant literature is filled with numerous definitions of autonomy and related terms, such as 'independence' (Sheerin), highlighting the complexity and lack of a single, universally accepted explanation for autonomy.
1991), 'lan g u a g e a w a re n e ss' (L ier, 1996), 'self-direction' (C andy, 1991), 'andragogy' (K now les, 1980; 1983) e tc , w h ic h testifie s to the im portance attached to it by scholars
M any p rac titio n e rs v ie w th e c o n stru c t o f lea rn er autonom y as b ein g sy n o n y m o u s w ith self-access and e sp e c ia lly w ith tec h n o lo g y -b a se d learning E ven n o w a d a y s au to n o m y is o ften a sso c ia te d w ith le a rn in g in iso latio n , o u tsid e the classro o m and w 'ithout a teacher
Effective self-directed learning requires guidance because the ability to take responsibility for one’s own learning is not innate but must be developed through proper training and support.
Autonomy and autonomous learning are not synonyms for self-instruction, self-access, self-study, out-of-class learning, or distance learning These terms describe different methods and levels of self-directed learning, where autonomy specifically refers to the abilities and attitudes that enable an individual to control their own learning process Learning in isolation does not equate to having the capacity to direct one's own learning; autonomous learners may excel at learning independently, but they are not required to learn entirely on their own Importantly, these concepts are interconnected and can coexist, as working in isolation can contribute to developing autonomy in learning.
A s m en tio n e d a b o v e , th e re h a v e b een m an y differen t d efin itio n s o f lea rn er autonom y
Factors a ffectin g learner a utonom y
This study aims to investigate the link between learners' autonomy and ELP, emphasizing critical factors such as motivation, learner’s metacognitive knowledge, teacher roles, and socio-cultural influences While previous research highlights various influences like learners’ ages, experiences, confidence, societal and educational backgrounds, interests, and beliefs, this section focuses on the most significant aspects impacting learner autonomy Understanding these key factors is essential for enhancing language learning experiences and fostering effective learner autonomy development.
M o tiv atio n is p ro b a b ly the m ost im p o rta n t c h a ra c te ristic th at stu d e n ts b rin g to a learning task C o rd e r (1967) said, "given m o tiv atio n , an y o n e can learn a lan g u ag e" T he p hrase b rin g s o u t the im portance o f m o tiv atio n a n d th e w a y it c an o v e rc o m e
Motivating language learners is crucial, as approximately 99% of teaching success depends on making students interested in the material (Chomsky, 1998) However, the relationship between motivation and autonomy in language learning remains controversial, with debates focusing on whether autonomy directly enhances motivation or if motivation leads to greater autonomy.
Autonomous learners tend to become more highly motivated and work more effectively, according to Dickinson (1995) Similarly, Mary Spratt and colleagues found that motivation may lead to autonomy or serve as a precondition for it, based on their survey of relevant literature and large-scale research with Hong Kong secondary students This relationship is significant for language learners' training, as understanding whether motivation drives autonomy or vice versa helps teachers set appropriate teaching priorities.
Based on Gardner and Lambert's foundational work in 1972, subsequent SLA researchers, including Gardner in 1985, further developed the classification of motivation in language learning It is widely accepted that language learning motivation can be categorized into extrinsic and intrinsic types Extrinsic motivation arises from the desire to earn rewards or avoid punishments, focusing on external outcomes rather than the learning activity itself In contrast, intrinsic motivation is characterized by viewing the learning experience as its own reward, where students’ natural curiosity and interest energize their engagement in language learning.
Research indicates that, while extrinsic motivation can be beneficial, learning is most effectively influenced by intrinsic motivation, especially for long-term retention Motivation is a central mediator in predicting language achievement, emphasizing the importance of fostering internal drives to ensure sustained learning success.
