INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
The aims of the study
Building on previous research accomplishments and the practical experiences of colleagues and the researcher in teaching English vocabulary to Vietnamese learners at CFS, Nong Lam University, this study aims to explore effective vocabulary teaching strategies tailored to Vietnamese students, enhance their English language proficiency, and contribute valuable insights to the field of English language education in Vietnam.
1) To investigate the reciprocal relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension;
2) To systematize and incorporate the two groups of discovery strategies “context analysis” and “word structure analysis” into a reading comprehension class to help students improve their reading comprehension; and
3) To suggest some implications for teaching and learning vocabulary in a TOEIC reading comprehension class.
Content and scope of the study
This study focuses specifically on students enrolled in TOEIC preparation courses at CFS, Nong Lam University, and therefore, its findings are primarily applicable within this context Consequently, the results may not be generalizable to other settings or populations, limiting their broader applicability.
This study focuses on two key discovery strategies—context analysis and word structure analysis—that can enhance students' reading comprehension skills By emphasizing these strategies, the researcher aims to help learners improve their performance on the TOEIC reading section Although the study does not cover all vocabulary-learning methods due to time constraints, it highlights the effectiveness of these approaches in boosting test success Utilizing context clues and understanding word structure are essential techniques for TOEIC preparation, making them valuable tools for language learners aiming to excel.
Significance of the study
1.4.1 Scientific significance When reviewing different techniques and strategies in teaching vocabulary, the study proves that knowing a word is knowing not only its meaning, but many other aspects as well, including: pronunciation [phonetic aspects], spelling, part of speech, word-structure (prefixes, roots and suffixes) [morphological and syntactic properties], multiple meanings [semantic aspects], the context in which it can be used [pragmatic aspects] Therefore, when teaching a new vocabulary item, teachers should be strongly aware of the complexity of the matter
This study explores vocabulary in reading, emphasizing its morphological, syntactic, and pragmatic dimensions It highlights that understanding a word extends beyond traditional approaches by considering the deep, multifaceted nature of word knowledge, including active, passive, receptive, and productive components By examining these different types of word knowledge, the research offers valuable insights and practical suggestions for both teachers and learners of English to enhance vocabulary acquisition effectively.
The strategies for discovering word meaning—through context analysis and word structure analysis—are not entirely new; however, they have been revitalized through their targeted development and application within TOEIC-oriented syllabi, enhancing their effectiveness in specific teaching and learning contexts.
Experienced teachers recognize that vocabulary is a crucial element of language acquisition, essential for meaningful communication Even with strong grammar skills and mastery of sounds, without a broad vocabulary, students cannot effectively express a wide range of ideas A well-developed vocabulary enhances comprehension and allows students to engage with more diverse reading materials Additionally, robust vocabulary instruction improves overall language skills, including speaking, listening, and writing, thereby supporting comprehensive language development.
To master context analysis and word structure analysis, students must enhance their linguistic knowledge and develop critical reading and thinking skills This foundational step involves advanced textual analysis, which includes semiotics, rhetorical, ideological, and psychoanalytic methods to uncover both surface (denotative) and deeper (connotative) social meanings By examining structural features such as coherence, text organization, and concept density, students achieve a deeper understanding of texts Ultimately, these analytical strategies enrich vocabulary and significantly improve comprehensive reading skills.
The organization of the study
This study is organized into five chapters, starting with an introduction that outlines the background, purpose, significance, and structure of the research The literature review in Chapter 2 explores the crucial role of vocabulary in reading comprehension, the connection between vocabulary knowledge and reading skills, and the processes involved in vocabulary acquisition, including "context analysis" and "word-structure analysis," with particular attention to characteristics of TOEIC reading materials Chapter 3 details the research design and methodology, covering participant profiles, research instruments, instructional procedures, and data collection methods The data analysis and discussion of findings are presented in Chapter 4, providing insights into the study’s results Finally, Chapter 5 offers comprehensive conclusions, teaching implications, and recommendations for future research to enhance vocabulary instruction and reading comprehension strategies.
LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Reading as a process of communication
Essential factors affecting reading comprehension
Reading comprehension is affected by numerous variables, which are typically categorized into two main groups According to Alderson (2000), these factors include (1) those related to the reader, such as vocabulary knowledge and cognitive skills, and (2) those related to the text, such as complexity and clarity Understanding these key variables is essential for improving reading efficiency and effectiveness.
2.2.1 Factors related to the reader
Readers possess diverse levels of background knowledge, subject expertise, linguistic skills, socio-cultural understanding, and reading strategies, which influence their reading process (Alderson, 2000; RAND, 2002; Lehr & Osborn, 2005) These varying competencies contribute to different stages of comprehension, from fundamental word recognition to complex text analysis This overview highlights key aspects of how individual reader differences impact reading comprehension.
Vocabulary teaching and learning have long been neglected, with a primary focus on grammatical knowledge rather than vocabulary acquisition Traditionally, vocabulary was seen as secondary, merely supporting grammatical structures However, recently, vocabulary has gained recognition as a fundamental aspect of language development, emphasizing its importance in effective communication (Harmer, 1991).
Vocabulary is the vital backbone of language, providing essential meaning and clarity, even more so than grammatical structures While correct grammar is important, proper vocabulary usage can often compensate for structural errors, ensuring effective communication For instance, a student saying, “Yesterday, I have seen him yesterday,” makes a tense error, but the sentence is still understandable because of contextual vocabulary Mastering vocabulary is crucial for clear, accurate language use and effective communication.
Grammatical knowledge enables us to generate sentences and utterances, but expressing meaningful ideas also requires a well-developed vocabulary To effectively communicate our thoughts, we need a rich store of words to choose from, allowing us to accurately convey complex feelings and ideas For instance, when describing our current emotions, selecting the right words is essential to reflect their true depth and nuance.
Research by methodologists and linguists indicates a strong correlation between prior vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension, highlighting the critical role of vocabulary in understanding texts (Alderson, 2000) Vocabulary tests have been widely used to assess this relationship, confirming that acquiring a rich vocabulary significantly enhances reading ability Therefore, developing vocabulary is essential for improving reading comprehension skills.
A strong vocabulary is essential for reading comprehension, as good readers typically possess a rich vocabulary that supports their understanding Knowing the meanings of individual words allows readers to construct meaning and make sense of the text Without adequate vocabulary knowledge, reading comprehension becomes significantly hindered, establishing it as a serious obstacle in understanding written material.
Research indicates a strong link between syntax and reading comprehension, highlighting that grammar knowledge is essential for fluent understanding (Schmitt, 1997; Alderson, 2000) In second language (L2) learning, studies show significant relationships between syntactic processing skills and reading abilities, emphasizing that complex sentences and challenging syntax can hinder comprehension despite vocabulary familiarity (Grabe, 2005; Nuttal, 1996) Developing strong syntactic analysis skills is crucial for improving overall reading proficiency in language learners.
Grammar plays a crucial role in reading comprehension by supporting syntactic parsing, which helps readers analyze phrasal and clausal units essential for understanding meaning According to Grabe (2005), when a reader begins to engage with a text, visual word recognition activates, and simultaneously, the extraction of syntactic information starts, aiding in constructing semantic propositions Syntactic parsing also helps resolve ambiguities in the text, enhancing overall comprehension.
“when words are recognized and syntax is being parsing, the meaning of clauses and sentences is being constructed.”
About the contribution of grammar to reading comprehension, Grabe
According to 2005, grammatical word order plays a crucial role in constraining alternative meanings, ensuring clarity in communication Grammatical structure is essential for identifying parts of speech, understanding the semantic roles of noun phrases relative to verbs, and facilitating language processing It also helps distinguish between main and subordinate information within sentences, providing a clear hierarchy of ideas Additionally, grammatical information assists in identifying major referents in the text through mechanisms such as demonstrative determiners and relative clauses, thereby enhancing comprehension and coherence.
Effective information processing skills are essential for reading comprehension Researchers emphasizing the importance of not only relevant knowledge but also the ability to process text highlight that learners must acquire basic reading skills, such as skimming for main ideas and scanning for specific details (Alderson, 2000; Gebhard, 1996) Additionally, developing metacognitive strategies like identifying key information, adjusting reading speed, previewing texts, using context to resolve misunderstandings, and forming questions significantly enhance comprehension and reading efficiency.
