INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
There are two popular ways of teaching English grammar: (1) deduction and
The inductive approach in language learning is a bottom-up process where students discover grammatical rules through working on examples and exercises Unlike the deductive approach, which is a top-down method where students are first provided with rules and the meaning of grammatical structures before practicing, the inductive method encourages learners to explore and infer rules themselves This student-centered technique promotes active learning and a deeper understanding of language patterns, making it an effective strategy for teaching grammar.
Although an inductive approach is utilized, teacher-fronted instruction and decontextualization are also considered, with students first practicing examples before teachers provide rules and meanings of target structures Students then apply these structures at the sentence level, but the practical reality is influenced by exam pressures that require teachers to focus on vocabulary, reading comprehension, and isolated grammar As a result, students often struggle to use grammar accurately and fluently despite spending considerable time studying English.
English tenses and aspects are essential for effective communication in both spoken and written language Despite years of teaching, many students still struggle with correct tense usage, often making common errors like “I doing homework” or “you have sing.” These mistakes often result from a focus on grammatical rules rather than providing contextualized language input The current study aims to address this issue by examining the limitations of traditional grammar instruction, which tends to emphasize form and decontextualized exercises, and proposes more effective teaching approaches based on contextual learning.
Aims of the study
This thesis aims to investigate the differential impacts of two teaching models—fluency-to-accuracy and accuracy-to-fluency—by utilizing Structure-based Production Tasks The study seeks to compare the effectiveness of these models in enhancing grammar learning outcomes Additionally, it aims to provide valuable implications for implementing more effective grammar teaching strategies at Ton Duc Thang University The research findings will contribute to optimizing teaching practices and improving students’ language proficiency through evidence-based approaches.
Research questions
The research project seeks the answers to the following questions:
1 What are the differences in the mastery of the English Tenses between the group that received the Structure-Based Production Tasks and the group that received that PPP instruction?
Are there significant differences in the (a) Discrete-point item test and (b) the Integrative item test of the English Tenses between two groups?
2 What kinds of effects does the treatment have on the experimental group’s attitudes?
Research hypotheses
From the two main research questions, the hypotheses of the study can be as the followings:
Based on the first research question, it is hypothesized that the experimental group will significantly outperform the control group in both the Discrete-point item test and the Integrative item test, indicating the effectiveness of the experimental intervention.
Students tend to demonstrate positive attitudes toward the application of Structure-Based Production Tasks It is hypothesized that students with average or above-average performance levels are more likely to favor the implementation of this treatment compared to those below average This suggests a correlation between students' academic performance and their receptiveness to structured production tasks, highlighting the potential effectiveness of this approach in enhancing student engagement and learning outcomes.
Significance of the study
This thesis contributes significantly to the teaching of grammar by implementing Structure-Based Production Tasks at Ton Duc Thang University It aims to enhance students' grammatical skills through innovative learning activities The research findings are intended to benefit students by improving their language proficiency and making grammar learning more effective Ultimately, this study offers valuable insights for improving language education and fostering better student engagement in grammar practice.
Mastering grammatical structures significantly enhances students' oral abilities, providing a strong foundation for effective language use For teachers, understanding various approaches to grammar instruction can inform the selection of the most appropriate and effective teaching methods This research offers valuable insights and practical recommendations that can increase teachers’ awareness of innovative grammar teaching strategies Implementing flexible, creative, and adaptable approaches in different teaching contexts can improve student engagement and learning outcomes in language education.
Organization of the study
This research is structured into five key chapters The first chapter introduces the study’s background, research problem, objectives, questions, hypotheses, and overall organization The second chapter reviews relevant theoretical concepts, empirical studies, and presents the conceptual framework guiding the research process The third chapter details the research methodology, including design, setting, participants, instruments, procedures, and data analysis methods Chapter four reports the experimental results and discusses the key findings The final chapter summarizes conclusions, explores the study's implications, discusses limitations, and offers recommendations for future research.
Chapter One emphasizes the vital role of grammar in language pedagogy and highlights the limitations of traditional rule-based approaches and decontextualized teaching The research aims to explore the impact of Structure-Based Production Tasks on students' attitudes and grammatical performance, addressing these challenges This chapter also provides the theoretical foundation essential for establishing the conceptual framework of the study, supporting its focus on innovative, contextually grounded grammar instruction.
This chapter provides a brief history of grammar teaching, exploring various methodological approaches and assessment techniques It discusses key issues in grammar instruction, including procedures, noticing strategies, grammatical performance, and ways to evaluate learner progress The chapter then distinguishes between unfocused and focused tasks in language teaching, emphasizing their roles in developing grammatical skills It also describes Structure-Based Production Tasks (SBPTs) and highlights their unique features in language learning Finally, the chapter reviews previous research related to SBPTs, underscoring their significance as the central focus of this study.
In the late 1990s, there was a resurgence of interest in grammar teaching within the broader context of evolving language instruction approaches The Structure-Based Production Task emerges as a promising method for teaching grammar effectively This approach aims to enhance students' grammatical skills through focused, structured activities Incorporating innovative grammar teaching techniques like the Structure-Based Production Task can significantly improve language acquisition and proficiency.
