Problem identification
Since 1995, English has been an optional subject in primary schools in Ho Chi Minh City, following Decision number 2957/GD-ĐT issued by the Ministry of Education and Training on October 14th, 1994 Since then, various coursebooks have been utilized, including "Tieng Anh dung cho hoc sinh tieu hoc" (English for Primary School Students), with multiple volumes authored by Pham Duy Trong, Pham Dang Binh, and Nguyen Quoc Tuan, and published by Education Publishing.
This article highlights essential English textbooks for primary students, including "House," "Tiếng Anh 1 – Sách dùng cho học sinh tiểu học," and "Tiếng Anh 2 – Sách dùng cho học sinh tiểu học," authored by Nguyen Van Do and Ngo Thi Tuyen It also references "Tiếng Anh 3 – Sách dùng cho học sinh tiểu học," written by Ngo Thi Tuyen and Hackner B., published by Education Publishing House Since 2005, the "Let’s Go Book 1 and Book 2," authored by Nakata, R., Frazier, K., Hoskins, B., and Wilkinson, S., and published by Oxford University Press, have been widely used to enhance primary students' English learning.
On October 30th, 2003, the Ministry of Education and Training issued Decision number 50/2003/QĐ – BGD&ĐT, which officially made English an optional subject for primary school students from Grade 3 to Grade 5, with two class periods per week This decision marked a significant milestone in integrating English into the primary curriculum and reflected its growing importance in education Consequently, English has gradually established itself as a routine part of primary education, supported by the development of new series of coursebooks to facilitate effective teaching and learning.
"Let's Learn English is a comprehensive series designed for primary school students, consisting of three grade-specific books: Book 1 for Grade 3, Book 2 for Grade 4, and Book 3 for Grade 5 Authored by Nguyen Quoc Tuan, Pham Dang Binh, and Phan, these books aim to develop young learners' English language skills effectively."
Ha, Do Thi Ngoc Hien, Dao Ngoc Loc, and Lin W M collaborated on the publication of Book 1 in 2006, released by Vietnam's Education Publishing House in partnership with Panpac Education Publishing House from Singapore This educational book was piloted during the 2006–2007 school year at Nguyen Binh Khiem Primary School in District.
Giong Ong To Primary School in District 2 and Luong The Vinh Primary School in Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City, are both using this coursebook as the primary resource for teaching English to Grade 1 students While Giong Ong To Primary School is involved in experimental teaching, Luong The Vinh Primary School, which is not designated for experimental instruction, also adopts this coursebook for its English curriculum.
Purpose of the study and overview of the thesis
This theme-based coursebook is specially designed to suit the levels and ages of primary school students, following a new pedagogical methodology An in-depth evaluation is essential to determine how well the coursebook aligns with the syllabus requirements and whether it effectively addresses the interests and needs of young learners.
This research begins with a comprehensive overview of primary education in Vietnam, highlighting the current state and challenges It then focuses on the reality of English teaching in primary schools in Ho Chi Minh City, examining teaching practices and classroom dynamics Finally, the study conducts an in-depth analysis of the syllabus to assess its effectiveness and alignment with educational goals.
The upcoming chapter will outline the fundamental principles that coursebook writers must adhere to in accordance with the syllabus It emphasizes the importance of considering the interests and needs of primary schoolchildren to ensure effective learning Additionally, the chapter will review existing literature on evaluation to provide a comprehensive understanding of assessment methods in education.
The third chapter will focus mainly on the set up of evaluation criteria and the design of questionnaires
Chapter four is for the carrying out of the evaluation process The results will be discussed after that
The last part of the thesis will make recommendations on how to use the coursebook effectively, mostly how to adapt it.
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
An overview of primary education in Vietnam
Primary education is carried out in 5 schoolyears, from grade 1 to grade 5
Children typically begin primary school at age six, with the goal of establishing a solid foundation for their overall development Primary education focuses on nurturing morality, intelligence, physical growth, aesthetic appreciation, and essential skills, preparing pupils for successful continuation in junior secondary school.
Curricula and educational activities are as follows:
Subject and educational activities Grade
Extracurricular education 4 periods / month Optional subjects
Table 1.1 outlines the curricula and educational activities in primary schools, indicating the number of class periods allocated to each subject or activity per week Each column represents a specific subject or activity, with the figures showing the weekly class periods dedicated to them Students are required to attend school for at least 35 weeks each year, ensuring consistent exposure to the curriculum This structure highlights the emphasis on a balanced educational program that covers core subjects and extracurricular activities throughout the school year.
The total weekly duration of all compulsory subjects and activities is indicated by the "+" sign, which also allows for the inclusion of optional subjects' durations The "*" symbol represents the allocated time for optional subjects Starting from grade 3, students have the opportunity to choose optional subjects, with foreign languages and informatics being the primary options Schools equipped with sufficient staff, facilities, and parental consent can offer instruction in foreign languages and informatics, providing students with valuable additional learning opportunities.
Primary education is essential for students to gain basic knowledge of nature, society, and humanity, while developing fundamental skills such as listening, speaking, writing, and math It also fosters habits of physical activity, hygiene, and sanitation Additionally, students are introduced to arts like singing, dancing, music, and fine arts, promoting their cultural awareness Through primary education, pupils learn to love their homeland and fellow citizens, exhibit good behavior towards family, school, teachers, and peers, and develop a positive attitude towards studying and working Moreover, it cultivates an appreciation for nature and environmental conservation, laying the foundation for responsible citizenship.