Many studies have attempted to catalog reading skills and understand their interrelationships, but these issues remain controversial Nevertheless, most experts concur that readers generally employ specific strategies depending on the type of text they are reading.
In his work, Nunan (1999) quotes a list of reading strategies developed by the teachers in the ELTU at Chinese University (Table 2.1)
He believes that by choosing the best strategies for different texts and different purposes, second language readers can significantly increase both their reading speed as well as their comprehension
Improving reading comprehension fundamentally requires consistent practice, emphasizing the importance of reading extensively Teachers should focus on developing practical strategies that promote active reading, rather than relying solely on theoretical approaches (Nuttall, 1996) These interconnected strategies collectively enhance the reading process, which does not rely on a single method but involves multiple, integrated techniques (Alderson, 2000).
1 Having a purpose It is important for students to have a clear purpose and to keep in mind what they want to gain from the text
2 Previewing Conducting a quick survey of the text to identify the topic, the main idea, and the organization of the text
3 Skimming Looking quickly through the text to get a general idea of what it is about
4 Scanning Looking quickly through the text in order to locate specific information
5 Clustering Reading clusters of words as a unit
6 Avoiding bad habits Avoiding bad habits such as reading word-by-word
7 Predicting Anticipating what is to come
8 Reading actively Asking questions and then reading for answers
9 Inferring Identifying ideas that are not explicitly stated
10 Identifying genres Identifying the overall organizational pattern of a text
Identifying the organizational structure of a paragraph, for example, whether it follows an inductive or deductive pattern
Identifying the subject and main verb in complex sentences
Assigning correct referents to proforms, and identifying the function of conjunctions
Using context as well as parts of words (e.g., prefixes, suffixes, and stems) to work out the meaning of unknown words
Understanding the use of figurative language and metaphors
Using what one already knows to understand new ideas
17 Identifying style and its purpose
Understanding the writer’s purpose in using different stylistic devices, such as a series of short or long sentences
18 Evaluating Reading critically and assessing the truth value of textual information
19 Integrating information Tracking ideas that are developed across the text through techniques such as highlighting and note taking
20 Reviewing Looking back over a text and summarizing it
21 Reading to present Understanding the text fully and then presenting it to others
Table 2.1: A typology of reading strategies (Nunan, 1999:265-266)
Early research by Steffensen (1981) explored the impact of socio-cultural background on reading comprehension, revealing that cultural familiarity influences understanding In the study, North American and Indian readers read texts about their respective cultural weddings, with results showing North American readers understood the North American wedding description better, while Indian readers excelled in understanding the Indian wedding passage (Nunan, 1999) This highlights the significance of cultural context in reading comprehension and its importance for effective language learning and instructional design.
Reading is both a cultural and social activity, as well as a cognitive process, highlighting the influence of social and cultural environments on reading abilities Lehr & Osborn (2005) emphasize that "different reading abilities among students often reflect the varying social and cultural environments in which they live and learn to read." Similarly, Catherine Snow (RAND, 2002) supports this view, suggesting that a child's reading development is deeply connected to their social and cultural context.
“reader variability is a product of the fact that children come from and learn to read in varying socio-cultural contexts.”
The reciprocal relationship between vocabulary
Numerous studies highlight a strong link between vocabulary instruction and reading comprehension, demonstrating that a richer vocabulary—whether spoken or written—enhances a reader's ability to understand texts According to the National Reading Panel (2000), expanding vocabulary knowledge significantly improves reading comprehension, making it easier for individuals to grasp and interpret written material effectively.
Understanding the dynamic relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension is essential, as outlined by Hsueh-chao and Nation (2000:403) They highlight two main effects: first, how vocabulary knowledge influences reading comprehension, and second, how reading comprehension contributes to vocabulary growth Before exploring these effects, it is important to consider the fundamental interaction between the writer and the reader, which underpins effective communication and understanding.
2.3.1 The relationship between the writer and the reader
Many people believe that meaning is simply embedded within the text, waiting to be discovered by readers However, this is only partly true, as readers actively contribute to the interpretation and meaning they derive from the text (Nuttall, 1996:18).