Hence, what has happened in grammar teaching? In order to provide the answer to this question, it is necessary to have a deep insight into a brief history of grammar teaching.
LITERATURE REVIEW
A brief history of grammar teaching
The Grammar Translation Method (GTM), dominant from the mid-eighteenth to mid-nineteenth centuries, aimed to enable students to read literary texts and promote mental discipline and intellectual growth It focused solely on formal explanations of grammatical rules and structures, with students translating texts into and out of their mother tongue Grammar was taught deductively, emphasizing accuracy and high standards in translation This method placed a strong priority on meticulous correctness, considering it morally valuable and essential for passing the increasing number of formal written examinations of the time.
Despite the widespread practice of the Grammar-Translation Method (GTM), there was no supporting advocacy or grounded theory behind it, as spoken language skills were not considered necessary Instead, language teaching focused on literary texts created by individuals trained in literature rather than applied linguistics or language pedagogy (Richards & Rodgers, 2001) In response to GTM, the Direct Method and Audiolingual Method emerged as influential approaches, emphasizing practice and habit formation over explicit grammar instruction The Audiolingual Method, while incorporating grammar rules similar to GTM, rejected explicit teaching in favor of drills and repetition to develop accurate language production through pattern practice.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emerged in the 1970s, influenced by the development of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theory, emphasizing meaning and natural language acquisition This approach rejects traditional grammar syllabus and explicit rule-based instruction, prioritizing learners’ exposure to comprehensible input for language development Krashen (1981) highlights that formal grammar explanations have little impact on acquisition, emphasizing that unconscious and implicit learning through exposure is more effective than conscious, explicit learning He distinguishes between “acquisition” and “learning,” asserting that unconscious acquisition plays a central role in achieving language proficiency.
The landscape of grammar teaching has undergone significant transformation, shifting from a formal, rule-based approach to a more communicative focus, with initial emphasis on explicit rule presentation diminishing over time Traditionally, grammar instruction centered on a grammar syllabus combined with pattern-practice drills, but it has now transitioned towards teaching via a communicative syllabus that prioritizes language production over mere presentation This evolution reflects a move from a top-down approach of “presentation” to a bottom-up approach focusing on “production,” fostering more interactive and practical language use While explicit rule presentation can give learners a sense of control over speaking and writing, it is often based on "false and simplified assumptions" that limit true language proficiency Consequently, models like Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP), though seemingly effective and teacher-friendly, are increasingly discredited for their limited capacity to achieve higher levels of language attainment.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is highly valued in language education for emphasizing real-world communication over strict grammatical accuracy Unlike the Audiolingual and Direct methods, CLT prioritizes intelligibility and effective communication, often placing less emphasis on perfect grammar While grammar remains important, CLT shifts the focus towards enabling learners to successfully convey meaning in authentic contexts (Thornbury, 2008).
In the past two decades, language teaching has experienced a significant grammar revival, emphasizing focus on form and consciousness-raising strategies According to Thornburry (2008), a focus on form may involve correcting errors and is compatible with task-based approaches, highlighting that grammatical accuracy can be integrated into meaningful communication Harmer (2007) reinforces this by stating that lesson emphasis should be on tasks rather than solely on language rules, promoting an interactive and practical learning environment This shift in methodology is supported by numerous researchers and curriculum developers, including Long (1991), Nunan (1989, 1993), Prabhu (1987), and Skehan (1996), who advocate for integrating grammar instruction within communicative and task-based learning frameworks to enhance language proficiency effectively.
1998 as cited in Hinkel & Fotos, 2008, p 138) also propose that second/ foreign languages can be effectively taught through a Task-based approach Thornburry
Acquisition involves conscious processes where attention is indispensable, as highlighted by 2008 This aligns with Schmidt (1990), who emphasizes that language acquisition is inherently connected to conscious processes In essence, attention and noticing are key features of consciousness that play a crucial role in effective language learning.
Effective grammar teaching involves raising awareness that may not directly result in mastering grammatical features but can stimulate learners' cognitive processes, leading to more accurate and appropriate language use over time To understand this approach comprehensively, it is important to consider the broader perspective of grammar instruction, which includes various strategies that support learners' gradual and meaningful acquisition of grammatical competence.
Issues of grammar teaching
Effective grammar instruction involves a variety of methodological approaches, including teaching strategies, timing strategies, and social strategies These techniques are essential for designing comprehensive language teaching methods that enhance learners' understanding and application of grammar rules Implementing diverse teaching strategies helps cater to different learning styles, while timing strategies optimize the delivery of grammar lessons for better retention Additionally, social strategies promote interactive and communicative learning environments, facilitating practical use of grammar in social contexts Incorporating these methodological options can significantly improve the effectiveness of grammar teaching in both classroom and online settings.
