INTRODUCTION
Rationale
In an era of globalization, English has become a vital language for international communication and cooperation, leading to its widespread adoption across all age groups Consequently, English is a core subject in educational systems worldwide, from primary schools to universities Dong Nai Technology University (DNTU) exemplifies this trend by emphasizing the importance of English, offering it as a key subject for students across various disciplines Additionally, DNTU has a dedicated faculty of English to support students with a passion for the language, recognizing its critical role in global engagement.
Mastering English requires proficiency in four essential skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing Among these, writing is particularly important for evaluating a student's English performance and language development (White, 1985) Writing not only reveals learners' abilities but also motivates critical thinking, idea organization, and skills in summarizing, analyzing, and criticizing (Rao, 2007) Despite its importance, writing is considered the most challenging skill to master, requiring a rich vocabulary and a strong grasp of grammatical structures Additionally, creating cohesive and coherent paragraphs and essays relies heavily on effective use of unity, coherence, and transition devices such as coordinating conjunctions, which are vital for clear and organized writing.
At DNTU, students' language proficiency, particularly in writing, lags behind the national average due to difficulties in effectively expressing ideas in written form Writing is a challenging skill because students must consider grammar, vocabulary, unity, and coherence simultaneously Often, students struggle with selecting appropriate vocabulary even when their grammar is correct or vice versa, leading to issues with cohesion Freshmen, in particular, find it especially hard to articulate their thoughts clearly, frequently making errors in sentence structures, vocabulary, and the use of conjunctions, including coordinating conjunctions.
This research, titled “Coordinating Conjunction Errors in Written English Made by First-Year Students Majoring in English at a University in Dong Nai Province,” aims to identify and analyze common mistakes related to coordinating conjunctions in students' written work The study focuses on first-year English majors at DNTU to understand the prevalence and types of these errors The goal is to develop effective solutions to improve students’ writing skills by addressing these specific grammatical issues This research is essential for enhancing English language teaching strategies and promoting better writing proficiency among university students.
Aim(s) of the study
This study aims to enhance students' overall writing skills, with a particular focus on the correct and effective use of coordinating conjunctions By achieving this goal, the research seeks to provide valuable insights into how students can improve their sentence structure and coherence The findings are intended to contribute to improved teaching strategies and learning outcomes in writing Ultimately, the study aspires to support students in developing clearer, more cohesive, and well-structured written communication.
- To find out common coordinating conjunction errors made by the first- year English majors at DNTU
- To suggest some solutions to help students minimize these errors.
Research questions
This study is implemented to answer the following research questions:
What are common coordinating conjunction errors made by the first- year English-major students at DNTU?
What are some solutions to help students minimize these errors?
Scope of the study
This article focuses on coordinating conjunctions, a key type of conjunction alongside correlative and subordinating conjunctions While all three serve to connect words, phrases, or clauses, this study specifically examines common errors students make with coordinating conjunctions in their writing Understanding these frequent mistakes can help improve writing clarity and coherence Proper use of coordinating conjunctions is essential for effective sentence structure and overall essay quality, making it important for students to master their correct application.
Coordinating conjunction errors will be studied on the writings of the first- year English-major students at DNTU.
Significance of the study
This study aims to identify the most common errors in the use of coordinating conjunctions among first-year English-major students By analyzing these mistakes, teachers can develop effective strategies to address the problem and enhance students' understanding of coordinating conjunctions As a result, students will improve their ability to use coordinating conjunctions correctly, leading to better writing skills and more coherent written English.
Research methods
In order to complete this study, the main research methods employed are:
- Statistical methods are used to find out and classify the students‘ errors
- Descriptive methods are used to describe the actual errors committed by the students.
Structure of the study
The study consists of five chapters:
Chapter One: Introduction - presents the rationale, the aims, research questions, the scope, the significance, the methodology, and the structure of the study
Chapter Two: Literature Review - provides both theoretical backgrounds for the study and relevant previous studies
Chapter Three: Research Methodology - describes the methods and procedures used to carried out the study
Chapter Four: Data analysis and Discussion - deals with the findings drawn out from the analysis of data
Chapter Five: Conclusion - draws some conclusions of major findings, recommendations, limitations of the study, and suggestions for further studies.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical background
Coordinating conjunctions are the most common type of conjunction used in English writing and speech, playing a vital role in connecting words, phrases, and clauses The term 'conjunctions' encompasses various grammatical categories, including connecting words, discourse markers, linking words, logical connectors, signal words, and transitional devices Their primary function is to create cohesion, coherence, and textual unity by linking ideas and ensuring smooth flow in communication (Provost, 1985; Schills & Dehan) Mastery of coordinating conjunctions is essential for effective writing and fluent discourse.