W ith the reference to the teach er role, L ittle (1995), T o rt-M o lo n e y (1997), M cG rath
(2000), and S m ith (2000) also pro v id ed e v id e n c e that te a c h e rs w ho th e m se lv e s w ere not a u to n o m o u s language teach ers m ay h av e a neg ativ e in flu e n c e on th e d ev e lo p m en t o f autonom y in th eir students L ittle (1995) p o in ts out th at le a rn e r au to n o m y d epends on teach er autonom y T o h elp E FL learn ers d e v e lo p a u to n o m y , te a c h e rs h ave to relin q u ish som e o f th eir control o v er learners, learn new skills to tak e on th eir n e w roles as counselor, assesso r, ev aluator, m aterial d e v e lo p e r, m an a g e r, a d m in istra to r and o rg an izer (G ardner & M iller, 1999), in a w ord, b e in g fac ilita to rs o f au to n o m o u s learning
E rd o g a n 's (2003) study into student a u to n o m y at a T u rk ish se co n d a ry school co n clu d ed
Eleven factors influence the development of learner autonomy, primarily because teachers themselves were trained within the same education system and are therefore unable to change their habitual teaching practices (reviewed in Sert, 2006) According to Stilller and Ryan (1992), and Clemente, these entrenched habits limit teachers' ability to foster independent learning among students.
Research from 2001 suggests that teachers' support and involvement in promoting student autonomy, along with parental encouragement of independence, directly enhance students' assimilation into the classroom environment and improve academic outcomes Similarly, Sheerin (1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997, p 63) emphasizes the importance of fostering autonomy through collaborative support, underscoring its positive impact on student engagement and success.
" T e a c h e rs h a v e a cru c ial role to p lay in launching learners into se lf-a c c ess and in lending them a re g u la r h e lp in g h an d to stay afloat" Thus, a u to n o m o u s lea rn in g is by no m eans tea c h e rle ss lea rn in g and th e tea c h e r's role is to create and m a in ta in a learning en v iro n m en t in w h ic h lea rn ers can be a u to n o m o u s in o rd er to b e c o m e m ore au to nom ous A d d itio n a lly , in the rese a rc h o n b u ilding lan g u ag e lea rn in g e n v iro n m en ts to help te c h n o lo g y u n iv ersity stu d e n ts d e v e lo p E nglish in d ep e n d e n t learning, H su
In 2005, the importance of teachers was emphasized Learner autonomy and independence do not diminish the teacher's role; instead, teachers play a crucial role in creating environments that motivate learners to take responsibility for their learning, develop good learning habits, and become independent learners.
F urth erm o re, le a rn e rs ’ m e ta c o g n itiv e k n o w le d g e is also an im p o rta n t fac to r im p actin g learn er au to n o m y T h e term in e ta c o g n itio n as used by F lavell (1979; 1987) refers to an in d iv id u a l's a w a ren e ss o f his o r h e r c o g n itiv e p ro cesses and strateg ies In atte m p tin g to u n d erstand h o w in d iv id u a ls learn , he su g g ested th at an in d iv id u a l's u n d e rsta n d in g o f his or h er th in k in g is ju s t as im p o rta n t to lea rn in g as the in fo rm a tio n th a t is learned
A cco rd in g to F la v ell, a lea rn er d e v e lo p s m eta co g n itiv e a w aren ess w h e n he or she is aw'are o f o n e ’s k n o w le d g e b u t also o f w h a t one does not know : no tin g th at o ne type o f p ro b lem is h a rd e r to lea rn th a n a n o th e r, rea lisin g that a p iece o f in fo rm a tio n m u st be ch ecked befo re it c a n be a c ce p ted as fact, a n d b ein g open to c o n fu sio n a n d u n certain ty w hile so lv in g p ro b lem s H e says, “ M e ta c o g n itio n refers, am o n g o th er th in g s, to the active m o n ito rin g and c o n s e q u e n t re g u la tio n and orch estratio n o f p ro c e sse s in relatio n to the c o g n itiv e o b je c ts or d a ta on w'hich th ey bear, u su ally in th e service o f som e concrete goal or o b je c tiv e ” (1976: 231) M o reo v er, acco rd in g to H acker, D u n lo sk y and
Grasser (1998) describes metacognitive awareness as a three-part process involving (1) thinking about what one knows, known as metacognitive knowledge, (2) reflecting on what one is currently doing, referred to as metacognitive skill, and (3) evaluating one's present cognitive or affective state to enhance self-awareness and learning strategies.
