The use of language games to teach english grammar to non english majored students at an giang university

• The reality of using language games to teach English grammar to NEM students.. Last but not least, many games with instructions and supplementary materials were suggested so as to make

THE USE OF LANGUAGE GAMES TO TEACH ENGLISH GRAMMAR TO NON-ENGLISH-MAJORED STUDENTS

AT AN GIANG UNIVERSITY

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF TESOL

SUPERVISOR: LÊ THỊ THANH, Ph.D

STUDENT: HUỲNH CHÍ XUÂN HUYÊN

Ho Chi Minh City- 2008

THE USE OF LANGUAGE GAMES TO TEACH ENGLISH GRAMMAR TO NON-ENGLISH-MAJORED STUDENTS AT AN GIANG UNIVERSITY

In terms of the statement of Requirements for Thesis in Master’s Progammes issued by the Higher Degree Committee

Ho Chi Minh City, March 2008

HUỲNH CHÍ XUÂN HUYÊN

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for the care, loan, or reproduction

of theses

Ho Chi Minh City, March 2008

HUỲNH CHÍ XUÂN HUYÊN

I owe my sincere appreciation to my colleagues and students at An Giang University, my classmates from class TESOL 2003, and my friends for their contributions to the completion of my work

Finally, I want to express my profound thanks to my beloved parents, my sisters,

my husband and all relatives for their love, encouragement, and great support which were so motivative that I could conduct and complete my research

By having NEM students and teachers who taught English grammar to NEM students at AGU answer two questionnaires designed differently for each group, the author studied the following matters:

• Attitudes of teachers and students towards grammar games

• The reality of using language games to teach English grammar to NEM students

• Benefits of grammar games to NEM students

The results showed that most teachers and students had positive attitudes towards language as well as grammar games They also acknowledged the usefulness of grammar games to their teaching and learning Unexpectedly, grammar games were rarely used on average due to many reasons

Based on the findings from analyzing the questionnaires, the thesis came up with recommendations for implementing grammar games Last but not least, many games with instructions and supplementary materials were suggested so as to make

it easier and more feasible for teachers and students to use grammar games in their

classes These games were recommended for the specific grammar points in Know

How's currently used as English course books for NEM students at AGU

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 An overview about games 4

2.1.1 What are games? 4

2.1.2 Advantages of games 6

2.1.3 Game categorizations 11

2.1.4 Factors to consider when having games played in class 16

2.1.5 Criticism about games 20

2.2 Grammar 21

2.2.1 What is grammar? 21

2.2.2 The role of grammar in language teaching 23

2.2.3 Arguments for and against grammar teaching 25

2.2.3.1 Cases for grammar teaching 25

2.2.3.2 Cases against grammar teaching 28

2.2.4 Grammar in some language teaching methods 29

2.2.5 Basic principles for grammar teaching 33

2.2.5.1 The E-Factor (Efficiency= economy, ease, and efficacy) 33

2.2.5.2 The A-Factor (Appropriateness) 34

2.3 Games in grammar 35

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 38

3.1 Study location 38

3.2 Teacher population and samples 40

3.5.2 The grammar sections 44

3.6 The Know How syllabus for NEM students at AGU 44

3.7 Research instruments 44

3.8 Research methods 45

3.9 Data collection procedure 46

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 47

4.1 Students’ attitudes towards English grammar learning 47

4.1.1 Students’ interest in English grammar 47

4.1.2 Students’ perceptions on the difficulty level of grammar in Know How 48 4.1.3 The role of grammar in English learning 49

4.1.4 Methods of learning grammar 50

4.1.5 Expressing ideas in grammar class 51

4.2 Teachers and students’ attitudes towards language games, especially grammar games 52

4.2.1 Benefits of games 52

4.2.2 The frequency of using games in English class 54

4.2.3 Students’ interest in playing games 56

4.3 The reality of using grammar games to teach NEM students at AGU 57

4.3.1 The frequency of using games 57

4.3.3 The purposes for using grammar games 59

4.3.4 The stages of a grammar lesson in which games were used 60

4.3.5 Teachers’ preparation for games 61

4.3.6 The length of games 63

4.4 The real benefits of grammar games towards teaching and learning 76

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 82

5.1 Conclusions 82

5.2 Recommendations 83

5.2.1 Recommendations for implementation 83

5.2.2 Suggestions for further research 86

5.3 Suggested games for the grammar points in Know How 1 and Know How 2 87 5.4 Limitations 121

REFERENCES 122

APPENDICES 126

Figure 6 Teachers' opinions about whether games should be used frequently in

English class 55

Figure 7 Students' want of the frequency of games 56

Figure 8 Students' interest in playing games 57

Figure 9 The frequency of using games 59

Figure 10 Teachers' preparation for games 62

Figure 11 The length of games 65

Figure 12 Students' want of the newness of games 66

Figure 13 Ways of organizing games 67

Table 1 Teachers’ attitudes towards the benefits of games 53

Table 2 Students’ thought about the benefits of language games 54

Table 3 Teachers’ purposes for using grammar games 59

Table 4 Stages of a grammar lesson in which games were used 60

Table 5 Length of games used by teachers 64

Table 6 Length of games nominated by students 64

Table 7 Games teachers have used and are going to use 71

Table 8 Students’ ideas about the benefits of grammar games in reality 76

Table 9 Teachers’ ideas about the real benefits of grammar games 78

aspects of English very effectively such as language skills, vocabulary, grammar or pronunciation… as long as we know how to make use of them

Most schools nowadays design their English curriculum focusing on four language skills, still include grammar lessons in the syllabus because grammar plays a very important role in the success of students if they want to be competent in language skills