Cohesion in writing pertains to the meaningful connection between sentences within a paragraph, enabling the text to flow naturally It involves interpreting a clause based on the understanding of preceding or following clauses, often through presupposing and presupposed elements Effective cohesion enhances readability and ensures that ideas are logically linked, making the overall message clear and coherent.
Longman Dictionary (1987, p 214) defines conjunction as ―a word such as “but” , “and” , or “while” that connects parts of sentences, phrases or clauses‖, whereas Oxford Advanced Dictionary of Current English (2004, p
A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or sentences, such as "and," "but," or "or," serving as essential grammatical connectives According to 259, conjunctions function to join different elements within a sentence, and this definition is supported by multiple linguists Krishnaswamy (1984) describes conjunctions as members of a small class that serve as connectives, while Richards et al (1990) define them as words that link words, phrases, or clauses, including examples like "but," "and," and "when." Understanding these definitions highlights the crucial role of conjunctions in sentence construction and coherence in English.
461) defines conjunction as ―the process of combining two constituents of the same type to produce another, larger constituent of the same type.‖
Conjunctions are essential for creating logical and coherent writing They connect ideas smoothly, ensuring clarity and flow in the text There are three main types of conjunctions: coordinating, correlative, and subordinating In this study, the focus is on coordinating conjunctions, also known as FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), because these are more frequently used by students with lower proficiency levels in EFL writing compared to more complex correlative and subordinating conjunctions.
The term ―Coordinating conjunctions‖ was defined by many authors Thomson and Martinet (1986, p 288) define coordinating conjunctions as
Coordinating conjunctions are words like "and," "or," and "but" that join pairs of words, phrases, or clauses of equal importance Richards et al (1990) define them as connectors that link linguistic units of the same rank, such as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, phrases, and clauses According to the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2001), coordinating conjunctions are words that join two clauses of the same type, facilitating the construction of coherent and balanced sentences Using coordinating conjunctions correctly enhances sentence flow and clarity, making them essential tools in effective writing.
In short, coordinating conjunctions are connecting words that join two similarly constructed words, phrases or clauses in a sentence
English coordinating conjunctions known as ―FANBOYS‖ includes but, or, so, and, yet, for, nor Following are some examples using coordinating conjunctions:
I like fish, but my children like meat (showing contrast)
Would you prefer milk tea or orange juice? (before an alternative)
I didn’t sleep last night, so I’m very sleepy now
I am married, and I have two daughters (additive idea))
It’s raining heavily outside, yet he still wants to go out with his friends
Her mother must be very angry, for she doesn’t say anything (explaining the reason)
Mary didn’t stay at home, nor did she go to school (for two non- contrasting grammatically negative items (not + not))
- To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another:
Mary wrote Daisy a letter and waited for her response
- To suggest that one idea is the result of another:
The children heard their mother‘s footsteps and pretended to sleep
- To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another (frequently replaced by but in this usage):
Jenny is academically brilliant and Tom is creative in his thinking
- To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this usage):
Mumbai is a rich city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight
- To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally:
Do exercise regularly and you‘ll soon find yourself healthy and fit
- To suggest a kind of ‗comment‘ on the first clause:
Peter failed his driving test — and that surprised no one who knew him
- To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in the light of the first clause:
“We lost our way home, but we still managed to find the way finally.”
- To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative way (sometimes replaced by on the contrary):
“Ben never invested foolishly, but used the services of a wise investment counsellor.”
- To connect two ideas with the meaning of ‗with the exception of‘:
―Everybody but Cindy came to the party last night.”
- To suggest that only one option can be achieved:
“You can study hard for this exam or you will fail.”
- To interpret/refine what is said before (usually the first clause):
“NCM College is the premier all-women’s college in the country, or so it seems to most NCM College alumnae.”
- To suggest a restatement or ‗correction‘ of the first part of the sentence:
“There are no high buildings in these old villages, or so the guide tells us.”
The conjunction nor is not used as often as the other conjunctions Its most common use is in the correlative pair, neither nor:
―He is neither brave nor intelligent.‖
―That is neither what I have said nor what I have meant.‖
- It can be used with other negative expressions:
“They didn’t take a map nor did they ask the local people.”
The word for is generally used as a preposition, but its use as a coordinating conjunction is also common
“They shouted loudly, for they saw a snake on the road.”
Avoid starting sentences with "for," as it carries serious sequential implications Instead, be mindful of sentences beginning with "for," especially when contrasting with "because" and "since," which are used differently at the start of sentences Proper sentence structure enhances clarity and coherence in your writing.
Be careful of the conjunction so Sometimes, it can connect two independent clauses along with a comma, but sometimes it can‘t For instance, in this sentence,
Nam is not the only artist in his family; his brother, sister, and Uncle Toan are also talented artists.