1.2 An overview of the reality of English Language Teaching in primary schools in Ho Chi Minh City
Since 1995, English has been offered as an optional subject in Ho Chi Minh City, following Decision No 2957/GD–ĐT issued by the Ministry of Education and Training on October 14th, 1994.
In 1998, Ho Chi Minh City's Service of Education and Training launched an experimental English teaching program, known as the Intensive English Program, for secondary and primary school students Currently, over 100 primary schools offer intensive English courses, while more than 400 primary schools provide English as an optional subject, including those that offer the intensive English program.
1.2.1 Teaching intensive English 1.2.1.1 Teaching staff: Teachers are recruited from those who have majored in English and graduated from any college or university Applicants have to pass a rather stiff selection examination They then attend a short training course which is often under the auspices of the British Council in Ho Chi Minh City to be trained to teach primary schoolchildren Most of these teachers become government employees afterwards The teaching staff are fairly qualified and stable
1.2.1.2 Pupils: Pupils are also recruited from the children who are going to enter Grade 1 Applicants have to pass a selection test for aptitude for languages Pupils studying intensive English study English from Grade 1 to Grade 5 Every week they study English 8 class periods
1.2.1.3 Coursebooks: Let’s Go series, published by Oxford University
The series includes five grade-specific books: Book 1 for Grade 1, Book 2 for Grade 2, Book 3 for Grade 3, Book 4 for Grade 4, and Book 5 for Grade 5 Each level features five core components: the Student Book, Workbook, Teacher’s Book, Cassette or Compact Disc, Student Cards, and full-sized Teacher Cards Additionally, Levels 1 and 2 include Wall Charts to support learning The program also offers supplementary materials such as Readers, Let’s Chant, and other educational resources to enhance classroom instruction.
Sing, Picture Dictionary, CD-Rom There are also Grammar and Listening Activity Books for levels 1-3
1.2.1.4 Teaching facilities: Most schools have a language lab with multimedia equipment Other teaching aids such as cassette players, overhead projectors, opaque projectors, computers and projectors, etc, are also available Some schools even invite native speakers to teach their pupils part of the time allotted
1.2.2 Teaching optional English 1.2.2.1 Teaching staff: Teachers are those who have majored in English and graduated from any college or university and invited by each school itself In some schools, teachers who teach intensive English also teach optional English In general, the teaching staff are not stable
1.2.2.2 Pupils: Pupils are the children who voluntarily choose to study
English as an optional subject, often all the pupils in the school except the ones who study intensive English Pupils studying optional English study English from Grade
3 to Grade 5 Every week they study English two class periods There are also schools teaching optional English from Grade 2
1.2.2.3 Coursebooks: Most schools used Tieng Anh 1, Tieng Anh 2 written by Nguyen Van Do and Ngo Thi Tuyen and Tieng Anh 3 written by Ngo Thi Tuyen and Hackner B as main coursebooks : Tieng Anh 1 for Grade 3, Tieng Anh 2 for Grade 4, and Tieng Anh 3 for Grade 5 The coursebook package consists of the Student Book, the Workbook, the Teacher’s Book and the Cassette Since 2005 Let’s
Go Book 1 and Book 2 published by Oxford University Press have been used: Book
1 for Grade 1 and 2; and Book 2 for Grade 3 and 4
1.2.2.4 Teaching facilities: Most schools are equipped with cassette players Teachers have to spend much time making teaching aids In some schools, pupils studying optional English share teaching facilities with pupils studying intensive English
1.3 The syllabus for English as an optional subject in primary schools
The Ministry of Education and Training issued the syllabus for English as an optional subject in primary schools on October 30th, 2003, as part of Decision number 50/2003/QĐ-BGD&ĐT, providing a foundational curriculum for early language education.
The syllabus begins with its aims:
1 To help pupils possess basic, simple communicative skills, especially listening and speaking skills used in everyday communication at school and at home
2 a To provide pupils with basic, simple knowledge of English b To help pupils gain knowledge about the people and culture of some English speaking countries
3 a To take part in shaping in pupils a positive attitude to the English language b To help pupils acquire more knowledge and love of the Vietnamese language through studying English c To take part in shaping in pupils a method of learning and developing pupils’ personality and intelligence
The syllabus for English as an optional subject in primary schools
The Ministry of Education and Training issued the syllabus for English as an optional subject in primary schools on October 30th, 2003, as an attachment to Decision number 50/2003/QĐ-BGD&ĐT.
The syllabus begins with its aims:
1 To help pupils possess basic, simple communicative skills, especially listening and speaking skills used in everyday communication at school and at home
2 a To provide pupils with basic, simple knowledge of English b To help pupils gain knowledge about the people and culture of some English speaking countries
3 a To take part in shaping in pupils a positive attitude to the English language b To help pupils acquire more knowledge and love of the Vietnamese language through studying English c To take part in shaping in pupils a method of learning and developing pupils’ personality and intelligence
The syllabus defines its content by emphasizing the development of the four key language skills—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—along with essential language knowledge such as phonology, vocabulary, and grammar It centers around four core themes: oneself and friends, family and daily activities, school and learning experiences, entertainment, and the broader world around us The curriculum is carefully structured and graded according to student grades, from grade 3 onward, ensuring progressive language development tailored to each learning stage.