The role of readers in the reading process raises important questions, such as "if different readers interpret a text differently, whose meaning is the 'real' meaning?" and "should we ask the writer about her intended message?" (Nuttall, 1996:18) While numerous studies have explored these questions, providing definitive answers remains challenging due to the complex and subjective nature of interpretation.
A text is a purposeful interaction between writers and readers, as highlighted by Hoey (2001:13) Writers create texts to fulfill specific communication objectives, while readers engage with the text to satisfy their own informational needs To effectively meet these needs, the writer must consider what questions the readers seek answers to, understanding that readers may abandon the text if it fails to address their concerns Ultimately, successful communication hinges on aligning the writer’s purpose with the readers’ expectations.
Hoey (2001) emphasizes that texts should be viewed as the product of interactions among four key participants: the author, the writer, the audience, and the reader The author assigns authority to the text and bears responsibility for its intended message, whether they are an individual or an organization, often being the same person as the writer The writer is responsible for composing the text and ensuring the language effectively conveys the intended meaning.
The author is typically the writer, which often leads to confusion between these two terms The audience of a text refers to the intended readership, representing an ideal reader that the writer envisions during the writing process Since no writer can truly know what another person wants or needs to learn, the audience remains a mental construct—an imaginary figure in the writer’s mind In contrast, the reader is the actual person who encounters and interprets the text, bringing it to life through their engagement Understanding the distinction between the author, audience, and reader is essential for effective content creation and communication.
The interaction between the author, writer, audience, and reader is complex and interconnected The author aims to communicate a specific purpose through the text, authorizing the writer to craft content that achieves this goal Writers create texts for audiences who may not perfectly match their intended readers, while readers have their own purposes for engaging with the material This dynamic relationship is often likened to dancers following each other's steps, emphasizing the collaborative and reciprocal nature of effective communication.
2.3.2 How can vocabulary learning improve reading comprehension?
Recent studies have extensively explored the relationship between vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension, focusing on key aspects such as the number of words required for effective reading in a foreign language, the rate at which vocabulary is acquired through reading, and the number of exposures needed to learn a new word Research consistently demonstrates that vocabulary knowledge is strongly associated with improved reading comprehension, highlighting the importance of building a robust vocabulary for language learners (Waring & Nation, 2004).
The National Reading Panel's review of 45 studies on vocabulary instruction highlights that effective teaching methods lead to significant improvements in reading achievement, particularly in reading comprehension tests (Shanahan, 2006) Developing strong word knowledge and the ability to access word meanings efficiently are crucial for enhancing both reading and listening comprehension (Chall, 1983, as cited in Curtis and Longo).
Increasing vocabulary knowledge is a fundamental aspect of education, as a lack of adequate vocabulary skills can pose a serious obstacle for students’ learning (Nagy, 1988) There is a well-established link between vocabulary and reading comprehension, suggesting that teaching students more words can improve their understanding of texts However, research shows that not all vocabulary instruction effectively enhances comprehension, as many commonly used methods have been found to be ineffective in achieving this goal.
Vocabulary knowledge is essential for success in both formal and informal speaking and writing, directly impacting overall language output Educational theorists and researchers consistently emphasize the close relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension, supported by numerous studies demonstrating a strong correlation between the two (Baker, 1995; Nagy, 1998; Nelson-Herber, 1986).
Marcella Hu Hsueh-chao and Paul Nation (2000:404) mention two viewpoints on the relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension:
(1) The “instrumentalist view” sees vocabulary as being a major causative factor in comprehension Good vocabulary knowledge supports good comprehension Diagrammatically, this viewpoint can be represented as follows:
The "knowledge view" considers vocabulary as a key indicator of a person's world knowledge, which is essential for reading comprehension This perspective emphasizes that readers need to bring sufficient background information to understand and make sense of the text effectively For instance, understanding complex topics like astrophysics becomes challenging without prior knowledge in the field Overall, this view highlights the importance of vocabulary and background knowledge in enhancing reading skills and comprehension.