When I first studied English and many years later during the 1990s, grammar was taught by Grammar- Translation method Very few activities were done Students mostly listened to teacher's explanations and then did the exercises one by one Students might find learning grammar boring Moreover, students, at that time, might master grammar rules but were unable to use appropriate structures in real situations

Grammar needs to be taught communicatively in a more pleasant way There should be communicative activities when students have a need to exchange information or to interact Games are good communicative activities Furthermore, games are enjoyable, interesting, and motivating

I believe that grammar lessons are the basis of English learning I enjoyed playing language games when I was a student of English As a teacher of English, I like using games in my classes

deal with the grammar sections in these books to adapt to the students’ levels or

interest Since all the Focus on Grammar sections follow the same format which

seems rather boring and monotonous, a game in this pace will make the lessons more interesting and motivating With games, students can practice the grammar points and relax at the same time

1.2 Research questions

For those reasons I mentioned above, I carried out this research with the hope to find the way to use language games as learning activities to make grammar lessons more meaningful and enjoyable

This study aims at answering the following research questions:

1 What do English teachers and NEM students at AGU think about language games, especially grammar games?

2 How are grammar games being used in English classes?

3 What benefits do language games in general and grammar games in specific, bring to NEM learners of English at AGU?

4 How should games be used effectively in English grammar classes at AGU? (Some suggestions to use grammar games more effectively)

1.3 Significance of the study

Being a teacher of English, I want to do this research firstly for myself to improve

my teaching grammar, by using the benefits of games This research is also useful for other teachers who want to make teaching and learning grammar fun and effective

The students are hoped to benefit most from this research They will become more motivated and more interested in learning English Having more chance to use and practice grammar points, students will be found improve their use of grammar The

effective use of grammar points is through games, making them an important teaching tool

1.4 Overview of the thesis chapters

This thesis consists of five chapters

Chapter 1 is an Introduction This chapter introduces the rationale of the study, the

research questions, the significance of the study, and a brief look at the thesis chapters

Chapter 2, Literature Review, as its name expresses, reviews the literature, the

ideas and the findings of many researchers which relate to the problems of the thesis This is the basis for the thesis to be conducted This chapter has two main parts Part one is an overview about games and part two is what many linguists have written about grammar

Chapter 3 is Methodology The methods used to conduct the study are brought out

in details

Chapter 4 is Findings and Discussion In this chapter, the information and the data

collected are analyzed and discussed to answer the research questions

Chapter 5 is the last chapter where the researcher gives a conclusion for the whole thesis accompanied by some recommendations for better use of grammar games

and for further research

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

As its name suggests, this chapter summarizes and synthesizes the arguments and ideas from many authors, which are related to the thesis matter It provides a solid background for the investigation of the research paper

2.1 An overview about games 2.1.1 What are games?

What are games? Everyone feels intuitively that they know what a game is but its definition is elusive “The term “game” is notoriously difficult to define”(Wittgenstein, as cited in Cook, 2000, p.127)

Khan from University of Warwick, England (as cited in Brumfit, Moon, and Tongue, 1991), when conducting research in psychology and game theory defined games as followed:

Games are activities governed by rules, which set up clearly goals The achievement of these goals signals the end of the game Games involve a contest either between players or between the players and the goal, and games should lead to having fun Games are for playing, and this element of play is crucial (p.32)

Cook (2000) suggested that games can be understood both in broad sense and in specific sense The latter has some relationship with language play He wrote:

In a general sense, “game” is used to describe a range of activities, including

such unstructured ones as the rough and tumble of young animals and the ad hoc

improvisations of children’s make-believe It is also used metaphorically – in the plural – to describe the deceitful or trivial behavior of adults In a more specific sense, however, it refers to intricate, rule-governed, and culturally variable competitive activities Games in this sense can provide insights into language play for a number of reasons They are, like language itself, uniquely human; they generally involve a substantial role for chance; they are used as instruments

of competition; and they express and create cultural value and identity (p.127) Donne Byrne (1976) defined games as “a form of play governed by rules or conventions”

Similar to Khan, Hadfield (1999, p 8) also thought about game as an activity with rules, a goal and an element of fun He proposed “games should be regarded as an integral part of the language syllabus, not as an amusing activity for Friday afternoon or for the end of term” As Hadfield suggested, language games make use of a variety of techniques including “information gap, guessing, search, matching, exchanging, collecting, combining, arranging and card games, board games, puzzles and role-play”

In the words of Smith (2005), a language game is a device to create a situation in the classroom which gives learners an opportunity to use language they have already learnt in a relaxing way with maximum possible free expression in order to fulfil a simple task, to solve a problem or communicate a piece of information Games may range from the very simple with strictly limited structures for beginners

to fairly complicated simulations with advanced learners for revision work

Seaton (1982) did not give a clear definition of “games” but tried to make an explanation for this term He also based on what Lee (1979) had found Seaton demonstrated that “the essence of many games and contests in the classroom lies in outstripping, in friendly fashion, someone’s performance or in bettering one’s own.” The goals are visible and stimulating Taking part in games is largely an enjoyable pursuit and, in the classroom brings variety and helps students to get to know each other and their teacher; games can thus help to create a relaxed, friendly atmosphere Learning a language can be achieved only by using it repeatedly Language games are a means of acquiring variety in the consolidation process of language learning The elements that bring language to life in a classroom are gestures, handling and touching things, incidents, pictures, some or all of which may be part of a game or a contest Games are suitable for all learners, children and adults alike It is usually possible to adapt a game to learners’ age group, needs or special interests There are games for various stages of achievements, for different

can interact with the teacher in a more comfortable and relaxing atmosphere), which must help the process of learning and teaching