After completing the optional English course in primary school, students develop fundamental communication skills in English, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing At this initial stage, emphasis is placed primarily on enhancing listening and speaking abilities to build a solid language foundation.
The requirements for each skill are as follows
- To understand simple, short sentences relating to the themes studied
- To understand the main ideas of simple, short dialogues, and passages within the scope of the knowledge and themes studied
- Ask and answer questions using short, simple sentences relating to the themes studied
- Use words and basic sentences to talk about oneself, one’s family, school, learning activities and entertainment
- To understand the content of simple dialogues, and passages that contain about 40 to 50 words within the scope of the themes and linguistic items studied
- To understand the main ideas of simple readings relating to the themes and linguistic items studied
- To be able to write simple sentences relating to the themes and communicative situations within the scope of linguistic items studied
- To be able to fill in simple forms such as notebook labels, timetables, school schedules, envelopes, postcards, and personal records
As for knowledge, the syllabus refers to two types of knowledge: language knowledge and cultural understanding
After three years of studying English, pupils should acquire fundamental communication skills appropriate for their age, covering essential phonology, vocabulary, and grammar They are expected to have a basic understanding of English used in everyday communication, aligned with the themes studied in their curriculum This foundational knowledge enables students to effectively use simple language and engage confidently in basic conversations.
Pupils develop the ability to accurately pronounce both vowel and consonant sounds, ensuring clear and correct speech They learn to speak with proper stress and intonation, emphasizing challenging sounds that may not exist in Vietnamese This pronunciation practice enhances overall speaking skills and boosts language confidence.
- Pupils can use about 450 to 500 words
The number of words is distributed as follows : Grade 3:120 to 140 words
Pupils can use the following grammatical items:
- Verbs denoting learning activities, everyday activities, and entertainment used in the simple present, the simple present continuous, the simple past and the structures denoting future activities
- Nouns denoting people, animals, objects, location, time, cardinal numbers, etc, singular / plural, countable / uncountable nouns, etc
- Pronouns: personal, interrogative, demonstrative, possessive
- Adverbs of time, place, manner, frequency
- Conjunction used in simple compound sentences
- Simple sentences and simple, basic compound sentences
Pupils should have initial knowledge about the people, the country, the culture of some English speaking countries
- They should know some common proper names of people, of some famous countries, cities, symbols and places
-Pupils should have initial knowledge about learning activities, everyday life activities, entertainment and amusements such as greeting, making acquaintance, introducing, etc, of people in some English speaking countries
The English syllabus concludes with detailed instructions on how to apply and utilize its guidelines effectively It emphasizes that the syllabus is designed to facilitate communicative activities, using thematic content as the foundation for teaching The curriculum is built around core principles that support engaging, theme-based learning, ensuring students develop practical language skills through interactive and meaningful activities.
Selected themes should foster interpersonal communication and be tailored to the specific age group, addressing their needs, experiences, and comprehension levels Content must be engaging, lively, and repeated with increasing complexity each year to promote continuous growth and understanding.
When creating teaching materials, it is essential to ensure the language used is authentic, accurate, and contextually appropriate, making it practical and easily understandable for students The syllabus emphasizes the importance of designing lessons, exercises, and communicative activities that integrate pictures, words, and sounds harmoniously, fostering engaging and effective learning experiences Materials should balance linguistic elements and skills, gradually progressing from simple to complex, aligned with students' cognitive development and comprehension levels This graded approach supports a natural progression in learning, ensuring activities are familiar, appealing, and highly usable for pupils.
Effective teaching activities prioritize the pupil as the central subject of the learning process, with the teacher serving as the organizer, guide, and monitor of student activities The content taught must strictly align with the specified objectives and syllabus, ensuring consistency and focus To enhance learning, activities should be diverse and plentiful, integrating various teaching methods and techniques, while making optimal use of the syllabus, textbooks, reference materials, and teaching aids Organizing lessons through different formats—such as studying, enjoyment, individual work, pair work, group work, and timely use of Vietnamese—can facilitate positive transfer from Vietnamese to English and promote a dynamic, engaging learning environment.
Effective language learning requires students to develop four essential skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing Incorporating linguistic components like phonology, vocabulary, and grammar is vital to enhancing overall communicative competence Communicative activities should be thematically relevant and contextually engaging, appealing in both content and form When guided by teachers, students participate actively, creatively, and consciously in these activities, fostering better language acquisition.
Effective testing and evaluation in education must align strictly with the curriculum objectives, content, and standards of knowledge and skills Assessments should encompass listening, speaking, reading, and writing activities to comprehensively gauge student progress Evaluation should be based on test results and the overall learning process, combining regular assessments with periodic evaluations for accuracy Adequate planning regarding time allocation, teaching staff, student numbers, teaching aids, and management practices is essential to meet the syllabus's aims Additionally, class sizes should be kept manageable to ensure effective teaching and learning outcomes.