Recent research highlights that a strong vocabulary is essential for reading fluency and comprehension, with Anderson and Freebody (1981) identifying a reader’s vocabulary knowledge as the best predictor of understanding texts Without a solid grasp of word meanings, readers struggle to comprehend what they read Additionally, studies emphasize that exposing students to a wide range of reading materials is crucial for vocabulary development and overall reading success.
2.3.3 How can reading enrich vocabulary?
Research over recent decades has confirmed that second language learners can effectively acquire vocabulary through reading, highlighting reading as a valuable tool for language development However, studies also demonstrate that vocabulary acquisition is a gradual and time-consuming process, raising important questions about the rate and extent of vocabulary growth achieved through reading Understanding how much vocabulary learners can acquire and the mechanisms behind this growth remains a critical area of investigation in language education (Grabe, 1991).
Knowledge and experience Reading comprehension
The vocabulary acquisition
Learning L2 vocabulary is a complex process that entails understanding not only how a word appears on the page but also its pronunciation, spelling, and grammatical role It involves recognizing the appropriate register, common collocations, frequency of use, and precise meaning, all of which are essential for effective language acquisition (Schmitt, 2000; Nation, 2001).
Second language vocabulary acquisition is influenced by numerous variables, including the learner's first language (L1), age, exposure frequency, motivation levels, and cultural background According to Schmitt (2000), these diverse factors make it challenging to develop a comprehensive theory of language acquisition that accounts for all such influences.
The receptive/productive distinction in language skills is based on the similarity to listening and reading as receptive skills, and speaking and writing as productive skills Receptive skills involve receiving and understanding language input through listening and reading, while productive skills focus on producing language to communicate via speaking and writing Although the terms “passive” and “active” are sometimes used interchangeably with receptive and productive, they are not entirely accurate, as receptive skills also involve active processes like producing meaning during listening and reading (Nation, 2001).
Pikulski and Templetion (2004) raised the important question of whether to use "vocabulary" or "vocabularies," emphasizing the multiple dimensions of lexical knowledge They distinguish between expressive vocabulary, which pertains to speaking and writing skills, and receptive vocabulary, related to listening and reading comprehension Additionally, spoken vocabulary encompasses both listening and speaking abilities, while written vocabulary involves reading and writing skills Understanding these different aspects of vocabulary is essential for developing effective language instruction and can be visualized through a comprehensive diagram illustrating these interconnected dimensions.
Understanding a word goes beyond recognizing its pronunciation, spelling, or basic meaning According to Nation (2001), knowing a word involves both receptive and productive knowledge, encompassing all aspects of word awareness True lexical knowledge includes understanding how the word is used in context, its grammatical properties, associations, and nuances Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of a word requires learners to develop multiple interconnected skills, not just familiarity with its sound or appearance.
According to Miller (1999:4), word form and word meaning are typically learned simultaneously, highlighting their close connection A word can be understood as an association between its form and its meaning When a single word form is linked to multiple meanings, it is described as polysemous Conversely, if a single meaning can be expressed by different word forms, these forms are considered synonymous.
According to Nation (2001:23), words are not isolated units of language but are embedded within multiple interconnected systems and levels Understanding a word involves exploring various aspects, including its meaning, form, and usage within different contexts A comprehensive table can help illustrate these details, providing insights into the complex nature of vocabulary and language learning.
R What does the word sound like?
P How is the word pronounced?
R What does the word look like? written
P How is the word written and spelled?
R What parts are recognizable in this word? word parts P What word parts are needed to express the meaning?
R What meaning does this word form signal? form and meaning P What word form can be used to express this meaning?
R What is included in the concept? concept and referents P What items can the concept refer to?
R What other words does this make us think of?
P What other words could we use instead of this one?
R In what patterns does the word occur? grammatical functions P In what patterns must we use this word?
R What words or type of words occur with this one? collocations
P What words or types of words must we use with this one?
R Where, when, and how often would we expect to meet this word?
USE constraints on use (frequency) P Where, when, and how often can we use this word?
Table 2.2 What is involved in knowing a word (Nation, 2001:27)
According to Schmitt (2000), understanding a word involves multiple facets beyond just meaning and form Many people mistakenly believe that vocabulary knowledge is limited to these two aspects, but in reality, a word's potential knowledge is complex and multi-faceted Recognizing these various dimensions is essential for a comprehensive understanding of vocabulary learning.