Teaching strategies in grammar instruction encompass a variety of techniques and activities, with their effectiveness influenced by different methods and approaches (Stern, 1992, as cited in Ellis, 1997a) These strategies are categorized along three dimensions that underpin ongoing debates in language teaching methods As a key design feature, grammar teaching options can significantly impact second language (L2) acquisition, particularly through feedback and learner performance approaches (Ellis, 1997a) Feedback options include overt and covert feedback, which provide learners with information about their use of specific grammatical structures, while learner performance options involve eliciting different behaviors, such as focus on particular grammatical features or engaging in focused communication Both feedback and performance strategies exemplify analytic teaching approaches aimed at enhancing grammar learning (Ellis, 1997a).
Featured-focused options involve isolating linguistic features for teaching and testing learners individually within a structural syllabus, emphasizing a deliberate learning approach In contrast, focused communication options direct learners’ attention to grammatical features through meaning-based activities, promoting learning through context The key differences between these approaches lie in intentional learning, where learners deliberately aim to understand language features, and incidental learning, where learners may inadvertently attend to L2 features without a conscious goal.
Ellis et al (2009) distinguish between two approach types in grammar learning: feature-focused, which emphasizes intentional learning, and focused communication, which targets incidental learning Incidental learning tasks include meaning-focused activities and those combined with attention-directing devices that highlight specific linguistic features (Ellis, 1997a) While these attention-focused tasks may draw learners’ attention to particular language features without requiring conscious effort, they are primarily designed to facilitate incidental rather than intentional second language acquisition.
Focused communication tasks, such as Structured Based Communication Tasks (Loschky & Bley Vronman, 1990; discussed in Ellis, 1997a), offer an effective method for teaching grammar by engaging learners in both production and comprehension These tasks encourage learners to focus on message meaning while also attending to specific grammatical structures, facilitating integrated language practice Three main types of such tasks are identified, providing diverse options to enhance grammar instruction and promote communicative competence.
Effective grammar teaching involves designing tasks that make the use of target structures "natural," "easier," and "essential" depending on learning goals While it is relatively straightforward to create reception and production tasks where using specific grammatical structures feels natural and enhances ease of use, designing production tasks that require the use of particular structures as "essential" is more challenging (Ellis, 1997a) For instance, students may avoid employing target structures during storytelling tasks and instead reformulate incorrect utterances to seek clarification, highlighting the difficulty of making certain grammar use compulsory This study focuses on focused communication activities that incorporate SBPTs to facilitate targeted grammar learning The subsequent section outlines the procedures involved in effective grammar instruction.
In SLA, two common approaches to grammar teaching are deduction and induction Deductive teaching involves presenting a grammatical rule first, followed by examples that illustrate its application, making it a rule-driven method This approach is advantageous because it allows for efficient use of class time and provides clear guidance to learners.
10 saving because the teacher moves directly to the teaching points However, it is teacher-fronted and at the expense of students’ interaction and involvement in the lesson
An inductive approach involves learners discovering grammatical rules through examples, without explicit grammar explanations, fostering active engagement and better retention of rules (Thornburry, 2008; Ellis, 1997a, 2008) This method emphasizes task-based learning where learners infer rules through problem-solving activities, which enhances their understanding and memorability However, a key challenge is that it can be difficult for learners to deduce rules independently, potentially making the approach more demanding to implement effectively.
Deductive and inductive procedures are both beneficial to students’ language learning, with the deductive approach offering direct explanations and the inductive approach encouraging learners to solve language problems to achieve their goals Indirect Consciousness Raising Tasks (CRTs), as proposed by Fotos and Ellis (1991, 1994), are especially effective in helping learners construct explicit grammar rules of the target language and promote communication in the L2 Studies like Dang and Nguyen (2013) demonstrate the effectiveness of indirect CR tasks in grammar teaching, as learners can generate rules through working with supplied data However, a limitation of CR tasks is that they primarily focus on constructing conscious rule representations with limited production, as they are not designed to elicit spontaneous language use or lead directly to the functional use of target features Consequently, Ellis (2003) introduces the term to better describe this instructional approach. -Boost your grammar teaching with proven Indirect Consciousness Raising Tasks—[Learn more](https://pollinations.ai/redirect/2699274)
“production” for the purpose of enhancing learner’s communication of the target language through using the SBPTs
Grammar instruction often involves feature-focused approaches that include both explicit and implicit teaching strategies Explicit grammar teaching can be categorized into direct and indirect methods; direct instruction involves providing learners with specific rules or parts of rules to apply, analyze, or modify in relevant tasks For example, learners might be taught the Present Simple tense rule and then asked to identify grammatical and ungrammatical sentences based on that rule, promoting active application and understanding.
Learners often rely on teachers’ explanations and rule provision, as explicit grammar instruction provides essential metalinguistic information Indirect explicit grammar teaching, however, offers learners data that illustrate grammatical structures, enabling them to analyze usage and develop generalizations about language regularities (Ellis, 1997a) For example, learners might be given a text containing Past Simple and Past Perfect sentences, then identify and analyze the verbs to discover rules and functions of these tenses Ultimately, this approach encourages learners to construct grammatical rules from authentic input data.