The following comments can be made on the syllabus
The syllabus is really what Nunan (1999: 305) and Richards, et al (1993: 368) call curriculum In general the syllabus is designed based on recent advances in applied linguistics and language teaching methodology
First, the syllabus is a theme-based syllabus It is organised around themes and topics
Second, the syllabus aims at helping pupils develop good communication skills in English through functional language
Third, the syllabus advocates learner-centered instruction which is effective, motivating and enjoyable
Fourth, the syllabus urges coursebook writers to pay full attention to satisfying the needs and interests of its intended users, Grade 3 pupils
However, the syllabus goes somewhat far into detail when listing the content pupils in each grade have to learn
A syllabus serves as a flexible framework that facilitates learning by providing a structure for activities, rather than strict rules dictating content (Widdowson, 1984, as cited in Nunan, 1999) It should be used as a guide or reference point to support effective teaching, rather than an inflexible mandate that threatens pedagogical flexibility Coursebook writers must therefore adapt and utilize the syllabus appropriately to optimize learning outcomes and processes (Hutchinson and Waters, 1991).
This article provides an overview of primary education in Vietnam, highlighting the current state of English Language Teaching (ELT) in primary schools in Ho Chi Minh City It examines the English syllabus, which is offered as an optional subject, and explores the challenges and opportunities within the current teaching practices The findings aim to contribute to a better understanding of English education at the primary level in Vietnam The next section will present a comprehensive literature review to support this analysis.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition of syllabus and different types of syllabuses
A syllabus is a key component of curriculum design, which encompasses all elements involved in planning, implementing, and evaluating learning programs According to Nunan (1999), curriculum includes syllabus design—focused on selecting, sequencing, and justifying content—along with methodology and assessment Nunan (1999) differentiates syllabus as the part of the curriculum concerned specifically with the selection, sequencing, and justification of linguistic and experiential content, whereas methodology deals with tasks and activities However, with the rise of task-based and process-oriented approaches, the clear separation between syllabus and methodology has become increasingly challenging to maintain, reflecting the evolving nature of language curriculum development.
Nunan (1999) highlights that traditional views separate syllabus design as focusing on content selection and grading, while methodology deals with learning tasks and activities However, with the rise of communicative language teaching, this strict division becomes less sustainable, as the distinction between content and tasks is increasingly blurred, emphasizing the integrated nature of modern language instruction.
Richards et al (1993) define curriculum as an educational program that outlines the purpose of the education (the ends), the content, teaching procedures, and learning experiences necessary to achieve these goals (the means), as well as methods for assessing whether the educational objectives have been met A syllabus, according to the same authors, describes the contents of a course and the sequence in which they are taught, providing a detailed guide for instruction This comprehensive understanding underscores the importance of clear educational planning and structured content delivery in effective teaching.
Hutchinson and Waters (1991: 80-83) define a syllabus as a document outlining what should be learned, emphasizing its role in guiding the learning process They explain that the statement of learning objectives undergoes multiple stages before reaching the learner's mind, highlighting the complexity of syllabus development Additionally, Hutchinson and Waters discuss various types of syllabuses, illustrating different approaches to structuring language instruction.
An evaluation syllabus is a document issued by ministries or regulatory bodies that clearly defines what successful learners will know by the end of the course It outlines the key knowledge and skills to be acquired, serving as a benchmark for assessing learner performance Essentially, the syllabus records the criteria on which success or failure will be determined, ensuring transparent evaluation standards Incorporating an evaluation syllabus helps ensure clarity in educational objectives and facilitates effective assessment strategies.
- The organisational syllabus: “As well as listing what should be learnt, a syllabus can also state the order in which it is to be learnt.”
The materials syllabus in writing focuses on the author's assumptions about the nature of language and its use It involves selecting specific contexts where the language will be applied, determining the emphasis and integration of different skills, and deciding on the number and types of exercises for each language aspect Additionally, the syllabus considers how much recycling or revision of content is necessary to reinforce learning, ensuring a comprehensive and tailored approach to language instruction.
- The teacher syllabus: “Like the materials writer, the teacher can influence the clarity, intensity and frequency of any item, and thereby affect the image that the learners receive.”
- The classroom syllabus: “The classroom, too, creates conditions which will affect the nature of a planned lesson.”
- The learner syllabus: “It is the network of knowledge that develops in the leaner’s brain and which enables that learner to comprehend and store the later knowledge.”
Hutchinson and Waters (1991: 80-83) outline various types of syllabuses to illustrate the evolving process from initial evaluation syllabuses to learner-centered syllabuses They emphasize that there is no direct link between the initial evaluation phase and the final learner syllabus, highlighting the dynamic and transitional nature of syllabus development.
Johnson (1990:1) defines 'curriculum' broadly as encompassing all relevant decision-making processes of all participants involved in education These decision-making processes result in tangible outputs such as policy documents, syllabuses, teacher training programs, teaching materials, resources, and classroom activities, which can be observed and described Johnson further illustrates this comprehensive view with a table (1990:3) that clarifies the various components and products of the curriculum This approach highlights the curriculum as a dynamic and multi-faceted aspect of educational planning and implementation.
Developmental stages Decision-making roles Products 1.curriculum planning policy makers policy document needs analyst
2.specification: ends means methodologists syllabus materials writers teaching materials
3.programme implementation teacher trainers teacher-training programme teacher teaching acts
4.classroom implementation learner learning acts
Table 2.1: Johnson’s (1990: 3) Stages, Decision-making roles and Products in Curriculum development
These definitions are cited to supply the basis for identifying the nature of the syllabus under consideration Different types of syllabus are mentioned now
Richards (1990: 9) identifies common types of syllabuses used in English as a second language (ESL) courses, especially for speaking and listening instruction These include various variants and combinations, emphasizing the diverse approaches in ESL curriculum design Understanding these syllabuses is essential for designing effective language learning programs that enhance students’ communication skills.