Traditionally, the focus has been on the meaning of a word as the key aspect of vocabulary learning, considering orthographical knowledge as a lower-level component However, recent research highlights the importance of orthographical skills in both vocabulary development and overall language processing (Schmitt, 2000) Studies on reading comprehension reveal that misjudging unfamiliar words as orthographically similar known words is a common reason for unsuccessful word guessing from context (Schmitt & McCarthy, 1997; Nation & Carter, 1989; Nation, 2001).
According to Nation (2001:45), spelling is a crucial aspect of becoming familiar with written words He emphasizes that poor spelling can negatively impact learners' writing by prompting them to adopt strategies to conceal their spelling difficulties These strategies often include using limited vocabulary, favoring regularly spelled words, and avoiding complex or hard-to-spell words, which can hinder overall language development and writing proficiency.
Traditionally, research has focused more on written vocabulary than spoken vocabulary, with scholars emphasizing written language aspects However, over the past two decades, spoken language has gained increased importance in language teaching due to the shift toward communication-oriented learning While written language remains a vital source of input for language learners, the rise of multimedia platforms has made spoken input more accessible and significant in modern language education (Schmitt & McCarthy, 1997).
Phonological knowledge of a word involves recognizing its acoustic form from continuous speech and pronouncing it clearly This process requires understanding both the individual phonemes and how they connect within the word, including syllable division and stress patterns Mastering these verbal input/output skills depends on deep knowledge of the acoustic characteristics of words at both the segment and supra-segment levels.
Listening and pronunciation present distinct challenges for language learners, as they involve both output and input aspects While learners can control their pronunciation through practice and correction, listening remains difficult because they have limited control over the rate of incoming speech Unlike reading, where individuals can take their time or reread sections, they cannot slow down or revisit audio in real-time listening, making comprehension more challenging Improving listening skills requires strategies to overcome these inherent limitations and enhance overall language proficiency.
When introducing a new vocabulary word, it is essential for teachers to provide its correct pronunciation, including stress and phonological features This can be effectively achieved by pronouncing the word both in isolation and within meaningful context, such as in phrases or sentences, to enhance students' understanding and retention Proper pronunciation guidance ensures accurate usage and supports overall language development.
“This allows students to hear the more natural intonation that comes from speaking in connected speech.” (Schmitt, 2000:58)
Many people assume that the meaning of words is solely defined by dictionary definitions, but this is a misconception Upon closer examination, the true complexity of word meanings becomes evident, revealing intriguing linguistic nuances Understanding that language is dynamic and context-dependent is essential for grasping the deeper significance of words beyond their standard definitions This exploration highlights the importance of studying word meanings in detail to appreciate how language evolves and functions effectively.
Strategies in teaching and learning vocabulary
Effective vocabulary teaching methods vary based on student characteristics and curriculum goals, as there is no single "right" or "best" approach Vocabulary instruction strategies are broadly classified into discovery strategies, which promote independent learning and exploration, and consolidation strategies, which focus on reinforcing and retaining new words According to Schmitt (1997, 2000), selecting the appropriate approach depends on the specific context and learner needs to ensure successful vocabulary acquisition.
Learners can effectively expand their vocabulary by using various discovery strategies when encountering new words These methods include analyzing the part of speech, examining affixes and roots, guessing meanings from context, consulting dictionaries, asking teachers for L1 translations, requesting paraphrases or synonyms, and seeking help from classmates Using these discovery strategies enhances language learning by fostering active engagement and deeper understanding of new vocabulary (Schmitt).
Discovery strategies can be categorized into determination strategies and social strategies Determination strategies involve individuals discovering the meaning of a new word independently, using tools like dictionaries, analyzing context, or examining word structure Social strategies, on the other hand, rely on interaction with teachers or classmates to gain word meanings, with responses including synonyms, paraphrases, or translations (Schmitt, 2000) These strategies are essential for effective vocabulary acquisition in language learning.