Implicit grammar teaching often emphasizes output-oriented activities, also known as production-based practice, which include error-inducing and error-avoiding tasks (Ellis, 1997a) Error-inducing activities, like the "garden path approach," guide learners to make specific mistakes in L2 acquisition while providing overt feedback without focusing on practicing a particular structure Conversely, error-avoiding activities aim to prevent errors through text manipulation tasks such as filling-in-the-blanks or transforming sentences, and text creation tasks where learners produce original sentences related to target structures Although similar to communicative grammar tasks, these activities are designed for targeted structural practice, with learners aware they are practicing specific grammar points As a result, learners in error-inducing tasks see these activities as opportunities to communicate, whereas those in error-avoiding tasks view them as focused practice of grammatical structures.
Noticing is crucial in second language acquisition (SLA) because it helps learners remember target language features for effective communication However, learners cannot notice just anything; certain factors influence what they pay attention to This raises an important question: if noticing is essential for learning language forms, what mechanisms determine what learners notice? Understanding these controlling factors is key to enhancing language learning processes and designing effective instructional strategies.
12 is noticed? Is conscious effort necessary? To have a deep understanding of how noticing occurs, the section below addresses the issue
The role of consciousness has been a controversial issue in cognitive science and second language learning SLA theorists have also posed the question whether
The verb "learn" can be replaced with "acquire" to enhance understanding Schmidt (1990) emphasizes the importance of "consciousness" in input processing, noting that conscious processing is essential for certain stages of language learning and facilitates other aspects of language acquisition Input processing, as defined by VanPatten (1996), is a form of grammar instruction aimed at guiding learners to attend to input data more effectively Unlike general listening or reading, input processing requires learners to focus on meaning, notice target forms and their conveyed meanings, and recognize the gap between their existing knowledge and their output (Hinkel & Fotos, 2008) This approach highlights the role of attentive, meaning-focused processing in successful language learning.
“Noticing” refers to three different phenomena: (1) learning without intention,
(2) learning without metalinguistic knowledge, and (3) learning without awareness (Schmidt, 1990; 1994; 2001) First, since not all intentions are conscious, not all learning is intentional Second, explicit and implicit knowledge, according to Schmidt
Learning is part of a continuum rather than separate phenomena, emphasizing the interconnected nature of language development It results from a subjective experience where learners notice and pay attention to specific features in the input, highlighting the importance of attentional focus in language acquisition Therefore, conscious awareness is essential because Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is largely driven by what learners notice, understand, and interpret in the target input, underscoring the critical role of attention and awareness in effective language learning (Schmidt, 2001).
Conceptual framework
This article reviews key theoretical concepts, supporting and contradictory ideas, and relevant empirical research related to language instruction While previous studies focus on teaching reading, grammar through different instructional content, and vocabulary development, this study specifically examines teaching English grammar using Tenses as the core instructional material To clarify these issues, a comprehensive conceptual framework has been developed to guide the research process.
Numerous studies agree that task-based language teaching (TBLT) is effective for teaching grammar This study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis by comparing the task-based approach with the PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production) model The task-based approach, adapted from Ellis (2003), involves three stages—pre-task, during-task, and post-task—focusing on fluency development In contrast, the PPP model, based on Thornbury (2008), includes presentation, practice, and production stages, emphasizing accuracy The study also considers Schmidt's (1990, 1994, 2001) noticing hypothesis to evaluate learners’ grammatical development While the alternative model progresses from implicit to explicit noticing, the PPP model moves from explicit to implicit noticing Learners’ grammatical performance is assessed through discrete-point and integrative tests to measure both explicit and implicit grammatical knowledge.
According to Brown (2003), SBPTs are implemented through the application of the alternative model This study strictly follows grounded theory and the established conceptual framework to ensure that research objectives are achieved effectively.
Chapter summary
This article provides a comprehensive overview of the literature on grammar teaching, including its theoretical foundations, empirical research, and conceptual frameworks It traces the history of grammar instruction and explores various methodological approaches such as feature-focused, communication-focused, and grammar revival techniques Key concepts like noticing, teaching contexts, and the role of tasks and activities in grammar acquisition are examined The article highlights Structure-Based Production Tasks (SBPTs) and their effectiveness in enhancing grammatical performance It reviews previous studies on focused tasks, comparing their methodologies, theoretical backgrounds, and outcomes, suggesting that SBPTs offer a promising alternative for improved grammar learning The subsequent section discusses the research methodology employed in this study for further analysis.
Grammatical Performance (Use of tenses)
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research design
This section presents a detailed research plan, outlining the study’s methodology to ensure effective data collection and analysis According to McMillan and Schumacher (2001), a research design is a strategic plan that involves selecting participants, research sites, and procedures necessary to answer specific research questions It specifies the participants involved, as well as the timing, location, and conditions under which the study was conducted, ensuring clarity and rigor in the research process.