In the following sentence, where so is acting like ‗therefore‘, the conjunction and the comma are adequate:
“Daisy has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that she avoids crowds.”
The word yet functions sometimes as an adverb and has several meanings: in addition (―yet another cause of trouble‖ or ―a simple yet noble woman‖), even
(“yet more expensive‖), still (―he is yet a novice‖), eventually (―they may yet win‖), and so soon as now (―he‘s not here yet”)
It also functions as a coordinating conjunction meaning something like
‗nevertheless‘ or ‗but‘ The word yet seems to carry an element of distinctiveness that the conjunction but cannot fully communicate
“Dung plays football well, yet his favourite sport is volleyball.”
“They complained loudly about the pool, yet they continued to go swimming every day.”
“The visitors complained yet continued to play baseball every day.”
(Notice the use of the comma in the first two sentences and its disappearance in the third.)
Yet is sometimes combined with other conjunctions, but or and It would not be unusual to sec and vet in sentences like the ones above This usage is correct
When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect two clauses which are two different but related ideas, a comma is often accompanied (but not always) by:
“Nam really wants to study abroad, but he has trouble speaking English.”
“He was hungry but he didn’t eat anything at the buffet ”
Determining whether a comma is needed can be confusing, especially since the comma is not an easy punctuation mark to master For example, in the sentence "The second sentence is without a comma while the first has," understanding proper comma usage is essential to convey clarity and correctness Mastering comma placement improves readability and ensures that your writing follows proper grammar rules, making your content more professional.
Using commas correctly is essential for clear writing; notably, a comma is always appropriate when separating two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction Additionally, a comma is necessary when attaching the final item in a serial list, though many journalists omit this Oxford comma Remember, when used correctly, commas enhance readability and ensure your sentences are grammatically sound.
Correct: “Tom spent his two-month summer studying English, Basic Maths, and Reading Comprehension.”
Incorrect: “Tom spent his two-month summer studying English, Basic Maths and Reading Comprehension.”
This comma, which is called the serial comma or the Oxford comma, will be looked at under punctuation again
A comma is not used when a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a series,
“Engineers and Commerce Graduates and Management Graduates and
Arts Graduates comprise the student community at IIM Ahmedabad.”
A comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast:
“This is a very interesting story, but difficult to remember its name.”
Remember that what has been said above applies to clauses, but when merely joining two sentence elements, a comma is not used
In most of their other roles as joiners (other than joining independent clauses, that is), coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence elements without the help of a comma
“Peter and Mary are two newcomers
It is hard to say whether English or Maths is more interesting.”
Writing is a complex act of expressing thoughts and clarifying meaning through language, involving more than just assembling words According to Flower (1981), "Writing is simply the act of expressing what you think or saying what you mean," highlighting its role in conveying personal ideas Brannon et al (1982) describe writing as "a creative art, not as an assembly line operation," emphasizing its artistic and intuitive aspects Taylor (1984) explains that writing is a process where writers use language as a tool to discover and clarify their experiences, aiming to say exactly what they mean Ultimately, writing involves forming ideas and using grammatical structures and cohesive devices to communicate effectively.
Writing is a crucial skill in language learning, serving as a powerful means of communication alongside speaking to express thoughts, ideas, and feelings Despite its importance, writing is often considered the most challenging skill to master, both academically and in real-life situations Cross (1992) emphasizes that, in preparing learners for real-world communication, writing is more difficult to justify than other skills Additionally, Tribble (1996) describes writing as a productive and essential skill that is inherently hard to acquire.
Writing skills typically require clear instructions and consistent practice to improve As Tribble (1996) highlights, writing is not a skill that can be easily developed through exposure alone; it demands intentional effort and guidance Therefore, learners must actively engage in regular practice to enhance their writing abilities and achieve proficiency.
Writing is a complex skill essential for acquiring and learning a second language It involves the process of producing words and sentences using grammatical structures and cohesive devices to effectively express thoughts, ideas, and feelings Mastering writing enhances language proficiency and facilitates better communication skills in a new language.
2.1.3.1 The notions of errors in language learning
"To err is human" highlights that making mistakes is a natural part of the human experience, regardless of who we are This is especially true when learning a second language, where errors are common, particularly in writing, which is often considered the most challenging skill to master However, the definition of an error can vary among linguists, as different experts establish different standards for identifying and categorizing language mistakes Understanding these varying norms can help language learners navigate their progress and improve effectively.
Errors are typically produced by learners who have not yet fully mastered an institutionalized language system (Corder, 1974) They are often viewed as undesirable or unwanted forms from a teacher’s perspective, especially in language learning contexts (George, 1972) Chaudron (1986) defines errors as linguistic deviations from native speaker norms or facts, or behaviors that teachers identify as needing improvement Johanson (1975) suggests that if native speakers hesitate about the acceptability of a word or construction, it should not be classified as an error According to Richards and Schmidt (2002), an error is the incorrect use of a linguistic item, such as a word or grammatical structure, which indicates faulty or incomplete learning from the perspective of fluent or native speakers.