According to Lee (1979), it is not easy to distinguish between real games and like activities He found that:

game-games which have a definite beginning and an end are governed by rules, shaded off into game-like activities which have a less formal design There is no clear- cut line of division in language teaching between games and non-games (p 3) Unlike the other authors, Ur (as cited in Janssens, 1989) distinguished a game from what he called a game-like activity According to Ur, a game is an activity that is done for recreation, pleasure or fun with no utilitarian purpose; usually has a clear objective; is ruled governed, involves the performance of an active task; and is enjoyable because of some kind of pleasurable tension or entertainment On the other hand, he defined a game- like activity as “a routine language- practice procedure, with game-like features added on.” These features have various functions The first function is to make the language use more purposeful and therefore often more communicative and authentic-feeling Secondly, it is to make the activity more enjoyable and hence motivate students to participate Finally, game-like activity has the function of defining limits on what may or may not be done in the activity (“rule base”) so that students have a clear idea what they have to

do and why

Regardless of how we call the activity, game or game-like activity, what I mean by

“game” in this thesis is the activity that should have an element of fun and at the same time is seriously goal-oriented and has a learning value Therefore, I will consider game and game-like activity as just “game”

2.1.2 Advantages of games

Games in general and games for language teaching and learning in specific have a lot of advantages as many researchers have found

Cook (2000) found that “game, like language use, offers the same opportunity for individual display and communal enjoyment” and “games are vehicle for competition and collaboration” (p.128-129)

In the 17 th century, Comenius (as cited in Kelly, 196, p 100) advanced the view that seven elements found in games were particularly helpful for language learning They are movement, spontaneity, social mixing, combined effort, order, ease, and relaxation

Cook (2000, p 194-201) also set out the advantages of incorporating a play element into language teaching as follows:

Advantage 1: A play element would validate the explicit deductive teaching of

rules (where possible in the students’ first language) and frequent subsequent discussion of them by teachers and students in the light of practice

Games are typically marked by discussion of rules at every stage: before they are played for the first time, prior to each game, and in extended discussion afterwards The same is true of many other activities, such as meetings, legal and legislative procedures, rituals, political competition, and so on For this reason it seems safe to assume that language learners would find such a procedure quite normal, easy to relate to, and helpful

Advantage 2: A play element would help to remedy the apparent dilemma of

needing to choose between an emphasis on structure or an emphasis on use In games, “there can be no claimed division between form and function.”

Advantage 3: - A play element would license the treatment of the classroom as an

“artificial” rather than a “real” environment

- A play element would legitimate the use of invented examples focusing upon particular forms

- A play element would reinstate rote learning, repetition, and recitation as enjoyable learning strategies

Advantage 4: A play element would broaden the range of permitted interactional

patterns within the classroom

A variety of combinations of students is possible within all but the smallest classes: individuals may act alone, in pairs, in groups of various sizes or in concert as the whole group Each of these units, from individual to whole class, may also enter into interaction with the teacher Each combination has its own pedagogic advantages, and simulates the range of combinations outside the classroom

Advantage 5: A play element allows the forces of change and tradition to coexist,

and the teacher to move freely and as necessary between the exercise and the abdication of authority

When playing a game, players must obey the rules Their actions, speech, relationships, purposes, and even their dress, may not be of their own choosing, but dictated by the game Yet, at the same time, games promote individual expression, and create a sense of creativity and infinite possibility

From the above advantages Cook suggested, games and activities are definitely invaluable to a foreign language teacher Carrier and the Center for British Teachers (1980) summarized the advantages of using games as follows:

1 Games add variety to the range of learning situations

2 Games can be used to change the pace of a lesson and so maintain motivation

3 Games can be used to punctuate long formal teaching units and renew students’ energy before returning to more formal learning

4 Games can give “hidden” practice of specific language points without students being aware of this

5 Games encourage students’ participation and can remove the inhibitions of those who feel intimidated by formal classroom situations

6 Games can change the role of teacher from that of formal instructor to that of manager or organizer of activities that students enjoy participating in This can

be useful in reducing teacher-student distance or conflict

7 Games can increase student-student communication, and so reduce the domination of the classroom by the teacher

8 Games can act as a testing mechanism, in the sense that they will expose areas

of weakness and the need for remedial work (p 6) Lengeling and Malacher (1997) also asserted that games benefit students in a variety of ways, from cognitive aspects of language learning to more co-operative group dynamics First, in term of affective aspect, games help lower affective filter, encourage creative and spontaneous use of language, promote communicative competence, motivate students and provide fun Second, cognitively, games reinforce students’ ability to learn and remember the language Beside reviewing what they have learnt, students can also extend their language use Third, in the aspect of class dynamics, games are student-centered activities in which teacher acts only as facilitator They can build class cohesion, foster whole class participation, and promote healthy competition Fourth, games have adaptability By this, the authors meant that games are easily adjusted for ages, levels, and interests Moreover, they can be used for all four skills

Hadfield (1990), an author of many game books, believed that games should be regarded as an integral part of the language syllabus According to Hadfield, since games emphasize successful communication rather than correctness of language, they provide an opportunity for real communication, and thus constitute a bridge between the classroom and the real world

Language learning is a hard work that may make learners tired and frustrated Therefore, effort is required at any time during the procedure of learning a language item It is essential to maintain a careful balance between intensive practice and more relaxed work if the learners are to use their classroom time as efficiently as possible Few students can concentrate for long periods without some change of

long run In such situations, games can be considered useful activities to maintain students’ concentration on the lesson Wright, Betterridge and Buckby (1984) found that “games help encourage many learners to sustain their interest and work Games also help the teacher to create contexts in which the language is useful and meaningful”