The research adopted a non-equivalent Pre-Posttest Quasi-experimental design
The benefit of this approach is that “This design is very prevalent and useful in education since it is often impossible to randomly assign subjects” (McMillan &
In this study, a quasi-experimental design was used, as classes were formed based on students’ final exam scores and assigned to experimental and control groups A proficiency test was conducted to assess students’ language skills, followed by a pre-test to measure their ability to apply grammatical rules in specific contexts The experimental group received a targeted treatment, while the control group continued with traditional teaching methods Finally, both groups took a post-test to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention.
Research setting and participants
This study was conducted at Ton Duc Thang University, one of the largest universities in Ho Chi Minh City, offering 34 majors and enrolling 24,000 students aged 18 to 24 At the time of data collection, the university provided over 350 English non-major classes, covering levels from Elementary to Advanced, including Pre-Intermediate and Intermediate courses.
Convenience sampling was used to characterize the samples in this study, despite its limitations in representing the entire population As the most common sampling method in educational research (McMillan & Schumacher, 2001), convenience sampling is appropriate when it is challenging to select random or systematic samples According to Frankael et al (2011), this method can be employed carefully, especially when detailed demographic and sample characteristics are documented (p 100) In this research, convenience sampling was the only feasible selection method available to the researcher.
According to McMillan and Schumacher (2001), correlation research requires a minimum of thirty subjects, with at least fifteen participants in each group when comparing groups (p 177) In this study, fifty-nine intermediate-level students participated voluntarily The participants were divided into two groups based on their final test performance, ensuring balanced comparison All cohorts had similar English proficiency levels, as none were advanced or specialized in English, providing a consistent basis for the research.
The study involved cohorts from diverse regions of Vietnam with varying English language backgrounds, resulting in different levels of English proficiency To accurately assess these levels, the researcher employed the Oxford Placement Test 1 as a proficiency assessment tool The experimental group consisted of 20 students with below-average scores, 12 students with average scores, and the remaining students demonstrating fair proficiency In contrast, the control group’s proficiency levels were similarly evaluated to ensure a comprehensive comparison.
The study involved two student groups with differing performance levels and demographic compositions The experimental group consisted of 33 students, evenly split by gender with 15 males (45.45%) and 18 females (54.55%), and was more heavily weighted in participant numbers In contrast, the control group included 26 students, with 9 males (34.62%) and 17 females (65.38%) Academic performance varied across the groups, with 8 students scoring below average, 17 achieving average scores, and the remainder earning fair scores Both groups were representative in terms of size, gender distribution, and English proficiency levels, as detailed in Table 3.1, ensuring a balanced comparison for the study.
Table 3.1 Description of the participants
Instruments
The instruments employed in this study were of two categories: (1) tests and
(2) questionnaire These main tools were described in the subsequent sections
Three tests were employed in this research including (1) a proficiency test, (2) a pre-test, and (3) a post-test
In this study, the Oxford Placement Test 1 (Allen, 2004) was implemented to check proficiency levels of the participants In addition, the researcher would like to
Gender Scores achieved in the
This study examined whether proficiency levels influence learners' performance by focusing on the reading section of a language assessment The test included 100 multiple-choice items designed to evaluate grammar skills through Structure-Based Production Tasks (SBPTs) Since the study aimed to teach grammar explicitly, only the reading component was utilized, featuring a timed sixty-minute exam where students selected the correct answer from three options for each question.
To assess students' grammatical knowledge at the start of the study, both a discrete-point test, such as a multiple-choice format, and an integrative test, like a reproduction task, were utilized These testing methods, outlined by Heaton (1988) and Brown (2003), provided comprehensive insights into students' understanding of grammar Incorporating both test types ensures a well-rounded evaluation of grammatical proficiency, which is essential for accurate measurement and effective instructional planning.
In this study, the pre-test included two parts (1) the Discrete-point item test and
The Integrative Item Test was administered one week after the Proficiency Test, with a duration of forty-five minutes According to interviews with participants about their access to grammar resources, the test was carefully synthesized and compiled from reputable grammar reference books such as *Advanced Language Practice* (Vince, 2003) and *Understanding and Using English Grammar* (Aza) This approach ensured the test accurately reflected participants’ familiarity with essential grammar concepts, aligning with SEO practices by highlighting keywords like "Integrative Item Test," "Proficiency Test," "grammar reference books," and specific titles to optimize searchability.
This study references key grammar resources such as Oxford Grammar Practice (Eastwood, 2002), English Grammar in Use (Murphy, 2004), and Advanced Grammar in Use (Hewings, 2002; Hewings, 2005) Students were tasked with selecting the correct answer from four options in the first part and completing the second part by filling in the most appropriate verb tense for each blank (see Appendix 2) The method for scoring the test is discussed in the subsequent section.
3.3.1.2.1 The Discrete-point item test
This test comprised 50 multiple-choice items requiring learners to select the correct answer, aimed at assessing their explicit grammatical knowledge (Heaton, 1988; Brown, 2003) Detailed descriptions of the test structure and content are provided in Table 3.3.1.2.1, ensuring clarity on the assessment's focus and methodology.