“1 Structural (organised primarily around grammar and sentence patterns)
2 Functional (organised around communicative functions, such as identifying, reporting, correcting, describing)
3 Notional (organised around conceptual categories, such as duration, quantity, location)
4 Topical (organised around themes or topics, such as health, food, clothing)
5 Situational (organised around speech settings and the transactions associated with them, such as shopping at the bank, at the supermarket)
6 Skills (organised around skills, such as listening for gist, listening for specific information, listening for inferences)
7 Task or activity-based (organised around activities, such as drawing maps, following instructions).”
Richards (1910: 9-10) highlights that despite the significant body of literature on syllabus design, there is limited empirical evidence supporting a single, definitive approach In practice, educators often combine multiple syllabus development methods to best meet their instructional goals This emphasizes the flexibility and pragmatic nature of syllabus design in language teaching, encouraging a mix of strategies rather than relying on one rigid approach.
Hutchinson and Waters (1991: 85-88) identify various types of English for Special Purposes (ESP) course syllabi, including topic, structural/situational, functional/notional, skills, situational, functional/task-based, discourse/skills, and skills and strategies syllabi These different syllabi reflect diverse approaches to designing ESP programs, focusing on specific language functions, skills, or contextual situations Understanding these classifications helps educators tailor ESP courses to meet learners' specific needs and objectives effectively.
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1991), effective teaching materials often operate multiple syllabuses simultaneously, with one serving as the primary organizing framework However, other syllabuses remain present within the materials, even if they are not explicitly addressed in their organization This highlights the complex and multifaceted nature of language teaching resources, emphasizing the importance of designing materials that acknowledge various linguistic and communicative objectives.
Cunningsworth (1995: 55) only pays attention to content-based syllabus According to Cunningsworth, “White (1998) identifies four types of content base in syllabus design These are:
- function (with a notional/ functional basis)
- topic (with an informational focus).”
Cunningsworth has the same idea, “ it should be borne in mind that the actual content of coursebook will be based on a combination of these factors.”
These classifications help recognize the type of the syllabus for English as an optional subject in primary schools
The syllabus is developed based on the latest advancements in applied linguistics and innovative language teaching methodologies It incorporates key theories such as communicative language teaching, theme-based instruction, and learner-centered approaches, ensuring an effective and modern language learning experience.
Theories of communicative language teaching, theme-based instruction and learner-centered instruction
The Ministry of Education and Training's syllabus is designed to facilitate communicative activities by focusing on thematic content, ensuring that teaching materials are relevant and engaging.
The communicative approach, as described by Celce-Murcia (1991:8), originated from the work of anthropological linguists like Hymes (1972) and Firthian linguists such as Halliday (1973), who see language primarily as a system for communication This approach emphasizes the importance of meaningful interaction and real-life communication in language learning, making it essential for developing practical speaking and listening skills Recognized for its focus on functional language use, the communicative approach aims to enhance fluency and comprehension through authentic communicative tasks.
Effective language teaching focuses on developing learners' ability to communicate fluently in the target language, emphasizing real-life social functions and semantic understanding Classroom activities often involve pair or group work where students negotiate and transfer meaning, enhancing their interactive skills Role plays and dramatizations are commonly used to help students adapt their language use across various social contexts Authentic materials and activities are incorporated to simulate real-life situations, making learning more relevant Skills such as reading, speaking, listening, and writing are integrated from the start, especially for literate learners, promoting comprehensive language development The teacher's primary role is to facilitate communication and create opportunities for meaningful interaction, while error correction is secondary Additionally, teachers should demonstrate fluency and appropriateness in using the target language to serve as effective language models.
According to Celce-Mercia (1991), key characteristics of effective language teaching include clear goals, engaging course content, interactive classroom activities, and defined learner and teacher roles Nunan (1999: 246) further emphasizes these aspects by outlining specific traits that contribute to successful language instruction, highlighting the importance of structured lessons, learner-centered approaches, and the evolving roles of teachers and students in the learning process These insights collectively underline the essential elements for designing effective language courses that promote active learning and linguistic proficiency.
“Theory of language interaction: Language is the systems for the expression of meaning: primary function - and communication
Theory of learning: Activities involving real communication, carrying out meaningful talks, and using language that is meaningful to the learner promote learning
Objectives: Objectives will reflect the needs of the learner, they will include functional skills as well as linguistic objectives
Syllabus: Will include some or all of the following: structures, functions, notions, themes, and tasks Ordering will be guided by learner needs
Activities: Engage learners in communication, involve processes such as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction
Learner role: Learner as negotiator,interactor, giving as well as taking
Teacher role: Facilitator of the communication process, needs analyst, counselor, process manager
Role of materials: Primary role of promoting communicative language use; task-based, authentic.”
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), as defined by Nunan (1999), encompasses a range of approaches focused on helping learners communicate meaningfully in a target language Early CLT methods often de-emphasized grammar, with some advocating for the complete omission of focus on form However, modern approaches recognize the importance of grammar, emphasizing the connection between grammatical form and communicative meaning to enhance language proficiency.