It is possible to learn a language as well as enjoy oneself at the same time Games can help do this “Well- chosen games are invaluable as they give students a break and at the same time allow students to practise language skills Games are highly motivating since they are amusing and at the same time challenging” (Ersoz, 2000) Other authors may also agree with Ersoz’s ideas Hadfield (1990, Introduction) noticed “one of the most important reasons for using games is simply that they are immensely enjoyable for both teacher and student” When joining the games, learners have a need to use the language to exchange information with one another They want to express their opinions and to understand what others are saying or have written In that context, the meaning of the language learners listen to, read, speak and write will be more vividly experienced and thus better remembered The game context makes the foreign language useful to learners “It brings the target language to life” (Lewis, 1999, as quoted in Mei and Yu-jing, 2000)

Amato (as quoted in Uberman, 1998, p.20) added more benefits of games He claimed that “games can lower anxiety, thus making the acquisition of input more likely” They can give shy students more opportunity to express their ideas and feelings which may not be done in a serious classroom atmosphere

Greenall (1984) shared similar opinions with Amato He said:

Language games and activities provide an opportunity for learners to try out their newly acquired competence in a context where they feel psychologically secure They are less likely to be troubled by the fear of making mistakes since the consequences of inaccuracies and misunderstandings are fictitious and have no real significance They are thus more likely to learn from their mistakes and can use these occasions to build up their confidence (p.7)

For the above advantages, needless to say, games must be regarded as central to a teacher’s repertoire

2.1.3 Game categorizations

Authors categorized language games differently

Hadfield (1999) divided games into two main types: linguistic games and

communicative games

In linguistic games, the goal of the game is linguistic accuracy, producing a correct structure Meanwhile, communicative games are activities with a goal or aim that is not linguistic Successful completion of the communicative game will involve the carrying out of a task such as drawing in a route of map, filling in a chart, or finding two matching pictures… Nevertheless, in order to carry out this task it will be necessary to use language, and by careful construction of the task, it will be possible

to specify in advance what language will be required The emphasis in linguistic games is on accuracy, while in communicative games the emphasis falls on fluency Below are a variety of techniques Hadfield (1990 & 1999) suggested be used in games

- Information gap: Games based on information gap principle can be played in

pairs or small groups, when all the members of the group have some information This type of game may be one-sided For example, student A has access to some information which is not held by student B Student B must acquire this information

to complete a task successfully Information gap games may also be reciprocal, where both players have information which they must share to one another to solve

a problem

- Guessing games: Guessing games are also based on information gap principle

That means these games involve some information which a player withholds

deliberately and which is guessed by the other players to know what it is

- Search games: Search games are another variant of information gap games,

involving the whole class In these games, everyone in the class has one piece of information Players must obtain all or a large amount of the information available

to fill in a questionnaire or to solve a problem Each student is thus simultaneously a

giver and a collector of information

- Matching games: Matching games are based on a different principle but also

involve a transfer of information These games involve matching corresponding pairs of cards or pictures, and may be played as a whole class activity, where everyone must circulate until they find a partner with a corresponding card or picture; or as a pair work or small group activity, where players must choose pictures or cards from a selection to match those chosen by their partner from the same selection; or as a card game on the “snap” principle

- Matching-up games: Matching up games are based on a jigsaw or “fitting

together” principle Each player in a group has a list of opinions, preferences, wants and possibilities Through discussion and compromise the group must reach an agreement

- Exchanging games: Exchanging games are based on the “barter” principle

Players have certain articles, cards or ideas which they wish to exchange for others This type of game aims at making an exchange which is satisfactory to both sides

- Collecting games: Collecting games can be played as a whole class activity

where players circulate freely to exchange cards or the class can be divided into small groups In order to become the winner, players need to find the cards to have

a complete set

- Combining activities: Combining activities are those in which the players must

act on certain information in order to arrange themselves in groups such as families

or people spending holidays together

- Arranging games (sequencing or ordering games): To play these games, the

players must acquire information and act on it to arrange items in a specific order

Items to be arranged can be picture cards, events in a narrative, or even players themselves

- Board games and card games: The aim of these games is to be first round the

board, or to collect most cards, or get rid of cards first The cards and squares on the board are used as stimuli to provoke a communication exchange between players

- Puzzle-solving activities: In puzzle- solving activities, participants share or pool

information in order to solve a problem or a mystery

- Role play: Many games include an element of role play Players are given the

name and some characteristics of a fictive character The role play element is always subordinate to the game for the purposes of language use The game develops in a certain predetermined way, while role play, in the true sense, is open- ended and may develop in any number of ways

- Simulations: A simulation is the imitation in the classroom of a total situation,

where the classroom becomes a street, a hotel, or an office In simulation games, players have a specific task or series of tasks to complete within the context of the simulation

According to Byrne (1976, p 100-101), games can contribute to language proficiency by getting the learners to use language in the course of game in two main ways Firstly, games can be used to improve the learners’ command of a particular item or items of language: sounds, vocabulary, spelling, grammatical items or functions Games of this kind are concerned with accuracy Secondly, games can be used to provide the learners with opportunities to use language rather than simply practice it These games are concerned with fluency rather than accuracy

Both types of games clearly have their place in language learning The first type, with its focus on accuracy, belongs mainly to the practice and pre-production stage

Another linguist, Carrier(1980, p 10-11), divided games based on their purposes of using the language The different types of games are:

- Language points: each game aims to give extensive practice in structure

- Production games: the games practice a wider range of language points than

the previous They are most appropriate for the production or post-practice phase of

a lesson or teaching unit, where students are anxious to get away from guided language and express themselves more creatively

teacher Word games: the games of this type are subdivided into three categories: word

games, letter and spelling games, and crosswords Most of the games are concerned primarily with developing reading and writing skills, but some of them are more actively oral

- Pronunciation games: these games practice both pronunciation and sound discrimination

- Fillers: there are three groups of games : quizzes, puzzles and riddles, and filler

games The overall aim is to provide short, stimulating activities to break up or finish of long lessons or teaching sessions Language skills are practiced and developed through the games