Table 3.3.1.2.1 Description of the Discrete-point item test
The test comprised 30 items, each requiring learners to select the appropriate tense for various verbs, serving as a measure of their implicit language knowledge, as defined by Brown (2003) Detailed information about the test items and methodology is provided in Table 3.3.1.2.2.
Table 3.3.1.2.2 Description of the Integrative item test
1 A survey has found that, surprisingly, most children (prefer) to walk to school than be taken by car
2 British people (drink) more and more wine, apparently
In Chapter two, it is explained that the learning process occurs through the combination of implicit knowledge, explicit knowledge, and conscious learning This study utilizes both Discrete-point and Integrative item tests to assess learners' performance, highlighting the roles of explicit and implicit knowledge during the learning process.
1 He for the nation team in 65 matches so far
2 Here’s my report it at last
D I’ve finished were employed Therefores, these two tests served as main assessing tools to measure students’ grammatical knowledge
The post-test aimed to assess students’ grammatical knowledge following the treatment, consisting of 80 items divided into Discrete-point and Integrative sections, administered one week after the intervention with a 45-minute time limit Developed based on participant interviews and multiple grammar sources, the test maintained consistent structure but rearranged item positions to ensure accuracy The first part required students to select the correct answer from four options, while the second part involved providing the appropriate tense for each verb, with scoring identical to that of the pre-test.
The questionnaire was developed based on interviews with participants in the experimental group to ensure relevant insights It consisted of two sections: personal information and students’ attitudes towards the new teaching method The personal information section collected details such as name, gender, major, and years of English learning experience The attitudes section assessed participants’ perceptions by asking them to express their level of agreement or disagreement with statements related to the innovative teaching approach This structure aimed to gather comprehensive data on both demographic background and students’ perspectives to evaluate the effectiveness of the new method.
The survey comprised four main questions across forty-five items, all designed to assess mentalist-based attitudes These items aimed to explore the concept that attitudes are internal states of readiness, which, when activated by external stimuli, influence individual responses (McKenzie) This approach emphasizes understanding how internal mental states impact behavior and perceptions The assessment provides valuable insights into the connection between internal attitudes and observable responses, making it a significant tool for psychological research and analysis.
In 2010, a study examined the "confidence of using English after treatment," focusing on three key aspects: confidence in using language functions, confidence in applying different tenses, and confidence in discussing various topics.
The article discusses four key questions designed to evaluate learners' perceptions of a new method The second question focused on learners’ affection, encompassing five items that gauge their emotional responses The third question addressed learner’s anxiety, consisting of seventeen items divided into three aspects: anxiety about using Functions, Tenses, and other special features of the new method The fourth question sought learners' overall attitudes and evaluations, including their preferences for the new method and perceived improvements after the treatment Overall, these questions aimed to explore the correlation between learners’ confidence and anxiety, as well as gather their general attitudes towards the new instructional approach.
The questionnaire was initially prepared in both English and Vietnamese, but only the Vietnamese version was distributed to participants to ensure clear understanding and honest responses According to Muijs (2004), verifying content validity and reliability is essential before fully implementing a research instrument To assess these, ten students with varying academic strengths reviewed the Vietnamese questionnaire and provided feedback, leading to revisions of confusing or unclear items The pilot test indicated that the initial version lacked sufficient reliability, prompting further modifications for clarity After these adjustments, the questionnaire was retested, and the results confirmed that it was reliable enough for use in the main study (See Appendix 4A-B).
The questionnaire was developed based on the Likert scale (Cohen et al., 2007), which ranges from 1 - totally not true to me, to 5 - totally true to me According to Cohen (2007), rating scales are widely utilized in education because they offer flexible response options and facilitate various types of quantitative analysis, including frequency and correlation studies This approach allows researchers to effectively measure opinions while capturing both qualitative and quantitative data.
The questionnaire was specifically designed to assess students' confidence, affection, and anxiety, providing insights into their emotional responses Question four aimed to explore students’ overall attitudes toward the treatment, offering valuable context for understanding their perspectives All components of the questionnaire are detailed in Table 3.3.2, ensuring a comprehensive overview of the research instrument.
Table 3.3.2 The aims and constructs of the questionnaire
I To get participants’ personal information
To investigate the confidence level after learning with the new treatment
To investigate the anxiety level after learning with the new treatment
To get student’s general evaluation on the new treatment
In order to validate the results of the questionnaire-based survey, the researcher conducted a pilot stage Data collected was used to measure the reliability coefficient
Treatment
The main textbook used was “International Express” (Harding & Taylor, 2005), designed for intermediate-level learners The textbook comprises a student’s book and a reference section, covering six units that focus on language skills, vocabulary, communication, and skills development Each unit addresses diverse topics such as international projects, the world of work, global languages, consumer trends, leisure time, and travel, primarily with a business-oriented approach The research involved conducting six lessons centered on the language focus sections of the book, with a detailed description of the methodology provided in the following section.