Brown (2003: 266) offers the following four interconnected characteristics as a definition of communicative language teaching:
“1 Classroom goals are focused on all of the components of communicative competence and not restricted to grammatical or linguistic competence
2 Language techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes Organizational language forms are not the central focus but rather aspects of language that enable the learner to accomplish those purposes
3 Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques At times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use
4 In the communicative classroom, students ultimately have to use the language, productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts.”
Brown (2003) adds the notions of fluency and accuracy to make the definition more comprehensive
Richards (2006) describes communicative language teaching as a set of principles focused on the goals of language education, effective methods for learner engagement, and the roles of teachers and students within the classroom He emphasizes that this approach prioritizes meaningful communication and interaction as key to language acquisition According to Richards, the core assumptions of communicative language teaching include facilitating authentic communication, promoting learner-centered activities, and encouraging real-life language use These principles aim to create an engaging and effective learning environment that enhances students' ability to use language confidently in practical contexts.
“1 Second language learning is facilitated when learners are ingaged in interaction and meaningful communication
2 Effective classroom learning tasks and exercises provide opportunities for students to negotiate meaning, expand their language resources, notice how language is used, and take part in meaningful interpersonal exchange
3 Meaningful communication results from students processing content that is relevant, purposeful, interesting, and engaging
4 Communication is a holistic process that often calls upon the use of several language skills or modalities
5 Language learning is facilitated by activities that involve inductive or discovery learning of underlying rules of language use and organisation, as well as by those involving language analysis and reflection
6 Language learning is a grsdual process that involves creative use of language, and trial and error Although errors are a normal product of learning, the ultimate goal of learning is to be able to use the new language both accurately and fluently
7 Leaners develop their own routes to language learning, progress at different rates, and have different needs and motivation for language learning
8 Successful language learning involves the use of effective learning and communication strategies
9 The role of the teacher in the language classroom is that of a facilitator, who creates a classroom climate conductive to language learning and provides opportunities for students to use and practice the language and to reflect on language use and language learning
10 The classroom is a community where learners learn through collaboration and sharing.”
Richards (2006: 22) emphasizes that teaching principles should be adaptable, as their application varies based on factors such as the teaching context, learners' age, proficiency level, and specific learning goals Tailoring methods to these aspects ensures more effective and personalized language instruction.
The syllabus for English as an optional subject in primary schools decides that its content centers on four themes selected beforehand The next section will examine theme-based instruction
Theme-based instruction is one of the five models of integrated skills approaches, alongside content-based teaching, experiential learning, the episode hypothesis, and task-based teaching (Brown, 1994) In content-based teaching, the primary goal is to instruct students in a specific subject area, with language learning playing a secondary role Conversely, theme-based or topic-based teaching emphasizes both content and language objectives equally, representing a weaker form of content-based teaching According to Brown (1994), "Theme-based instruction provides an alternative to traditional language classes by structuring a course around themes or topics," thereby enriching the learning experience through meaningful contextualization.
According to Brown (1994: 222), theme-based instruction and content-based instruction are based on effective learning principles Brown (1994: 222) notes,
“The major principles underlying both theme-based and content-based instruction are:
Snow (1991: 317) identifies five models of content-based instruction: immersion education, content-enriched foreign language teaching in elementary schools, theme-based model, sheltered model, and adjunct model The theme-based model involves using carefully selected topics or themes as the core content for ESL/EFL classes, allowing teachers to develop language activities that naturally stem from the content material This approach integrates language learning with meaningful subject matter, enhancing student engagement and comprehension in a culturally immersive environment.
The primary school English syllabus emphasizes theme-based and topic-based teaching approaches, aligning with Brown's (1994: 220-224) concept of theme-based instruction and Snow's (1991: 317) model of topic-based teaching This curriculum design promotes a cohesive learning experience by integrating relevant themes and topics, enhancing students' language acquisition and comprehension skills Incorporating these approaches ensures that primary school English education is both effective and engaging, supporting learners' overall linguistic development.
Some characteristics of pupils’ way of learning
Scott and Ytreberg (1991: 1-4) emphasize the importance of understanding specific characteristics of young children in language teaching They categorize children into two primary age groups: five to seven-year-olds and eight to ten-year-olds, highlighting developmental differences that influence effective language instruction Recognizing these distinctions is essential for tailoring teaching methods to meet the cognitive and emotional needs of each age group, ensuring optimal language acquisition.
Five to seven year olds
“What five to seven year olds can do at their own level:
• They can talk about what they are doing
• They can tell you about what they have done or heard
• They can argue for something and tell you why they think what they think
• They can use logical reasoning
• They can use their vivid imaginations
• They can use a wide range of intonation patterns in their mother tongue
• They can understand direct human interaction
• They know that the world is governed by rules and so on
• They understand situations more quickly than they understand the language used
• They use language skills long before they are aware of them
• Their own understanding comes through hands and eyes and ears The physical world is dominant at all times
• They are very logical What you say first happens firs and so on
• They have a very short attention and concentration span
• Young children sometimes have difficulty in knowing what is fact and what is fiction and so on
• Young children are often happy playing and working alone but in the company of others and so on
• The adult world and the child’s world are not the same and so on
• They will seldom admit that they don’t know something either and so on
• Young children cannot decide for themselves what to learn and so on
Young children learn best through play, as they are naturally motivated when they enjoy themselves While play is essential for their development, children also take their activities seriously, often believing that their play is a form of 'real' work, which helps foster their sense of responsibility and achievement.