- Projects and activities: the games may be role-playing activities that need up to

a full lesson to develop properly, and others long-term activities or projects that could be developed over a number of weeks…

- Communication games: the games are intended to develop and practice

students’ skills in communication

Smith (2005) suggested the following categories of language games

- Ice-breakers (helps tutor/ learners to get to know one another): A large number

of games can be used to break down any barriers or tension that may exist at the start of a lesson Language games get people talking to one another

- Guessing games (motivating): People like to make intelligent guesses to form

their own theories and to work things out by a process of elimination

- Information gap (generating discussion): Many language games contain

“information gaps” The object is to find the missing information players need from other members of the group

- Memory games (challenging): People like testing their memory and this can

also make them think in the language they are learning and collaborate and/ or compete with others

- Comparing/ contrasting (encourage questions and discussion): There should be

a suitable picture or text and photocopy it with alterations Learners have to find the differences by talking to each other without looking at each other’s picture/ text

- Word games (encourages language skills such as deduction/ prediction): Games

using the alphabet, dictation, drawing, sequencing, flashcards, listing and adding on can be used to help learners use and remember particular vocabulary

- Filling in a diary/ calendar (collaborating): Planning time can be a challenge

especially when it involves making arrangement that fits in with those of others in a group This can be practiced within the framework of the language of arranging meetings and planning trips

- Opinion gap (encourages fluency): Pair or group discussions where learners

represent a different point of view create interest and challenge to role-play and discussion

- Collaborating to complete a task (encourages pace/ tempo): Many activities

can be given to small groups as a joint task This encourages individuals to make a contribution and the need to get a task finished adds a sense of urgency to the work

- Role-play/ simulations (encourages students’ independence): When fully

transformed into an imaginary scenario with learners taking their own individual roles

Those authors had different opinions on the categorization of language games While Hadfield (1990 & 1999) emphasized the ways to use games categorizing different types of games, Carrier (1980) divided games based on their purposes of using the language Smith (2005), paid more attention on how games help learners

in their learning the language Byrne (1976), in few words, said about the two main aspects games are concerned with: accuracy and fluency However, there are some similarities among their ideas Both Hadfield and Smith included in their game categorization guessing games, information gap, role play and simulations Carrier and Smith shared word games

2.1.4 Factors to consider when having games played in class

Since we know that both teachers and students of a foreign language can benefit very much from games, it is important to consider some factors that enable the effectiveness of using games in a language class The teacher should choose games that are suitable for his/ her students’ level and for the purpose of the lesson Preparation is especially necessary for games in order to have the best result Besides, the teacher must ensure that he/ she can control the class during a game when students are so excited in playing games that they sometimes make so much noise or break the rules…

Carrier (1980) showed a number of factors that teacher should consider when having a game played in his language class: which game to use; when to use the game in a class time; what to prepare for the game; how to organize and manage the students; how long the game may last; and so on

2.1.4.1 Appropriate kind of games

The teacher must take many factors into account when deciding which game would

be most appropriate and most successful with his students at any one time Primarily, he will consider the levels of the students but also:

- What is the main aim of having a game? Is it for specific language or skill practice, for general practice, for relaxation or to punctuate a long lesson?

- What will interest the students? Are they young or old, serious- minded or hearted, highly motivated to learn English or not? Would they prefer an imaginative game or a logical problem-solving game?

light-2.1.4.2 Time for games

My students whenever feeling tired of the lesson often ask me to have them play game For them games are just funny activities or a kind of entertainment which bring them pleasure and relaxation In fact, games provide quite extensive practice opportunities for both general and specific skills as well as grammar structures, vocabulary, and pronunciation They should be seen as an integral part of a teaching program and their use should be planned and monitored They can be used to open

or close a lesson in a stimulating way, to punctuate a lesson, to relieve tension after

a test or concentrated practice session, or at any time that teacher feels appropriate Carrier (1980) suggested games should be used regularly while elements of surprise and variety are still maintained

2.1.4.3 Preparation

It is important that the teacher must prepare the game thoroughly Games may be good fun but they need to be carefully prepared and organized Before the game is used with a class, the teacher must be sure that the necessary facilities or aids are available In some cases this will mean preparing cards in advance, preparing overhead projector transparencies, or planning blackboard work out on paper… If visuals or cards are to be made, these must be clear and legible and attractively presented so that students feel the teacher has put some effort in to the work If the cards or the pictures are unclear or unsightly, students may lose their interest in the game

The teacher must then work out how the game is to progress, what students will need to do, and how they will be instructed in what to do It will be important here

to anticipate any problems and think about the solutions for these problems that may occur in order to be able to deal with them effectively

2.1.4.4 Classroom management

That a game can be carried out smoothly and successfully depends a lot on how the teacher organizes and manages the students Every game has its own rules that are necessary to be explained to all students who are going to join the game

The teacher must ensure that very clear instructions are given before and during the games so that students, who in any case have language difficulties, do not become confused After giving instructions, the teacher should check students’ understanding by asking them questions about the instructions and give explanation

if there is still ambiguity Sometimes the mother tongue can be used in giving instructions Wherever possible, the teacher should give a demonstration of what is

to be done as an expansion of the verbal instructions This may entail writing sample answers on the board or taking an able student to the front of the class and acting out what pairs of students need to do in the game

Some games can be suitable for individual work while most games are good for group or pair work It is advisable to encourage pair and group work where possible

as this will increase student participation, and the amount of language practice offered to each student will be much greater

The formation of groups and pairs should initially be based on the students’ immediate neighbors, to avoid noise and disruption Thus, in pair work, students choose the students next to them, behind them or in front of them as a partner In group work, students move their chairs and tables to form groups