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(m etaco g n itiv e e x p e rie n c e ) W h at is im p o rtan t that w ere d iscu ssed ab o v e is that all the beliefs and p e rc e p tio n s are related to learn er a u to n o m y in th at they are n eed ed to m ake inform ed d e c isio n s a b o u t o n e 's learning I f it is the aim o f ed u c atio n to let learners take charge o f th eir o w n learn in g , then th ey need to be ab le to p lan , m o n ito r and evalu ate th eir learning A n d in o rd e r to do so, th ey need to be m e ta co g n itiv e ly aw are As
L an g u a g e p r o f i c i e n c y
D efin itio n
Language proficiency remains a challenging concept to define and achieve despite various definitions According to the Wisconsin Literacy, Education, and Reading initiative, understanding what constitutes true language proficiency is complex, highlighting the ongoing difficulty in effectively measuring and developing it.
Network Source (2003) defines language proficiency (LP) as the ability to speak, read, write, and understand a language well enough to thrive in a monolingual society and to compete with native speakers in the classroom However, Briere (1972) emphasizes the complexity of identifying LP parameters and highlights that proficiency can be challenging to quantify He describes proficiency as the degree of competence or ability in a language demonstrated by an individual at a specific point in time, independent of particular textbooks, chapters, or pedagogical methods.
Fahrady (1982) criticizes Brière’s vague definition, emphasizing that such complex descriptions can lead to unclear hypotheses about language proficiency (LP) and LP tests Key terms like “competence,” “ability,” “demonstrated,” and “individual” are ambiguous, as they can refer to various concepts such as linguistic, socio-cultural, or other types of competence “Competence” might denote different skills like recognizing, understanding, or producing language elements, while “ability” could involve recognition, comprehension, or production Demonstration of knowledge can be oral or written, and “individual” may refer to listeners, speakers, or both Clarifying these terms and their characteristics is essential to forming precise, testable hypotheses in second language research.
Proficiency, as defined by Stern (1983), can be viewed as a goal characterized by specific objectives or standards, which serve as criteria to evaluate actual performance of individual or group learners It involves mastery of various aspects including the forms, the linguistic, cognitive, affective, and socio-cultural meanings associated with those forms, and the ability to use the language primarily for communication with minimal focus on accuracy Additionally, proficiency encompasses creativity in language use, with Stern noting that proficiency ranges from zero to native-like levels; however, complete competence is rarely achieved by second language learners, especially considering their prior knowledge of their first language.
L ater, the term “p ro fic ie n c y ” can be in terpreted in its trad itio n al sense as m entioned by
According to Bachman (1990: 16), language competence refers broadly to knowledge, ability, or skill in using a language, regardless of how, where, or under what conditions it was acquired Similarly, Clark (1972) defines language proficiency (LP) as the language learner's capacity to use language for real-life purposes without considering the manner in which that competence was acquired This perspective emphasizes functional use over the process of acquisition, highlighting practical language application as a key element of proficiency.
Language in real-life situations encompasses complex usages beyond traditional definitions, emphasizing practical communication Understanding this concept involves recognizing the diverse and nuanced ways language functions in everyday interactions This broader perspective highlights language's role in effectively conveying meaning in authentic contexts, making it essential for effective communication skills Optimized for SEO, mastering real-life language use enhances conversational fluency and cultural competence.
F u rth e rm o re , in the area o f language tea c h in g m eth o d o lo g y , the p red o m in an t em p h asis until rec e n tly has b e e n o n the teach in g o f gram m ar T he im plicit co n cep tio n o f LP, as it has b een o p e ra tio n a liz e d in second lan g u ag e classro o m , has en tailed v iew in g p ro fic ie n c y as little m ore th an g ram m ar and lexis T he recent m o v em en t tow ard c o m m u n ic a tiv e language teach in g has b e e n asso ciated w ith a b roader v iew o f language that in clu d e s not ju s t its g ram m atical asp ects, bu t also the ab ility to use language a p p ro p riate ly in d iffe re n t contexts and the ab ility to org an ize o n e ’s th o u g h ts th ro u g h language T h at is to say, the recent e m p h a sis on c o m m u n ic a tio n in language teach in g is ex p ressed in attem p ts to develop stu d e n ts ’ so cio lin g u istic and d isco u rse com p eten cies in a d d itio n to th eir gram m atical co m p eten ce In short, the co n cep tio n o f w hat it m eans to be p ro fic ie n t in a lan g u ag e has e x p an d ed significantly.