2.1.3.2 Distinction between errors and mistakes
Previous studies
English conjunction usage remains a significant area of research, with several studies providing valuable insights Kurniasih (2014) conducted a qualitative study titled "Error Analysis of Conjunction Usage in Students' Written Recount Text," which identified common errors in students' conjunction use and their underlying causes Her research revealed that students frequently made omission and addition errors in conjunctions, as per Dulay's error categories, based on data collected from students’ written tasks outside the classroom This study highlights the challenges students face in correctly using conjunctions in recount texts and offers a foundation for further research to improve teaching strategies.
Setyawan's 2013 study titled "Analysis of Students' Errors in Using Correlated Conjunctions in Their Writing at SMP Karya Bakti Gadingrejo" examines students' use of correlative conjunctions The research highlights that students often make errors related to omission and disordering when using these conjunctions, indicating a need for improved understanding and instruction in correct correlative conjunction usage.
Hastuti (2011) conducted a study titled "An Error Analysis in Writing Procedure Text Made by Seventh Grade Students of SMP Negeri 6 Surakarta in the Academic Year 2010/2011," focusing on identifying students' errors in procedural text writing The research aimed to determine the error rate and understand the underlying causes of these errors, providing insights into students' difficulties in writing procedure texts.
Previous studies on error analysis have varied in methodology, scope, and data collection techniques While extensive research exists on error analysis overall and in writing skills specifically, there has been limited focus on coordinating conjunction errors in written English Notably, no prior research has addressed this particular issue, highlighting the unique contribution of this study conducted at Dong Nai Technology University with participants from the Faculty of English, including both teachers and students.
Chapter summary
This literature review covers key concepts such as coordinating conjunctions, writing errors, and error analysis, along with a summary of relevant previous research on written English error analysis Although numerous studies have explored error analysis in English writing, most focus on conjunctions errors overall or specific types like subordinating and correlative conjunctions However, research specifically addressing errors related to coordinating conjunctions remains limited, highlighting an area for further investigation.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research questions
The study aims to answer the following questions:
What are common coordinating conjunction errors made by the first- year English-major students at DNTU?
What are some solutions to help students minimize these errors?
Setting of the study
Dong Nai Technology University, established in 2011 through the upgrade of Dong Nai Technology College, has rapidly developed its facilities and training quality despite being a young institution This growth has led to a steady increase in student enrollment each year The university currently offers fifteen undergraduate programs including Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Food Technology, Chemical Engineering Technology, Automotive Technology, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Information Technology, Environment Engineering Technology, Finance & Banking, Accounting, Business Administration, Hospitality Management, Medical Testing, Nursing, and English Language.
In today’s globalized world, English plays a crucial role in facilitating communication within multilingual and multicultural working environments, especially at Dong Nai Technology University To meet societal needs and support the university's development, the Department of Foreign Languages was established to train both English majors and students from other faculties in general English Over recent years, the Faculty of Foreign Languages has continuously expanded to address the growing demand for high-quality English education, preparing students for the global workforce The faculty focuses on two main training programs: Business English and Translation-Interpretation.
Currently, DNTU's Faculty of Foreign Languages (FFL) has approximately 900 students, with a maximum of 30 students per class The student body comes from various provinces across Central, Southern, and Western Vietnam, including Nghệ An, Hà Tĩnh, Thanh Hóa, Bình Định, Phú Yên, Khánh Hòa, Ninh Thuận, Bình Thuận, Đồng Nai, Bình Dương, An Giang, and Vĩnh Long All students hold high school diplomas; many are recent graduates, while others have left school several years ago Although the entry-level English proficiency of FFL students is generally lower compared to students from more prestigious universities, after four years of rigorous training, they are prepared to confidently start their careers and meet employer expectations.
The Faculty of Foreign Languages (FFL) at DNTU boasts a team of twenty-two highly qualified English teachers, all holding master's degrees or higher Comprising young professionals aged between thirty and thirty-five, these educators are energetic, dynamic, and passionate about teaching Their enthusiasm and dedication ensure a stimulating learning environment for students at DNTU.
An academic year at DNTU is structured into three semesters, providing a comprehensive learning schedule for students Freshmen in the Faculty of Foreign Languages (FFL) begin enhancing their writing skills in the second semester of their first year The core English writing course, "Effective Academic Writing 1" by Alice Savage and Masoud Shafiei from Oxford University Press, guides students through essential academic writing skills Students progress through writing 1 from Units 1 to 3 and writing 2 from Units 4 to 6, ensuring a gradual skill development Each semester offers 30 lectures, with students engaging in three writing classes per week to maximize their learning outcomes This structured approach promotes continuous improvement in academic writing, essential for success in higher education.