Alternatively, group composition can be decided on the basis of students’ ability Students of the same ability make a group(groups of weak students and groups of able students) This pattern is advantageous when students can work at their own

pace without feeling that they are being overshadowed or held back by the other group members This arrangement also allows the selection or organization of games to be differentiated on an ability level For example, weak students may play the same game with able students but with easier level On the other hand, the more able students may have the opportunity to repeat a game several times while the weaker group, working at its own pace, may go through the game only once

Alternatively, groups and pairs may be composed on a mixed ability basis; that is, weak students with more able students The advantage here can be that weaker students are helped by their fellow students Good students can help correct weaker students’ errors and give guidance so that the whole group can co-operate to obtain the goals of the game

After all, Carrier concluded that in any case it is often useful for the teacher to keep

a close eye on groups to help, to correct, or to stimulate less active students to make sure that all students are involving in the activity

2.1.4.5 Duration

It is not easy to predict how long a game may last The duration of the same game may vary when the game is used in different classes The authors of the books of games do not set a fixed time for the games According to Carrier (1980), it is, however, important for the teacher to consider these points when preparing for a game:

- What is the minimum amount of time needed to play this game once?

- Is it likely that the class will wish to play the game several times over?

- What is the maximum amount of time available in the lesson?

2.1.4.6 Scoring and correction

In addition to the factors that have been mentioned above, the teacher should pay

Although not all games require scoring, this is a way of shaping or giving external purpose to the activity of the game In some classes, the elements of scoring and competition can help motivate students

It must be left to individual teachers to decide whether or not students’ language errors should be corrected during or after a particular game It is suggested that this should not be too prominent, as it may reduce student motivation or interrupt the continuity of using the language It would be preferable for the teacher to make a note of major errors These can then be referred to and explained at the end of the game or in a subsequent language lesson However, at certain times, such as when a small group are working together and copying each other’s mistakes, a certain amount of correction may be advisable

2.1.5 Criticism about games

Historically the pedagogic potential of game elements in learning has not been much admitted There have been many negative attitudes about using games in language learning

According to Schmidt (as cited in Cook, 2000, p 186), “play of whatever sort should be forbidden in all evangelical schools, and its vanity and folly should be explained to the children with warnings of how it (…) works destruction to their immortal souls.”

Khan (summarized in Brumfit, Moon, and Tongue, 1991, p 151) also discussed some misapprehensions about the use of games in the language teaching classroom and some counter-arguments.

One misapprehension was that “games are not serious and cannot therefore be treated seriously as part of a methodology for teaching English Games can only ever be decorative extras – time-fillers perhaps”(as cited in Brumfit et al, 1991) Krashen and Terrell (1982, as cited in Brumfit et al, 1991, p 151) would claim the opposite They found that “experienced instructors who work with children know

that they become more involved more quickly within an activity if it is presented in

a game format.”

Another criticism about games was that “games belong outside the classroom.” Breen (1985, cited in Brumfit et al, 1991, p 151) argued that learning activities are fully authentic for eager learners The class is a social context with as much reality for those participating in it as any context outside the classroom

Towards games in foreign language teaching and learning, some people worried if children get involved and excited in playing games, they will use their first language and gain no benefit in English However, according to Khan, we should bear in mind that switching between languages is a recognized communication strategy resorted to by many efficient language learners when faced with communication breakdown Occasional use of it is an indication of normal learning process Moreover, if the rule of the game is to use English as much as possible, it will limit students’ use of the mother tongue

“Games are noisy and therefore disruptive.” That was one more negative thought about language games Once again, Khan would argued that certain activities will

be potentially noisier than others; certain procedures will be more difficult to control than others Nevertheless, the lack of learner interest in what is going on can

be the most powerful threat to good order in the classroom When students are motivated, the classroom is in good order Purposeful and involving games can create motivation

2.2 Grammar 2.2.1 What is grammar?

The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (as cited in Harmer, 1992, p 1) defines grammar as “(The study and practice of) the rules by which words change their forms and are combined into sentences.”

Harmer (1992, p.1) also added that “grammar is the way in which words change themselves and group together to make sentences.”

In the Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, grammar is defined as:

a description of the structure of a language and the way in which linguistic units such as words and phrases are combined to produce sentences in the language It usually takes into account the meanings and functions these sentences have in the overall system of the language (as cited in L H Nguyen, 2005, p 6)

According to Ur (1991, p 4), “grammar may be roughly defined as the way language manipulates and combines words (or bits of words) in order to form longer units of meaning.” There is a set of rules which govern how units of meaning may

be constructed in any language A learner “knows grammar” means that he or she has mastered and can apply these rules to express him or herself in what would be considered acceptable language forms

Thornbury (2000) defined grammar as partly the study of what forms (or structures) are possible in a language Traditionally, grammar has been concerned almost exclusively with analysis at the level of the sentence Thus, a grammar is a description of the rules that govern how a language’s sentences are formed Grammar attempts to explain why a sentence is acceptable The system of rules that cover the order of words in a sentence is called syntax while the one that cover the formation of words morphology As Thorbury pointed out, grammar is

conventionally seen as the study of the syntax and morphology of sentences In

other words, it is the study of linguistic chains and slots, the study of the way words are chained together in a particular order, and also of what kinds of words can slot

in any one kind in a chain

In Thornbury’s words (2000), a good amateur grammarian must have the capacity

to recognize the constraints on how sentence elements are chained and how sentence slots are filled Different languages have different constraints In addition,

it is essential for a learner of a foreign language to be able to recognize and to produce well- formed sentences However, that is not enough A grammatical

sentence may not make sense in a certain context The sentence We are at home

right now is grammatically well- formed, but it doesn’t make sense in the following

context:

This is 2680239 We are at home right now Please leave a message after the beep

Therefore, we need to consider the meaning- making potential feature of grammar Grammar communicates meanings Grammar is a process for making a speaker or writer’s meaning clear when the contextual information is lacking For example, we

hear a child saying, “Mummy book” but may not know the meaning the child wants

to convey without a context The child may mean:

That’s mummy’s book

or Mummy’s got a book

or Mummy, give me the book

According to Thornbury (2000), learners need to learn not only what forms are possible but what particular forms will express their particular meanings Seen from this perspective, grammar is a tool for making meaning As a result, it is important for language teachers to focus the learner’s attention not only on the forms of the language but on the meanings these forms convey

In short, the authors mentioned above in this section all defined grammar as related

to forms and order of words in sentences Besides forms, the aspect of meaning was also considered

2.2.2 The role of grammar in language teaching

According to Janssens (1989) “grammar is central in learning another language and

is one of the ways of mastering it”

“There is no doubt that a knowledge – implicit or explicit – of grammatical rules is essential for the mastery of a language: you cannot use words unless you know how they should be put together” (Ur, 2000, p 5)

In “natural learning”, such as the learning of a first language by a child- the amount

of time and motivation devoted to learning is so great that there is no necessity for conscious planning of the learning process: sooner or later the material is absorbed However, in a formal course of study, there is very much less time available, and often less motivation, which means that learning time has to be organized for optimum efficiency This means preparing a program of study – a syllabus- so that the knowledge is presented systematically for the best acquisition And it also means preparing an organized, balanced plan of classroom teaching-learning procedures through which the learners will be able to spend some of their time concentrating on mastering one or more of the components of the target language on their way to acquiring it as a whole These components may be spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, or grammar

Grammar, then, may furnish the basis for a set of classroom activities during which

it becomes temporarily the main learning objective But the learning of grammar should be seen in the long term as one of the means of acquiring a thorough mastery

of the language as a whole, not as an end in itself Thus, although at an early stage

we may ask our students to learn a certain structure through exercises that concentrate on virtually meaningless manipulation of language, we should quickly progress to activities that use it meaningfully so as to obtain successful communication

Not every linguist agreed with Ur’s ideas of the role of grammar in language teaching Thornbury (2000, p 14) asserted that no other issue has so preoccupied theorists and practitioners as the grammar debate, and the history of language teaching is essentially the history of the claims and counterclaims for and against

the teaching of grammar Differences in attitude to the role of grammar underpin differences between methods, between teachers, and between learners

Thornbury (2000) then cited some statements on the value of grammar instruction

(p 14-15) Cotter (2005) emphasized the importance of grammar to the teaching and learning

of languages by arguing that in order to be able to say what we really want to say,

we need to have some grammatical knowledge Without grammar, words hang together without any real meaning or sense Cotter claimed: “By teaching grammar,

we not only give our students the means to express themselves, but we also fulfil their expectations of what learning a foreign language involves.”

2.2.3 Arguments for and against grammar teaching

To some authors, grammar is essential to the teaching and learning of foreign languages Other linguists, on the contrary, considered studying grammar rules as a waste of time

Thornbury (2000, p 15-17) summarized many arguments for and against grammar

2.2.3.1 Cases for grammar teaching

Thornbury introduced seven of the arguments for putting grammar in the

The sentence- machine argument:

Part of the process of language learning must be what is sometimes called item- learning- that is the memorisation of individual items such as words and phrases However the number of items a person can both retain and retrieve is limited Therefore, we need the grammatical rules to generate new sentences from the limited words Grammar is a kind of “sentence-making machine” The teaching of grammar offers the learner the means for potentially limitless linguistic creativity

The fine- tuning argument:

The purpose of grammar seems to be to allow for greater subtlety of meaning than a merely lexical system can cater for Such way of stringing words and phrases together as “Me Tarzan, you Jane” makes language fail to deliver, both in terms of intelligibility and in terms of appropriacy This is particularly the case for written language, which generally needs to be more explicit than spoken language For example, the following sentences can be confusing for the reader:

We took a wrong plane and when I saw it was very later because the plane took up After speaking a lot time with him I though that him attracted me

Last Monday night I was boring in my house

The teaching of grammar, it is argued, serves as a corrective against the kind of ambiguity represented in these examples

The fossilisation argument:

It is possible for highly motivated learners with a particular aptitude for languages

to achieve amazing levels of proficiency without any formal study On the other hand, it is very difficult for unapt learners to progress To put it technically, their linguistic competence fossilises Researches suggest that learners who receive no instruction seem to be at risk of fossilising sooner than those who receive instruction

The advance- organizer argument:

The researcher Richard Schmidt, from his experience of learning and practising Portuguese, concluded that noticing is a prerequisite for acquisition The grammar teaching he had received previously, while insufficient in itself to turn him into a fluent Portuguese speaker, had led him to notice what might otherwise have gone unnoticed, and hence had indirectly influenced his learning It had acted as a kind of advance-organiser for his later acquisition of the language

The discrete item argument:

Learning a language is really a challenge for many learners because language seems

to be a gigantic and shapeless mass with a huge number of vocabulary and an infinite number of sentences However, since grammar consist of apparently finite set of rules, it can help to reduce the enormity of the language learning task for both teachers and students By tidying language up and organising it into neat categories (sometimes called discrete items), grammarians make language digestible

“A discrete item is any unit of the grammar system that is sufficiently narrowed defined to form the focus of a lesson or an exercise”, e.g the present perfect, the definite article, possessive pronouns (Thornbury, 2000, p.17) …

The rule- of- law argument:

Grammar is a system of learnable rules, thus helps the teacher a lot, especially to deal with large classes of unruly and unmotivated learners where the need for rules, order and discipline is acute

The learner expectations argument (1):