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According to Canale & Swain (1980), LP (Language Proficiency) indicates a person's general communicative competence in the target language environment This proficiency can be broken down into multiple components, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills, from both curricular and functional perspectives From a theoretical standpoint, Bachman and Palmer (1996) proposed a two-tier hierarchical structure of LP, emphasizing the complexity of language proficiency in real-world communication.
Organizational knowledge forms the first tier, divided into grammatical and textual knowledge, serving as the foundation for effective communication Pragmatic knowledge, the second tier, encompasses lexical, functional, and sociolinguistic competences, ensuring language proficiency This structure emphasizes that a proficient speaker should not only demonstrate structural knowledge but also effectively implement it in real-life situations for meaningful communication.
Oiler (1983) explains that LP is not a single unitary ability but comprises multiple distinct yet related constructs, emphasizing its multifaceted nature.
LP In a g reem en t w ith O iler, F a rh ad y , et al (1 9 8 3 ) state th at th e term 'p ro fic ie n c y 1 refers to the e x a m in e e 's a b ility in a p a rtic u la r are a o f c o m p e te n c y in o rd e r to d e te rm in e the ex ten t to w h ich they c an fu n ctio n in a real lan g u a g e use situ a tio n H e also said that
LP is one o f the m ost p o o rly d e fin e d c o n c e p ts in th e field o f lan g u a g e testing
O b v io u sly , F a rh a d y 's d e fin itio n is ev e n m o re sp ecific th an oth ers In this study,
F a rh a d y ’s d efin itio n o f L P is used b e c au se it is m ore concrete and e a sie r to u n d erstan d th an the oth ers m en tio n e d above.
Despite differing theoretical views on its definition, most scholars agree that language proficiency (LP) primarily focuses on a learner's ability to use language effectively in real-life situations The focus of proficiency tests is on assessing students' practical language use and communicative skills To gain a comprehensive understanding of LP, it is essential to consider classifications of LP and English Language Proficiency (ELP), which will be discussed in the upcoming section of this chapter.
C lassification
P ro fic ie n c y c la ssifica tio n has p lay e d a vital ro le in se co n d lan g u a g e te stin g b e cau se d e te rm in in g w h e th e r or n o t e x a m in e e s are p ro fic ie n t is o n e o f the m o st im p o rtan t fu nctions o f testin g It is o n e o f th e m a jo r, i f no t the o n ly, re a so n s m an y lan g u ag e learners tak e lan g u ag e tests M o st la rg e -sc a le s ta n d a rd iz e d te sts o f E n g lish as a second language, such as the T e st o f E n g lish as a F o re ig n L a n g u a g e (T O E F L ), th e In te rn atio n a l
E nglish L an g u ag e T e stin g S erv ic e (IE L T S ), and th e M ic h ig a n E n g lish L an g u ag e
Assessment Battery (MELAB) helps classify examinees' language proficiency to a certain extent Universities and colleges often use test scores to distinguish between master’s and non-master’s applicants, underscoring the importance of proficiency classification The growing reliance on test results for licensure, certification, and personnel selection highlights the value of accurate language assessment However, proficiency classification methods vary among educators and institutions across different states and countries, resulting in diverse criteria for evaluating LP and English proficiency levels.
A c c o rd in g to C u m m in s (1980), there are tw o levels o f LP: the basic interpersonal c o m m u n ic a tiv e sk ills (B IC S ) and the c o g n itiv e academ ic language p ro ficien cy (C A L P)
T he B IC S c o n c e p t rep resen ts the language o f natural, inform al con v ersatio n T hey are u sed by stu d e n ts w h e n talk in g about ev ery d ay things in concrete situations, th at is, situ a tio n s in w h ic h the co n tex t pro v id es cues that m ake u n d erstan d in g not to tally d e p e n d en t o n v erbal in teraction alone (C u m m in s, 1980, 1992; S k u tnabb-K angus, 1981)
Cummings (1980) highlights that conversational ability, or "embedded," contextualized language, typically develops between two and five years of exposure to a second language In contrast, CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency) is more deeply developed, less dependent on context, and crucial for success in academic tasks The development of CALP skills generally occurs between five and seven years of second language exposure, emphasizing its importance for academic achievement.