English tenses are a complex linguistic feature that poses significant challenges for students, as highlighted by Ellis (1997a) Surveys of textbooks used in Vietnamese secondary schools, high schools, and universities reveal a high frequency of tense usage and their close connection to other grammatical structures such as reported speech, passive voice, and conditional sentences Additionally, English tenses are essential in everyday communication, media, and information exchange, both orally and in writing Despite their importance, many students struggle to use tenses correctly even after long-term learning Consequently, the researcher chose to focus on English tenses as the core instructional content to improve students’ mastery of this challenging aspect.
The study analyzed various English tenses, including Present Simple, Present Perfect, Present Continuous, Future Simple, Past Simple, Past Continuous, and Past Perfect, using a combination of Present and Past tenses along with Progressive and Perfect aspects According to Yule (1998), there are essentially only two tenses in English—present and past—based on “remote” and “factual” aspects From this perspective, the Future Simple was categorized as a present tense, since it is expressed through modal verbs that indicate the possibility of an event rather than a true future tense.
Based on the objectives and theoretical framework outlined in the Literature Review, the researcher analyzed six textbook units focused on English tense and aspect This detailed content review aimed to identify key instructional strategies and thematic patterns to enhance language learning Subsequently, the researcher designed targeted instructional materials to improve students’ understanding of English tense and aspect, ensuring alignment with the foundational theories.
40 lesson plans for her study and had a discussion with her supervisor After checking carefully, she applied those plans into the pilot stage
The experiment was conducted within two months, starting from March 16 th ,
2015 to May 15 th , 2015 in Ton Duc Thang University and was divided into three sub sections as presented below
On March 16, 2015, a proficiency test was administered to assess participants' language skills A follow-up pre-test was then conducted with the same cohorts on March 18, 2015, to establish baseline data Subsequently, the experimental group participated in trial teaching sessions using a new instructional approach on March 23 and 25, 2015 To gather qualitative insights, the researcher interviewed two students about their experiences with the lesson content and their opinions on the new teaching method Their feedback provided valuable information to refine and modify the lesson plans for improved effectiveness.
The six-week experimental study, conducted from March 30th to May 9th, 2015, compared an innovative treatment method with traditional learning approaches The experimental group engaged with an alternative learning model, while the control group continued using the conventional PPP method The study comprised six weekly periods, each divided into two forty-five-minute sessions After the intervention, both groups took a post-test on May 11th, 2015, to assess learning outcomes, followed by a questionnaire administered to the experimental group on May 13th Detailed procedures of the treatment process are thoroughly described to ensure clarity and replicability.
This study compares the effectiveness of a task-based model (alternative model) and the traditional PPP method in language training The experimental group received new treatment through SBPTs, while the control group did not undergo any training Results indicate that the PPP model emphasizes an accuracy-to-fluency approach, whereas the alternative task-based model promotes fluency-to-accuracy development Detailed descriptions of the task features for each unit are provided in Table 3.4.3.2a, highlighting the distinct characteristics of each instructional method.
During the treatment, participants first engaged in listening or reading tasks focused on the target grammatical structure without prior instruction They then performed timed oral activities designed to stimulate the use of the target feature, with the researcher observing, listening, and noting errors Following this, learners shared ideas with peers and completed controlled practice activities Errors and use of the target features were then written on the board and directly elicited by the teacher to raise awareness of meaning, form, and use The overall process for the experimental group is summarized in Table 3.4.3.2b and Appendix 5A.
The control group continued learning with traditional methods, starting with activities that raised awareness of the target grammatical structure through listening and reading tasks They then progressed to controlled practice exercises followed by freer practice activities to reinforce learning The final step involved performing a free oral task using the recently introduced structure, ensuring practical application of their skills Details of the control group's treatment protocol are outlined in Table 3.4.3.2c and Appendix 5B.
The experimental group's treatment was based on a task-based approach, differing from the control group's PPP method in implementation Initially, the experimental group engaged in task framing, while the control group was directly made aware of language features In the second phase, the experimental group performed a free oral task within a time limit, whereas the control group worked on controlled practice activities like fill-in-the-blank and multiple-choice tasks, followed by freer practice During the third stage, the experimental group was explicitly guided to recognize their mistakes, while the control group practiced using the targeted structure through free activities As outlined earlier, the experimental group experienced error manipulation—both error-inducing and error-avoiding tasks—without consciously focusing on specific grammatical structures Conversely, the control group started with error-avoiding exercises and then moved to error-inducing tasks, producing sentences with the targeted grammar.