Many learners come to language classes with fairly fixed expectations as to what they will do there One expectation may be that teaching will be grammar-focused Learners who have such expectation may have enrolled in language classes

systematic The teacher who ignores this expectation by encouraging learners simply to experience language is likely to frustrate and alienate them

2.2.3.2 Cases against grammar teaching

Thornbury (2000, p.18-20) also listed out many cases that have been made against grammar teaching

The knowledge-how argument:

Language can be viewed as a body of knowledge- such as vocabulary or grammar

It can also be viewed as a skill or a set of skills When language is viewed as a skill, learning a language is by doing it, not by studying it Learning -is-doing is what is called experiential learning If learners learn a language by studying grammar rules, they may fail to use the language in their real life

The communication argument:

There is more to knowing a language than knowing its grammar From the 1970s

on, theorists of the Communication Approach ( or CLT) have been arguing that grammatical knowledge (linguistic competence) is merely one component of what they call communicative competence Communicative competence involves knowing how to use the grammar and vocabulary of the language to achieve communicative goals, and knowing how to do this is a socially appropriate way There emerged two schools of thought The first_ or shallow-end approach_ view that you learn a language in order to use it That is: learn the rules and then apply them in life-like communication The other school of thought _ deep-end approach_ argues that you use a language in order to learn it or you learn to communicate by communicating By means of activities that engage the learner in life-like communication, the grammar will be acquired virtually unconsciously Studying the rules of grammar is simply a waste of valuable time

The acquisition argument:

The applied linguist Stephen Krashen makes the distinction between learning and acquisition According to Krashen (as summarized in Thornbury, 2000), learning results from formal instruction, typically in grammar, and is of limited use for real communication Acquisition, however, is a natural process by which languages are picked up solely through contact with speakers of those languages Krashen argues that success in a second language is due to acquisition, not learning Moreover, he claims that learnt knowledge can never become acquired knowledge Rejection of the formal study of grammar is central to Krashen’s “Natural Approach”

The natural order argument:

The idea of an innate universal grammar was first raised by Noam Chomsky, who argues that there are universal principles of grammar that we are born with It helps explain similarities in the developmental order of first language acquisition as well

as in second language acquisition It suggests that learning grammar rules from textbook will not help learners acquire the language

The learner expectation argument (2)

Many learners come to language classes expect to study the grammar of the language There are also learners who don’t want to study grammar solely but to apply grammar rules to practice They expect more time in class for the language skills rather than for the grammar lessons Since the learner expectation cut both ways, it is the teacher’s job to respond sensitively to these expectations, to provide a balance where possible, and even to negotiate a compromise

2.2.4 Grammar in some language teaching methods

Grammar has been viewed in various ways Therefore, it is understandable why people have treated grammar differently using different language teaching methods

- Should the method adhere to a grammar syllabus?

- Should the rules of grammar be made explicit?

The various ways they answered these questions help distinguish the different methods from each others What follows is a potted history of methods in the light

of their approaches to these issues

Grammar- Translation Method, as its name suggests, took grammar as the

starting point for instruction Grammar- Translation courses followed a grammar syllabus and lessons typically began with an explicit statement of the rule, followed

by exercises involving translation into and out of the mother tongue

The Direct Method, contrary to Grammar- Translation Method, allowed no

translation With this method, meaning was connected directly with the target language without going through the process of translating into the students’ native language Oral skills were focused in the Direct Method Although there was a syllabus of grammar structures, no explicit grammar rules would be applied The learners “picked up the grammar in much the same way as children pick up the grammar of their mother tongue, simply by being immersed in language Grammar was taught inductively; that was the learners were presented with examples and they figured out the rule from the examples

The Audio- Lingual Method, developed in the United States during World War II,

was somewhat similar to the Direct Method Audiolingualism derived its theoretical base from behaviorist psychology, which considered language as simply a form of behavior, to be learned through the formation of correct habits The major objective

of language teaching should be for learners to acquire the structural patterns through repetition and imitation the dialogs Grammatical rules were not provided explicitly but would be figured out or induced from examples and drills The basis of pattern- practice drills was the distinguishing feature of Audio-lingual classroom practice

In the late 1950s, Noam Chomsky’s claim that language ability is not habituated behavior but an innate human capacity prompted a reassessment of drill-and-repeat

type teaching practices The view that we were equipped at birth for language acquisition led to Krashen’s belief that formal instruction was unnecessary His

Natural Approach did away with both a grammar syllabus and explicit rule-

giving Instead, learners were exposed to large doses of comprehensible input Innate processes convert this input into output, in time Like the Direct Method, the Natural Approach attempted to replicate the conditions of first language acquisition Thus, grammar was irrelevant

Linguists who developed Communicative Language Teaching (CTL) believed

that communicate competence consists of more than simply the knowledge of the rules of grammar However, CTL, in its shallow- end version at least, did not reject grammar teaching out of hand In fact, “grammar was still the main component of

the syllabus of CTL courses, even if it was dressed up in functional labels: asking

the way, talking about yourself, making future plan etc Explicit attention to

grammar rules was not incompatible with communicative practice, either Chomsky had claimed that language was rule- governed, and this seemed to suggest to theorists that explicit rule- giving may have a place after all Grammar rules reappeared in coursebooks, and grammar teaching re-emerged in classrooms, often,

it must be said, at the expense of communicative practice.” (Thornbury, 2000, p 22)

Deep-end CTL, on the other hand, rejected both grammar based syllabuses and

grammar instruction Learners worked through a syllabuses of tasks for which no formal grammar instruction was supposedly needed nor provided Successful completion of the task was the lesson objective, not successful application of a grammar rule This method later was known as task- based learning which has more recently relaxed its approach to grammar, largely through recognition of the value

of a focus on form

To sum up, syllabuses of most approaches to language teaching were essentially grammar-based The difference was that Grammar- Translation Method and CTL