Effective vocabulary retention involves students actively engaging with new words through various consolidation strategies These include written and verbal repetition, studying from word lists, creating semantic maps, learning idiomatic expressions together, and taking notes in class According to Schmitt (1997), these strategies can be categorized into four groups: social (SOC), memory (MEM), cognitive (COG), and metacognitive (MET), all of which enhance long-term vocabulary retention and usage.
According to Schmitt (2000), effective consolidation strategies involve elaborative mental processing that enhances long-term retention, focusing on understanding and integration rather than mere rote memorization These strategies are designed to ensure that vocabulary knowledge is retained for future use, emphasizing both vocabulary knowledge and overall vocabulary competence Prioritizing such comprehensive approaches can significantly improve language learning outcomes by fostering deeper understanding and durable retention.
Discovery strategies commonly used in reading classes
Helping students discover the meanings of new words can be achieved through various effective strategies These include performing actions related to the word, illustrating subjects with pictures or diagrams, providing definitions in their first or second language, offering language context clues, and analyzing the word's structure Incorporating these methods can enhance vocabulary understanding and retention.
In this section, we just review some commonly used strategies, especially the two groups of strategies: context analysis and word structure analysis
2.6.1 Teaching and learning from definitions
It is helpful to provide learners with definitions of the unfamiliar words found in the reading selection However, the most important question is how teachers should explain unfamiliar words
The most common way to define a term is through synonyms or paraphrases, which clearly convey the meaning However, there are various other methods researchers recommend for providing definitions These include different types of definitions, each offering unique perspectives, to enhance clarity and understanding Utilizing diverse definition types can improve the precision and comprehensiveness of explanations.
2 A NTONYM young means not old
3 A NALYTIC DEFINITION An X is a Y which…
4 T AXONOMIC DEFINITION autumn is a season
5 D EFINITION BY EXAMPLIFICATION furniture – something like a chair, sofa, etc
6 D EFINITION BY FUNCTION pen – use it to write
7 G RAMMATICAL DEFINITION worse – comparison form of bad
8 D EFINITION OF ASSOCIATION danger – lives have not been protected
9 D EFINITION BY CLASSIFICATION family – a group of people
A key challenge of this approach is that learning vocabulary without context hinders deep understanding and long-term retention Words presented in isolation often lack meaningful connections, making it difficult for learners to grasp their full usage and significance Critics argue that this method does not effectively promote practical language use, as contextual understanding is essential for meaningful vocabulary acquisition (Schmitt, 2000; Nation, 2001).
2.6.2 Using actions, objects, pictures or diagrams
Using actions, real objects, pictures, and diagrams to present word meanings enhances comprehension by providing learners with concrete examples, making it easier to remember Combining visual aids with verbal definitions creates a “dual encoding,” storing meanings both linguistically and visually, which benefits vocabulary retention However, this method may be less effective for abstract words, as it can lead to misinterpretation and may not fully convey the underlying concept of these terms (Nation, 2001).
L2-L1 translation has often been criticized for promoting the misconception that words in the first and second languages are perfectly equivalent According to Michael Swan (1997), different languages encode meanings uniquely, as a single lexical item in one language may have multiple equivalents in another He emphasizes that meanings are parceled differently across languages, highlighting the complexity of accurate translation and the limitations of assuming direct one-to-one word equivalences.
Languages often have precise translation equivalents for words in their core senses, but this accuracy diminishes when words are used in marginal or metaphorical contexts Additionally, cultural differences can lead to vastly different classifications of concepts, making it challenging to establish direct cross-linguistic equivalents.
Vietnamese language features highly complex addressing methods, exemplified by the word "uncle," which has at least three different equivalents: "bác," "chú," and "cậu." This complexity reflects the cultural nuances embedded in Vietnamese kinship terminology Understanding these distinctions is essential for effective communication and cultural appreciation.
“aunt” also has at least 3 equivalents “bác”, “cô”, “dì” Semantically, each word has its own features, and these features may vary from one language to another
According to Laufer (1997) and Nation (2003), maximizing L2 use within the classroom is essential when learners have limited opportunities to practice outside However, incorporating L1 strategically can also yield positive effects on language acquisition.