This study examines first-year students during their second term, from December to mid-January Students are tested after completing six lectures of Writing 1, with compositions assigned following twelve lectures The research aims to evaluate students’ progress in writing skills throughout this period.
Participants
This study involved 50 freshmen from the Faculty of Foreign Languages, DNTU, all of whom have received seven years of secondary English education While the students share a common Vietnamese native language and similar educational backgrounds, their English proficiency varies widely Students from urban areas with better learning environments tend to have higher English skills, whereas those from rural regions often demonstrate limited proficiency.
Participants in the study are selected based on their perfect attendance in English writing lessons, ensuring they have attended every session Students with even a single absence are ineligible, as their inconsistent participation may compromise the accuracy of the data This strict criterion aims to prevent potential biases and ensures the reliability of the findings by involving only consistent and fully engaged students.
Instruments of data collection
This analysis of coordinating conjunction errors is divided into two parts First, a multiple-choice test in various language contexts was administered to identify common mistakes in using the seven coordinating conjunctions: and, or, but, so, for, yet, and nor The test comprised twenty sentences, with three sentences each focusing on the correct use of "and," "or," "but," "so," "for," and "yet," along with two sentences designed to evaluate understanding of coordinating conjunctions in different contexts This approach aims to highlight common errors and improve understanding of proper conjunction usage for language learners.
This study focused on assessing students' ability to identify coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) within different contexts A traditional error analysis was conducted to provide an overall understanding of common mistakes related to conjunction usage in students' writing Analyzing student compositions proves to be a persuasive and reliable method, as it reveals clear clues about their grasp of conjunctions Participants were tasked with writing three paragraphs of 80-100 words on different topics, allowing for an insightful evaluation of their understanding and application of coordinating conjunctions in written English.
Task 1: Write a paragraph of about the importance of English
Task 2: Write a paragraph about your close friends
Task 3: Write a paragraph about your hobbies
The topics given are quite familiar in order to eliminate such factors as a lack of general knowledge and insufficient English skills regarding expression.
Data collection procedures
Following their selection, participants were invited to join the data collection process They completed a 20-minute multiple-choice test, followed by writing three separate compositions on different days, each allotted 45 minutes Participants were encouraged to perform these tasks independently without using any external references under the supervision of the teacher, ensuring authentic and unbiased results.
Data analysis procedure
The study analyzed 50 multiple-choice tests by assessing the number of correct and incorrect answers, determining how many tests scored above and below five points, and calculating the total correct and incorrect responses for each of the seven coordinating conjunctions to identify the most common errors Additionally, students’ compositions on various topics were meticulously examined to count the total usage of coordinating conjunctions, identify incorrect usages, analyze the types of errors, and pinpoint which conjunctions were most frequently misused, providing comprehensive insights into students’ understanding and application of coordinating conjunctions.
Chapter summary
This chapter outlines the research questions and provides an overview of the study setting, including a brief introduction to DNTU, FFL, and the backgrounds of teachers and students, as well as details about the writing coursebook It describes the research instruments and data collection methods used to ensure reliable data, primarily through multiple-choice tests and student compositions on three topics The collected data from tests and essays were carefully reviewed, sorted, and analyzed to address the research questions and draw meaningful conclusions.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
General evaluation of the students‘ performance
Student performance was evaluated based on a comprehensive review of relevant literature from Chapter Two, supplemented by additional reliable sources such as "A Practical English Grammar" by Thomson and Martinet.
(1986), Oxford Guide to English Grammar by John Eastwood (2002), A University Grammar of English by Randolph Quirk and Sydney Greenbaum
Results and analysis from students‘ multiple-choice tests
The students‘ performance on multiple-choice tests was presented in the following tables
No of sts Pass Non-pass
Table 1: Non- pass and pass students in multiple-choice tests
The multiple-choice test consisted of twenty sentences, each with a blank where students needed to select the appropriate coordinating conjunction Correct answers awarded students half a point each, with a passing score set at five points or higher The results showed that 19 students passed the exam, representing 38%, while 31 students did not pass, accounting for 62%.
As can be seen from the table, the number of non-pass students is much higher than the number of pass students (62% in comparison with 38%)
Table 2: Number of correct and incorrect answers in multiple-choice tests
The table shows the number of correct and incorrect answers out of the total number The number of incorrect answers is slightly higher than the number of correct answers
Analysis of Tables 1 and 2 reveals that, although students' tests with incorrect answers slightly outnumber those with correct answers, a significantly higher number of tests score below five points compared to those scoring five or more This is partly because some non-pass students achieved near passing scores, with 8 or 9 correct answers Additionally, there is an inverse relationship between the number of correct answers scored by pass and non-pass students; as pass students accumulate more correct answers, non-pass students tend to have fewer correct answers.