Young children are naturally enthusiastic and positive about learning, thriving on opportunities to succeed and receive praise for their efforts Their eagerness to learn is driven by a desire for positive reinforcement, which encourages continued curiosity and growth Providing a supportive and encouraging environment helps foster their love for learning, laying a strong foundation for future educational success.
Scott and Ytreberg (1991) continue with children from eight to ten years old
“General characteristics of children from eight to ten years old
• Their basic concepts are formed They have very decided views of the world
• They can tell the difference between fact and fiction
• They ask questions all the time
• They rely on the spoken word as well as the physical world to convey and understand meaning
• They are able to make some decisions about their own learning
• They have definite views about what they like and don’t like doing
• They have a developed sense of fairness about what happens in the classroom and begins to question the teacher’s decisions
• They are able to work with others and learn from them.”
And “By the age of ten children can:
• understand symbols(beginning with words)
Most children aged eight to ten possess some level of language awareness and readiness, which they bring with them into the foreign language classroom, as highlighted by Scott and Yterberg (1991).
Scott and Ytreberg (5-7) then give some implications for teaching children of those two age groups.
To ensure a successful activity, ample objects and images are needed, utilizing both the school environment and its surroundings Demonstrations will be provided first to guide children before they are encouraged to participate independently.
This means let the children experiment with words and sounds, make up rhymes, sing songs, tell stories.
This means reading and writing are extremely important for the child’s growing awareness of language and for their own growth in the language
This means lots of variety will be needed : variety of activity, variety of space, variety of organization, variety of voice etc
This means it is necessary to have systems, routines in everything, lessons should be organized and planned carefully and so on
This means other forms of encouragement than reward and prizes should be used
According to Scott and Ytreberg, the optimal time to introduce basic grammar is when a student requests an explanation or when the teacher recognizes that a student would benefit from learning grammatical concepts This approach ensures that grammar instruction is relevant and supports the learner’s immediate needs Introducing grammar in response to student interest or necessity can enhance understanding and engagement, making it an effective strategy in language teaching.
According to Scott and Ytreberg (1991), effective assessment should focus on students' successes by emphasizing their achievements and highlighting positive progress They suggest that assessment is most effective when it encourages confidence through success, rather than dwelling on areas where students struggle This approach promotes a positive learning environment, fostering motivation and encouraging continuous improvement.
What Scott and Ytreberg have mentioned provide a general frame on which a deeper understanding can be built
Children’s concentration spans tend to be short, making it essential to incorporate a variety of activities in the classroom Dividing lessons into multiple engaging tasks provides different types of challenges, keeping students focused and motivated Using diverse groupings—ranging from whole class, pairs, to small groups—allows students to work with different peers, including both friends and less familiar classmates Additionally, alternating between lively activities like "Simon Says" and quiet tasks such as puzzle solving helps maintain student engagement and cater to different learning preferences.
Brumfit, et al (1991: ii) lists some of the characteristics which primary schoolchildren share and which can be their advantages:
Young learners are at the beginning of their educational journey, offering teachers a significant opportunity to shape their expectations of school life As a diverse group, they are often rooted in varied home cultures, making their backgrounds more differentiated than those of secondary or adult learners, though schools are increasingly fostering conformity across cultural groups These students tend to be eager and enthusiastic, typically free from the inhibitions sometimes seen in older children, which enhances their engagement with learning Since their learning experiences are closely linked to their initial understanding of formal education, their development of ideas and concepts occurs alongside their academic growth Additionally, young learners require physical movement and activity as much as mental stimulation, and integrating both elements enhances their overall learning experience.
Children’s language learning is deeply rooted in real-life communication, as it relies heavily on immediate physical environments rather than abstract or hypothetical contexts According to Brumfit et al (1991), this close integration with real communication makes children’s language acquisition more practical and contextually grounded compared to adults This emphasis on real-world interaction highlights the importance of creating immersive and communicative learning experiences for young learners to enhance their language development.
Rixon (1991: 33) realizes “It is a commonplace that young children learn better through play or at least can be induced to go along with teaching that is tempered by ‘fun’ activities.”
Children naturally love to play, and play is essential for their learning and development Through playing together, children interact, which helps them develop vital language skills Games create meaningful contexts and routines that encourage active play, making play a crucial part of childhood development.
Vale and Feunteun (2000: 142-143) give a very helpful example of the needs of children and how a teacher can take these needs into consideration within an EFL classroom
Table 2.3: Vale and Feuteun’s ‘needs’ spidergram and action spidergram
Vale and Feunteun (2000: 66-77) discuss the following points for a balanced teaching diet very carefully:
“A Teaching a second language is not an isolated educational issue
B A child needs a change of pace and a flexible variety of activities within a lesson
C Most authentic communication requires the teacher to adapt classroom space
~ ~ NEEDS OF CHILDREN interest confidence/gain self-value learn new things security motivation success fun socialization/friendsh ip
Vale and Feunteun (2000) give a ‘needs’ spidergram and an action spidergram display the children’s work provide a friendly learning environment provide child- centered activities encourage and praise
Effective teaching involves being sensitive when providing criticism and avoiding excessive correction of students' mistakes Incorporate a variety of activities to maintain engagement, and regularly change the grouping of children throughout the lesson to promote collaboration and keep students motivated.