Effective methods for conveying the meaning of an unknown word include providing a definition in the second language, demonstrating, using pictures or diagrams, showing real objects, offering L2 context clues, or providing an L1 translation While no single method is inherently superior, research indicates that L1 translations are generally the most effective due to their clarity, brevity, and familiarity Despite common criticisms of using L1-L2 word pairs for vocabulary learning, studies demonstrate that direct L2 vocabulary acquisition through word cards with L1 translations is highly effective, making it a proven strategy for language learners.
Using the L1 as a supportive tool can enhance language learning, but relying too heavily on L2-L1 translation should be avoided A balanced approach is essential, recognizing the role of the L1 while emphasizing the importance of maximizing L2 use in the classroom This strategy promotes effective foreign language acquisition by integrating the benefits of both languages (Nation, 2001, 2003; Laufer, 1997).
Numerous studies have shown that traditional vocabulary teaching strategies, such as copying definitions and sentences from dictionaries, are less effective in enhancing learners' vocabulary skills Researchers, including Shanahan (2006), conclude that these conventional methods do not significantly improve vocabulary competence, emphasizing the need for more engaging and context-based approaches in language learning.
The skill to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words through context clues is essential for effective reading comprehension As Dunmore (1989:337) emphasizes, using surrounding text to infer word meanings significantly enhances understanding and promotes independent reading skills Developing this ability allows readers to grasp complex texts more easily and supports overall language development.
Developing strong reading skills is essential for vocabulary growth, as reading actively expands a learner’s vocabulary In turn, an enriched vocabulary enhances overall reading ability, creating a positive feedback loop Central to this process is the skill of inferring meaning from context, which serves as a key catalyst in strengthening both reading comprehension and vocabulary development.
According to Hosenfeld, in order to become successful contextual guessers, readers should:
(1) Keep the meaning of a passage in mind while reading and use it to predict meaning
(2) Skip unfamiliar words and guess their meaning from remaining words in a sentence or later sentences
(3) Circle back in the text to bring to mind previous context to decode an unfamiliar word
(4) Identify the grammatical function of an unfamiliar word before guessing its meaning
(6) Examine the illustration and use information contained in it in decoding
(7) Read the title and draw inferences from it
(8) Refer to the side gloss
(13) Use knowledge of the world to decode an unfamiliar word
(14) Skip words that may add relatively little to total meaning
(Hosenfeld, 1987:24 as cited in Anderson 2000:310)
Many researchers (Dunmore, 1989, Schmitt, 2000; Laufer and Yano,
Guessing the meaning of a new word through context analysis is one of the three main strategies for managing low-frequency vocabulary However, this process is complex, and learners may not automatically succeed without guidance Experts such as Schmitt (1997) and Nation (2001) highlight several factors that influence the effectiveness of context analysis, emphasizing the importance of understanding these factors to improve vocabulary learning.
Effective context analysis requires rich textual clues to accurately infer a word’s meaning; however, many contexts lack sufficient information, making such analysis impossible Therefore, understanding that context clues are not always available or reliable is essential for accurate vocabulary comprehension and language learning.
Some characteristics of reading materials in TOEIC tests
This chapter outlines the research methodology used to evaluate the effectiveness of strategies for discovering word meaning through context analysis and word structure analysis The study employs a mixed-method approach, including questionnaires for teachers and students at CFS, Nong Lam University, classroom observations during TOEIC preparation classes, and in-depth discussions with colleagues This comprehensive approach ensures a thorough investigation of how these strategies impact language learning outcomes.
This study aims to investigate the process of vocabulary acquisition and develop effective teaching and learning strategies to enhance learners’ reading comprehension To achieve these objectives, the research is guided by key questions that explore how vocabulary is acquired and how strategic instruction can improve understanding The findings will provide valuable insights into effective methods for vocabulary development, contributing to improved reading skills for learners.
1) To what extent does English vocabulary affect the learners’ reading ability when they deal with the reading comprehension section in TOEIC test?
2) What are the appropriate discovery strategies in teaching and learning vocabulary that can be used to help the learners improve their reading comprehension?
3) How can the two groups of discovery strategies “context analysis” and “word structure analysis” help students become more self-confident and independent in discovering the meaning of unfamiliar words and thus improve their reading comprehension?