For And Nor But Or Yet So
No % No % No % No % No % No % No % Correct answers 44 29.3 54 36 35 35 103 69 61 40.7 75 50 121 80.7
Table 3: Number of correct and incorrect answers of each of coordinating conjunctions
The table highlights the correctness and errors in students' responses for seven coordinating conjunctions Notably, "For" has the highest incorrect answer rate at 70.7%, indicating it is the most challenging for students Conversely, "So" has the lowest incorrect rate at 19.3%, showcasing better understanding Among the other conjunctions, "Then" is the second most correctly answered, with students making fewer mistakes compared to the rest These results suggest varying levels of comprehension among students regarding different coordinating conjunctions.
Students' use of coordinating conjunctions significantly impacts their accuracy While 31% of students answered correctly with the conjunction "But," an equal percentage (50%) of students answered incorrectly with "Yet," indicating that "Yet" is associated with confusion or errors Additionally, the percentage of incorrect answers involving "Or" is slightly higher than that for "Yet," highlighting the challenges students face with this conjunction These findings underscore the importance of targeted instruction to improve students' understanding and proper usage of coordinating conjunctions like "But," "Yet," and "Or."
―And‖ and ―Nor‖ is approximately equal (64% and 65% respectively)
The primary goal of the multiple-choice test was to evaluate students' ability to appropriately use coordinating conjunctions in various contexts The results revealed a poor overall performance, with only 38% of students passing and 62% failing, indicating that the pass rate was significantly lower than the failure rate Additionally, as shown in Table 2 on page 31, students' tests contained a higher number of incorrect answers (50.7%) compared to correct answers (49.3%) Analysis of performance across different coordinating conjunctions demonstrated that, in most cases, students answered more questions incorrectly than correctly, highlighting the need for targeted instructional support in this area.
The use of conjunctions like "but," "so," and "yet" was intended to assess students' understanding; however, a significant limitation was that some students may not have fully comprehended the vocabulary involved As a result, this created an objective disadvantage, making the test results unreliable.
Results and analysis from students‘ compositions
This study investigates common coordinating conjunction errors made by first-year English major students at DNTU The researcher analyzed 150 student writings, with 50 essays on each of three topics, to identify and classify errors The findings reveal frequent misuse of coordinating conjunctions, with the calculation of error frequencies highlighting specific conjunctions that students struggle with most These insights provide a clearer understanding of students' writing challenges and offer implications for targeted language instruction.
On topic 1, the students were asked to write a paragraph of about 100 words about the importance of English The number of conjunctions used in
50 students‘ compositions is illustrated in the following table
Coordinating conj Correct Incorrect Total
Table 4: Number of coordinating conjunctions used in compositions on topic 1
The analysis reveals that students used a total of 250 coordinating conjunctions in their compositions on Topic 1, with "And" being the most frequent at 148 instances, accounting for more than half of all usages "Yet" was notably absent from their work "So" appeared 43 times, making it the second most common, while "Or" and "But" were used approximately equally at 25 and 24 times respectively "Nor" and "For" were less frequent, each appearing five times The total correct uses slightly exceeded errors, with 147 correct versus 103 errors Among individual conjunctions, "And" had the highest correct application at 94 instances, compared to 54 errors, while the rest showed an approximately equal number of correct and incorrect usages.
Students were asked to write a 100-word paragraph about their close friends for Topic 2 The table shows the frequency of coordinating conjunctions used in their compositions The use of conjunctions varied among students, reflecting different writing styles and complexity Incorporating coordinating conjunctions like "and," "but," and "or" helps to create cohesive and clear descriptions of their friends Analyzing the data can provide insights into students' writing proficiency and their ability to connect ideas effectively Overall, the inclusion of coordinating conjunctions enhances the coherence and flow of their personal narratives about close friends.
Coordinating conj Correct Incorrect Total
Table 5: Number of coordinating conjunctions used in compositions on topic 2
The analysis shows that "And" was the most frequently used coordinating conjunction, appearing 192 times, with correct usage significantly surpassing errors (147 correct instances versus 45 errors) Conversely, "Nor" and "Yet" were not used at all in the students' compositions on this topic "But" ranked as the second most common conjunction, occurring 35 times, but it was used incorrectly more than half the time (18 errors), indicating frequent misuse despite its common usage.