1984) A c c o rd in g to C u m m in s (1980, 1981), K rashen and B iber (1987), R osenthal
CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency) is essential for reading textbooks, engaging in dialogue and debate, and providing written responses to assessments It enables students to learn effectively in context, often relying heavily on oral explanations of abstract or decontextualized ideas While sufficient CALP skills can help students succeed socially, they may still perform poorly in academic areas if their basic language skills are lacking Cummins (1981) argued that all children develop basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) and learn to communicate in their native language, while CALP involves a combination of language proficiency and cognitive processes that determine academic success.
A d d itio n a lly , in a rese a rc h by K enji H akuta, Y uko G oto B u tler and D aria W itt (2000)
EL P is c la ssifie d in to O ral E nglish P ro ficien cy and A cadem ic E nglish P roficiency O ral
English proficiency is assessed through standardized proficiency tests, which provide measurable benchmarks of language skills For example, Table 2.1 illustrates proficiency levels based on a widely used test, such as the IELTS or TOEFL, helping learners and institutions gauge language competence accurately These standardized assessments ensure consistent evaluation of English proficiency across diverse contexts.
Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd 77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77t@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn
P roficiency Test or IPT (p ro ficien cy levels are d esignated as A th ro u g h F, w ith F being considered " F lu e n t” ) O ther co m m o n ly used tests o f oral E nglish p ro ficien cy are the
Language A ssessm ent Scales (L A S) and the Bilingual Syntax M easure (B S M ) O nce students attain m aste ry o f the test, they are classified as fluent E nglish speaking.
T A B L E 2.1 _ IP T P ro ficien cy L evels
Probable IPT level Sample oral language skills at this level
A (non English speaking) Fewer than h alf the skills in level "B"
This lesson focuses on introducing basic personal information, such as name and age, and identifying family members and common school personnel Students learn to describe classroom objects and recognize basic body parts using the present tense of the verb "to be." They also practice naming common pets and using regular plurals Additionally, learners answer simple yes/no questions and follow basic directions involving spatial positions, helping them develop foundational English communication skills.
This lesson focuses on identifying common occupations, clothing, farm animals, and foods, helping students express themselves using the present progressive tense (e.g., he or she is working) Students will practice forming negative sentences and using subject pronouns correctly The activity emphasizes understanding the use of mass nouns, such as "some glue," rather than countable nouns like "a glue." Learners will follow directions related to identifying positions on a page and will repeat simple sentences to reinforce their understanding Additionally, the lesson aims to develop comprehension skills by helping students remember the main facts of a simple story.
Learn to identify different modes of transportation and household items to enhance vocabulary and comprehension Practice naming the days of the week to improve daily communication Describe common weather conditions to develop descriptive language skills Use possessive pronouns correctly to express relationships and ownership Formulate simple future tense questions to discuss upcoming plans confidently Understand and express comparative and quantitative concepts to expand your descriptive abilities Repeat complex sentences to improve fluency and sentence structure Additionally, express creative thoughts in complete sentences to foster imagination and effective communication.
This lesson focused on identifying key content area vocabulary, including recognizing important terminology and understanding their meanings Students learned to use superlatives and past tense forms correctly to enhance their language skills They practiced asking past tense questions to improve comprehension and communication The curriculum emphasized discriminating differences between closely paired words to develop precise language use Additionally, students were guided to describe and organize the main properties of common objects, strengthening their ability to articulate characteristics clearly and coherently Understanding opposites further supported their vocabulary development, making their language skills more robust and nuanced.
Mastering conditional tense verbs will enable you to discuss hypothetical situations and future possibilities effectively Differentiating subtle differences between closely paired words is essential for precise communication Developing skills to comprehend and predict the outcomes of stories allows for better engagement and critical thinking Remembering and retelling the main facts of a story helps strengthen memory and improves storytelling abilities Sharing meaningful personal experiences fosters deeper connections and enhances your communication skills.
The academic English criterion is complex and typically assessed through standardized tests like the SAT-9 or CTBS, which compare students to a national sample of primarily English speakers A common benchmark is around the 36th percentile rank, known as R-FEP, indicating a student no longer requires special language support services Criticism exists on both sides of this criterion Opponents of bilingual education argue that it is meaningless because even native English speakers would not meet the 36th percentile threshold, suggesting its limited validity Meanwhile, advocates for language minority students contend that this standard fails to accurately reflect students' true language abilities.