42 structures with full awareness of practicing a specific structure Summaries of the treatment are presented in Table 3.4.3.2d
Table 3.4.3.2a Summary of task features
Lesson 1 Lesson 2 Lesson 3 Lesson 4 Lesson 5 Lesson 6
Simple -Present Continuous +Action and state verbs
-Past Simple -Present Perfect Simple
-Comparative and Superlative -Relative clause +Present Simple +Past Simple
-Present Continuous +Trends -Past Simple
-Passive +Present Simple +Present Continuous +Present Perfect Simple +Past Simple +Will
-Past Simple -Past Continuous -Past Perfect
Gap/ meanings Interview Giving opinions
Presenting ideas Discussing Interview Discussing
-Talking about personal information file such as background studies, present work, interests, and future plans
-Talking about the reasons why you would or would not like to work for two different companies
-Doing a survey on which area you prefer and why (6 different items are included)
-Talking about three different graphs
-Talking about personal project report s from past to present and future (place of work/ study, home, towns)
-Describing important decisions that you have made
Table 3.4.3.2b Summary of the treatment for the Experimental group
Step/ Duration Procedures for the Experimental group
The participants were asked to listen to an interview or read a passage and answer some comprehension questions in the text
Basing on input, the participants were required to perform tasks and discuss topics in groups or pairs
While engaging in tasks, the teacher went around the class and took notes of learners’ mistakes
The participants were asked to share their ideas with the whole class
The participants were required to work on controlled practice activities
The teacher pointed out learners’ mistakes and directly raised consciousness of the target structures
Table 3.4.3.2c Summary of the treatment for the Control group
Step/ Duration Procedures for the Control group
The participants were asked to listen to an interview or read a passage and answer some comprehension questions in the text
The teacher elicited directly the new target structure
The participants were required to work on controlled practice activities such as gap-filling or matching on the basis of what they have just learned
They were engaged in a free-er practice activity using the target grammatical structure
Students were asked to perform a free activity using structures they have just learned
Table 3.4.3.2d Summary of the treatment for the Experimental and Control groups
Production Tasks (Production-Based Practice activities)
● Framing the task ● Consciousness Raising
In the final week of the experiment, a post-test was administered to both the experimental and control groups, with their scores analyzed using SPSS version 22 for Windows The T-Test was employed to compare the performance differences between the two groups Additionally, the experimental group completed a questionnaire to assess their confidence, emotional responses, anxiety levels, and overall attitudes toward the treatment To explore potential relationships, Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to examine the connection between students’ confidence and anxiety levels.
This research employed a three-stage data collection process to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment Learner performance was assessed through pre-tests and post-tests, allowing for a clear comparison of progress Additionally, students' attitudes towards the treatment were explored using a questionnaire-based survey, providing valuable insights into their perceptions and engagement.
This study utilized qualitative analysis to evaluate pre-test and post-test results for both groups, complemented by descriptive statistics such as frequency, mean scores, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients Data management and analysis were conducted using SPSS version 22 for Windows, ensuring accurate and efficient statistical processing The detailed methodology for data analysis is outlined in the subsequent sections, providing clarity on the analytical approach employed in the research.
This study utilized Independent Samples T-Test, Paired Samples T-Test, and One Sample T-Test to analyze the data The Independent Samples T-Test determined whether there were significant differences between the mean scores of two groups, while the Paired Samples T-Test assessed learners’ implicit knowledge before and after the intervention The One Sample T-Test compared the sample mean to a hypothesized population mean to identify significant differences Descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, and significance (Sig 2-tailed) were employed to evaluate statistical significance between pre-test and post-test scores for both experimental and control groups All analyses considered a significance level of 0.05 using the Student's t-test.
Understanding the relationship between variables is essential in research, often analyzed through the correlation coefficient A high positive correlation indicates that when one variable increases, the other also increases, whereas a high negative correlation signifies that as one variable rises, the other decreases (Morgan et al., 2004) In this study, bivariate correlation analysis was employed to examine the potential negative relationship between confidence and anxiety questionnaire scores.
Questionnaire data collected from the experimental group with regard to their attitudes towards the treatment was analyzed through the use of Frequency Count and Percentage
3.6.4 Scoring criteria for the pre-test and post-test
Chapter summary
Chapter 3 has presented the methodology used in the experiment The methodological procedure comprising of the research design, the research setting, the participants selected, the instruments, the treatment, the methods of analysis were clearly presented In the subsequent chapter, the results of the study and the interpretation are reported and interpreted at the greater length
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
This chapter reports and analyzes the data collected from the proficiency test, including the pre-test and post-test assessments, to evaluate participants' learning outcomes Additionally, the questionnaire responses from the experimental group are interpreted to gain insights into their experiences The findings are then discussed in relation to the research questions outlined in the introductory chapter, providing a comprehensive understanding of the study’s results.
This study utilized SPSS Version 22 for Windows to perform comprehensive statistical analyses An Independent Samples T-Test was conducted to compare the differences between two groups before and after treatment, while a Paired Samples T-Test analyzed variations within the experimental group's pre- and post-test scores on the Integrative item Descriptive statistics and simple frequency distributions provided insights into the data, and a One Sample T-Test evaluated whether the overall questionnaire mean differed from the hypothesized mean Additionally, Pearson’s correlation coefficient assessed the relationship between students' confidence and anxiety levels Statistical significance was determined at p < 0.05.