The analysis revealed that students used the words "So" and "Or" frequently in their compositions, with "So" appearing 25 times and "Or" 21 times Errors associated with "So" accounted for half of the total mistakes, whereas errors involving "Or" comprised only one-third of the errors, indicating differing levels of accuracy in their usage Additionally, the word "For" was rarely used, appearing only three times, of which one was an error and two were correct usages This suggests that students tend to use "So" and "Or" more frequently but with varying accuracy, while "For" remains minimally incorporated into their writing.
In Topic 3, students were instructed to write a 100-word paragraph about their hobbies The analysis revealed the number of coordinating conjunctions used in their compositions Coordinating conjunctions, such as "and," "but," and "or," play a crucial role in connecting ideas and creating coherent sentences The table illustrates the variation in the frequency of these conjunctions among students' writings, highlighting differences in writing styles and complexity Incorporating appropriate coordinating conjunctions can improve paragraph flow and clarity, making the description of hobbies more engaging and well-structured This activity emphasizes the importance of using conjunctions to enhance writing cohesion in English language learning.
Coordinating conj Correct Incorrect Total
Table 6: Number of coordinating conjunctions used in compositions on topic 3
The analysis reveals that "And" was the most frequently used coordinating conjunction, appearing 153 times, with 112 correct usages and 41 errors "Or," "But," and "So" were also commonly used in students' compositions, occurring 39, 37, and 22 times respectively Conversely, "For" and "Nor" were seldom used, with only 6 and 3 instances respectively Notably, "Yet" was not used at all across the compositions on the examined topics.
The following table is introduced in order to get a better overview of the number of coordinating conjunctions used in the students‘ compositions on three topics
Coordinating conj Correct Incorrect Total
Table 7: Number of coordinating conjunctions used in compositions on 3 topics
According to the table, ―And‖, ― But‖, ―So‖, ―Or‖ were the most popular coordinating conjunctions used in the students‘ compositions while
In student compositions, "And" was the most frequently used coordinating conjunction, appearing 493 times and representing over half of all instances Conversely, "Yet" was not used at all across all compositions, indicating its rarity or lack of familiarity among students "But," "So," and "Or" were also commonly used, with 96, 90, and 85 occurrences respectively, reflecting their typical presence in writing "For" and "Nor" were less frequently used but appeared occasionally in student work Importantly, errors in using these seven coordinating conjunctions accounted for about half of the total errors, highlighting common challenges students face with proper conjunction usage.
The study revealed that errors in using "Nor" were as frequent as correct instances, indicating a significant challenge in mastering its proper usage Conversely, mistakes in using "And" were less than half of the correct examples, highlighting comparatively better accuracy with "And." These findings suggest that learners find "Nor" more difficult to apply correctly, emphasizing the need for targeted instructional focus on its proper use to improve overall language proficiency.
The coordinating conjunction errors made by the students in their compositions on three topics are shown in the following table The problems are presented in increasing order of frequency
Table 8: Students’ coordinating conjunctions errors in compositions on 3 topics
Frequent use of coordinating conjunctions in students' writing correlates with a higher number of errors, indicating that more practice with these words can impact accuracy Notably, the conjunction "yet" was absent from all student compositions, resulting in no errors related to its usage This suggests that unfamiliarity with certain coordinating conjunctions may influence writing quality, highlighting the importance of targeted grammar instruction to improve students' use of linking words.
Students rarely used ―For‖ in their compositions It was used 10 times in total, including four times being misused
- Error of using “for” at the beginning of a sentence
“Why we say English is important? For English is the world’s common language.” (Topic 1)
“I also like US- UK music For it helps me to have more new words in English and training skill in my English learning.” (Topic 3)
The word "for" is used to connect two independent clauses in a compound sentence, indicating the reason behind an action in the main clause It is important to note that the clause containing "for" cannot stand alone or form a complete sentence on its own Proper use of "for" enhances sentence clarity and contributes to effective communication.
- Error of using “for” in meaning
“Why don’t you study English for you can have a better life?” (Topic 1)
In this sentence, the clause ―you can have a better life‖ means a purpose, so instead of using for, the student should use ―so that‖ to be logical in meaning
Students also rarely used ―nor‖ in their compositions Four errors were found in their uses of ―nor‖
- Error of using “Nor” in structure
“You can’t make a relationship with the foreigner, nor can have a good salary when you did in the office.” (Topic 1)
The student’s use of "nor" was correct in meaning but grammatically incorrect To achieve proper sentence structure, an inversion should be used in the second clause, such as "nor can you have." Proper use of inversion with "nor" ensures clarity and grammatical accuracy in English sentences.
“Maybe I like English, nor I don’t afraid English.(Topic 1)
The student incorrectly used "nor" in a structural context Normally, "nor" as a coordinating conjunction is used when the first clause has a negative meaning, and the second clause begins with "nor" following an inversion structure Proper usage ensures grammatical correctness and clarity in sentence construction.