19 b etter to en" on the side o f caution, and that even the 36th percent is h o lding stu d e n ts to lo w ex p ectations.
A c c o rd in g to Indiana D ep artm en t o f E d u catio n , there are five levels o f ELP T h ey are
Begin your English learning journey at the beginner level, progressing through early intermediate to intermediate stages before advancing to advanced and fluent proficiency Achieving a high level of English proficiency requires consistent practice and study across all stages Refer to Appendix 1 for detailed descriptions of each proficiency level to guide your learning path The Wisconsin Administrative Rule further categorizes language skills, providing a structured framework for assessing and improving your English competencies.
E L P into five levels from 1, E n terin g to 5, B rid g in g as stepping- stones alo n g the p a th w a y to academ ic success EL P c la ssifica tio n s o f 1-5 are co n sid ered L im ited E n g lish
P ro fic ie n t (L E P) S tudents w ith lim ited E n glish pro ficien cy are also called E n g lish
L an g u ag e L earners (E L L ) T here are tw o m ore levels o f E L P classified by the
In Wisconsin Administrative Rule, Level 6 is designated for students previously identified as ELL/LEP who are now fully English proficient Level 7 is intended for students who are fully English proficient and have never been previously identified as ELP 1-5 The definitions of the five limited-English language proficiency levels, along with Level 6, are outlined in PI 13.08(3)(1)-(6) of the Wisconsin Administrative Rule, with Level 7 being the other fully English proficient level.
E n g lish language p ro fic ie n c y level, is used for p u rp o ses o f state rep o rtin g /state testin g , (see A p p e n d ix 2 for the detailed d escrip tio n s o f seven levels o f E L P by W isc o n sin
According to the North Carolina Department of Education, English Learner (ELP) is classified into three main levels: Beginner, Intermediate, and Advanced, each with two smaller levels—low and high ELP is divided into four core domains: Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing Spolsky (1989), in his theory of second language learning, outlines specific conditions that influence the language acquisition process.
LEARNER AUTONOMY AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY
Learner autonomy in language learning is widely recognized as a positive factor that enhances language proficiency and fosters lifelong learning Developing autonomy leads to improved language skills and encourages independent, self-directed learning habits It is a central hypothesis in autonomy research, highlighting its significance for effective language acquisition and overall educational outcomes.
According to the Principles and Guidelines defining the ELP and its functions (Council of Europe 2000/2004), the ELP is a tool designed to promote learner autonomy It emphasizes that the ELP is the property of the individual learner, enabling them to take ownership by using it to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning As learners' language needs evolve, they will revisit their learning processes multiple times throughout their lives, and the most effective way to prepare them for this ongoing task is to help them become more autonomous.
Recent years have seen a growing emphasis on practices related to learner autonomy in language learning (LP), driven by the recognition of its critical role in effective education Researchers increasingly understand that there is an intimate relationship between autonomy and improved learning outcomes, making it essential for teachers to demonstrate the effectiveness of their methods in terms of proficiency gains Consequently, more studies focus on how learner autonomy impacts LP, aligning with the global demand for accountability in education Historically, scholars like Come and Mandinach (1983) proposed that fostering learner autonomy could enhance LP, concluding that autonomous learners tend to achieve higher proficiency levels.
Research indicates that high-achievement students utilize various autonomous learning strategies, highlighting their ability to self-direct their education Rosenberg and Zimmerman (1992) emphasized that a high level of learner autonomy among these students significantly contributes to their academic success.
Students with high scores and those with low levels of learner autonomy face differing risks regarding academic achievement Learners with low autonomy are more likely to jeopardize their academic success if they lack support to enhance their autonomous learning skills Conversely, fostering learner autonomy can significantly improve academic scores, highlighting the importance of developing independent learning abilities to achieve better educational outcomes.
Zhang and Li (2004) found that learner autonomy is closely related to language levels, with a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.6088, based on a comparison between subjects in China and Europe.
Recent studies demonstrate that learner autonomy significantly enhances overall language learning success Specifically, autonomous learners perform better across the four main language skills—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—by fostering greater engagement and self-directed study Additionally, increased learner autonomy promotes self-correction, leading to improved accuracy and confidence in language use, thereby accelerating progress in mastering a new language.