―maybe I like English‖ doesn‘t have the negative meaning, ―Nor‖ cannot be used in the second clause Other errors related to the structure when using
―Nor‖ were that the student didn‘t use inversion structure in the second clause and used ―Nor‖ with the auxiliary in the negative form (―Don‘t‖)
“You can’t communicate with the foreigner, nor you can have a good job in the future.” (Topic 1)
As analyzed in the two sentences above, this sentence also has an error in the structure of the second clause It must have an inversion structure
“I don’t like playing sports nor being disturb.” (Topic 2)
"Nor" can function as either a correlative conjunction when paired with "neither" or as a coordinating conjunction when used alone Proper usage depends on the context, such as in the sentence: "I don't like playing sports nor being disturbed," where "nor" acts as a coordinating conjunction Alternatively, "I like neither playing sports nor being disturbed" uses "nor" as a correlative conjunction, correctly pairing with "neither." Ensuring proper use of "nor" enhances sentence clarity and grammatical correctness.
The number of errors in using ―Or‖ was 29, accounting for 11.2% of the total number of errors
- Error of using “Or” at the beginning of a sentence
“We can improve our English by reading newspapers, magazines and books in English Or we can listen to English songs to improve it.” (Topic 1)
Like any other coordinating conjunctions, ―Or‖ cannot be used to start a simple sentence Instead of writing like this, the student should write:
“ We can improve our English by reading newspapers, magazines and books in English, or we can listen to English songs to improve it.” (Topic 1)
- Error of using “Or” in structure
“English is common for communication or make a relationship.” (Topic 1)
―Or‖ is used between two alternatives The two alternatives have to be parallel in structure (adj- adj, noun-noun, verb-verb, adv-adv, clause-clause)
In this sentence, ―communication‖ is a noun whereas ―make a relationship‖ is a verb phrase, so it‘s not parallel in structure
Another example for the error of using ―Or‖ in term of the structure is illustrated in the following sentence:
“We can study through the Internet or just walk the park and exchange with foreign visitors.” (Topic 1)
The alternatives in this sentence are not parallel, (through the internet versus just walk the park and exchange with the foreign visitors), so it cannot be used like this
“I’m interested in a lot of things, such as listening to music, watching movies, eating or hang out with my best friend.” (Topic 3)
Like the previous sentence, ―hang out‖ is an alternative after the word ―or‖ It must be parallel in structure with ―listening to music‖, ―watching movie‖ and
―eating‖, so it must be used in V-ing form as ―hanging out‖
- Error of using “Or” in meaning
“People from Africa, Europe or Asia choose to learn English.” (Topic 1)
“I have many hobbies like cooking, reading, watching movies or playing sports.” (Topic 3)
“Reading books tells me about the world’s history, let me see the structure of the human body or bring me a story of Sherlock Holmes.” (Topic 3)
In these sentences, the students had to use a coordinating conjunction for an additive idea (that is ―And‖) instead of an alternative with ―Or‖
“It is a really big motivation of your own to bring your dream higher or you yourself can firmly grasp your future in your hand.” (Topic 1)
Two clauses in this sentence don‘t have any relevant sense of meaning, one cannot be an alternative for the other
―So‖ is one of the coordinating conjunctions that were relatively frequently used compared to other words Errors of using ―So‖ accounted for 21.4% of the total percentage
- Error of using “So” at the beginning of a sentence
Language skills are essential across various industries such as education, medicine, engineering, and business, making them a valuable asset for career growth Mastering a new language opens up expanded professional opportunities and facilitates effective communication in diverse settings Additionally, language proficiency can enhance travel experiences by enabling smoother interactions worldwide Developing language skills thus presents a promising opportunity to advance your career and enjoy greater ease in international communication and travel.
“One person can become more confident after speaking class So, English is always the simplest and the most useful one to choose.” (Topic 1)
“….you yourself can firmly grasp your future in your hand So we can study with internet which we chat with foreign friend and find information.” (Topic
“For it helps me to have more new words in English and training skill in my English learning So I very like music.” (Topic 2)
“…and it is a way that helps me improve my knowledge, idea, and experience So I really enjoy watching TV.” (Topic 2)
Chapter summary
This chapter provides a comprehensive analysis of data collected from students' multiple-choice tests and compositions on three specified topics It discusses the findings in relation to the two primary research questions, offering insights into students' performance and understanding The analysis highlights key patterns and trends, contributing to a deeper understanding of the research objectives.
Data analysis of students' multiple-choice tests revealed poor performance, primarily due to a lack of vocabulary and limited knowledge of coordinating conjunctions Additionally, examination of student compositions showed frequent and incorrect use of coordinating conjunctions, highlighting significant errors in their application These errors were systematically categorized by type, with interlingual and intralingual factors identified as the main causes behind these challenges.