Autonomy in learning significantly contributes to transforming unsuccessful learners into successful ones, as demonstrated by Louis and Pereira’s (2003) study among remedial EFL students Their research, conducted at Simón Bolívar University in Caracas, showed that students who previously struggled and suffered from low self-esteem in reading benefited from a learner-centered approach that emphasized motivation, learner autonomy, and diverse learning styles Allowing students to choose reading activities they found most beneficial increased engagement and reduced anxiety associated with traditional assessments Alternative assessments like portfolios and contracts further empowered students to demonstrate their progress Feedback revealed that 96% of students believed these strategies positively impacted their academic achievement, with 78% feeling less pressure and performing better in class By fostering autonomous learning strategies, students with low self-confidence improved their reading skills and became more confident, leading to enhanced academic performance.
Second, le a rn e r au to n o m y im proves lan g u ag e learning process in general and fo u r m ain skills: listen in g , sp eak in g , reading, w ritin g and self-co rrectio n in particular.
T he e ffe c t o f lea rn er au to n o m y on lan g u ag e learning w as ex am in ed by Y an lin g (n.d)
T he a u th o r in v estig a ted into the b e n e fit o f d ev e lo p in g learner au to n o m y and
Implementing autonomous learning strategies is essential for enhancing student engagement and academic success Universities like Shanxi University of Technology are leading efforts to incorporate these methods into their curricula, fostering independent thinking and self-motivated learning among students Embracing automated learning approaches can significantly improve educational outcomes by promoting personalized learning experiences and adaptability in a rapidly evolving digital landscape.
This study focuses on finance and economics, highlighting that despite over ten years of studying English, most tertiary students still find reading English books a challenging task The persistent difficulty underscores the need for improved language learning strategies to enhance students' reading comprehension in specialized fields Addressing these challenges can lead to more effective English proficiency development among higher education students.
Understanding spoken English, especially when spoken by native speakers, is considered more challenging than reading aloud Even more difficult is the ability to express oneself clearly and fluently in spoken English This study compares traditional and autonomous teaching approaches among four groups of non-English major undergraduate students studying EFL at the university The results demonstrate that autonomous learning strategies significantly improve EFL speaking outcomes for these students.
C hin ese tertia ry ed u catio n S tu d e n ts' m o tiv atio n to study w as aro used and m ost o f th em v o lu n teered to find a p p ro p riate read in g m aterials to read and to p e rsist in listening to the radio statio n in th eir spare tim e every day T hey c o u ld take an active part in all k in d s o f activ ities o u tsid e class, such as E nglish sp eech c o n tests and E nglish sin g in g co n tests at the u n iv ersity S tudents have b ecom e used to som e learn in g strategies Every body m ade his/h er o w n d etailed e v e ry d a y tim eta b le fo r study and activities S tudents realized that, in the a re a o f foreign lan g u ag e learning, an in creased aw aren ess o f the learning p ro cess is very im p o rta n t so they p aid m ore atte n tio n to process th an pro d u ct o f study and to o k an activ e ro le in class a c tiv itie s such as in pairs and sm all groups.
Jing-yuan (2007) examined the impact of learner autonomy on students' speaking competence through an empirical study involving 466 first-year diploma students at Wenzhou University in China The research highlighted the beneficial effects of enhancing learners' self-autonomy in oral language skill development by effectively utilizing metacognitive knowledge, experience, and monitoring The study introduced practical applications of metacognition and explored how learner autonomy significantly improves oral language abilities, investigating the relationships between metacognition and autonomy, efficacy and awareness, as well as the connections among metacognitive knowledge, experience, and monitoring.
A d d itio n ally , Jin g -y u a n ’s p ap er has d e m o n stra ted h o w lea rn er a u to n o m y and m e ta co g n itiv e strateg ies are in ex tricab ly lin k ed to m ake lan g u ag e learn in g and tea c h in g successful F inally, the p ap er has d raw n a c o n c lu sio n that learner auto n o m y is a c ritical elem en t in im p ro v in g le a rn e rs ’ oral language.
T he effect o f le a rn e r auto n o m y on stu d e n ts' sp eak in g co m p eten ce w as also ex am ined by