D A child needs a lot of opportunity for review, recycling and consolidation of language
E A child needs to assimilate language at his or her pace
F It is very important to recognize the value of errors and risk taking in the process of learning of a language.”
Lawday (1998: 3) lists the following assumptions about the way young children learn:
Young students often struggle to grasp abstract concepts, so effective teaching involves using tangible, concrete objects that children can see and touch Incorporating real objects or visual aids like pictures and drawings helps facilitate understanding of new vocabulary and ideas, making learning more accessible and engaging.
Young children learn best through active engagement and hands-on experiences Encouraging them to move around, draw, color, and participate in actions, songs, games, and miming helps promote effective learning Involving children in diverse activities fosters their developmental skills and keeps them motivated to explore and discover.
Young children have a limited attention span, so it's best to keep activities around 10 minutes When they start to become restless, switch to a different activity, and you can always revisit the original activity later or in a future lesson to maintain engagement.
• Young children need to constantly revise and recycle the language they have learned Do this at the beginning of each lesson, or when pupils become restless
• Young children need praise and encouragement They also need to feel a sense of progress and achievement.”
Evaluation
Evaluation, as defined by Worthen and Sanders (1973), is the process of determining the worth of a program, product, procedure, or object by gathering relevant information to assess its value According to Richards (1990: 17-18) and Brown (1990: 223), this involves judging the potential utility of different approaches aimed at achieving specific objectives, making evaluation a crucial tool for informed decision-making in various contexts.
Evaluation in education can be broadly categorized into two types: summative evaluation, which assesses a program's effectiveness upon completion, and formative evaluation, which occurs during development to inform necessary modifications and improvements According to Richards (1990), summative evaluation measures whether educational goals are achieved after a course or program ends, while formative evaluation aims to enhance the program during its implementation Brown (1990) extends this understanding by defining evaluation as a systematic process that collects and analyzes relevant information to improve curriculum quality, assess its effectiveness and efficiency, and understand participants’ attitudes within specific institutional contexts.
Brown (1990: 224-232) explores various approaches to program evaluation, including product-oriented, static characteristic, and process-oriented methods, along with decision facilitation techniques He emphasizes key evaluation dimensions such as formative versus summative assessments, focus on product versus process, and qualitative versus quantitative data, providing a comprehensive framework for effective evaluation Notably, Brown introduces a practical evaluation procedure that enhances decision-making and program improvement This detailed overview highlights essential strategies for conducting thorough and meaningful program evaluations in educational and organizational settings.
Brown really gives a deep insight into different aspects of evaluation
Hargreaves (1990: 45) goes further into summative and formative evaluation by giving a checklist of factors
According to Ellis (1998), educational evaluation primarily encompasses two broad approaches: the ‘objectives model’ and ‘responsive evaluation’ (see Norris, 1990) He further explains that evaluation timing plays a crucial role, distinguishing between ‘formative’ evaluation, conducted during programme development and implementation, and ‘summative’ evaluation, which occurs at the conclusion of the programme.
Ellis reiterates key points similar to Brown (1990), offering a practical checklist of questions and step-by-step guidance for task evaluation, along with an example of designing a task assessment These resources significantly aid in the detailed evaluation of coursebooks, making them valuable tools for educators and curriculum developers focused on effective language instruction.
Two aspects of materials evaluation will be explored then: the purposes for carrying out an evaluation, and the process of evaluation
Hutchinson and Waters (1991: 96) say; “Evaluation is a matter of judging the fitness of something for a particular purpose.”
And as for why evaluate materials, Hutchinson and Waters (1991: 96-97) write,
Conducting a thorough evaluation before investing heavily in a published course or developing your own materials can prevent costly mistakes and save time Once an investment is made, its consequences are often long-lasting, making careful assessment essential A careful evaluation ultimately helps avoid unnecessary expenses and frustration, ensuring more effective educational choices.
Hutchinson and Waters (1991) highlight the importance of considering financial and time investment in evaluating educational materials Cunningworth (1995: 14) emphasizes that the decision to adopt a new coursebook often drives the evaluation process Additionally, educators assess existing coursebooks to identify their strengths and weaknesses, aiming to maximize their benefits by enhancing strong aspects and addressing weaker areas through adaptation or substitution of materials from other sources.
Ellis (1998: 223) highlights that program evaluation aims to achieve two main goals: accountability and development When focused on accountability, evaluation determines whether the program's stated goals have been met In terms of development, evaluation seeks to improve the curriculum and foster teacher development, ultimately enhancing the overall effectiveness of educational programs.
Hutchinson and Waters (1991: 96-97) point out, “Evaluation is basically a matching process: matching needs to available solutions.”
Hutchinson and Waters (1991: 97-98) suggest a process of evaluation of four major steps:
This process is illustrated by the following figure
SUBJECTIVE ANALYSIS What realisations of the criteria do you want in your course?
OBJECTIVE ANALYSIS How does the material being evaluated realise the criteria?
MATCHING How far does the material match your needs?
On what bases will you judge materials? Which criteria will be more important?
Table 2.5a: Hutchinson and Waters’ materials evaluation process
Hutchinson and Waters (1991: 99-104) provide a comprehensive checklist of criteria for conducting both objective and subjective analyses, focusing on key aspects such as audience, aims, content, and methodology While their primary concern is ESP (English for Specific Purposes), many of their insights are highly valuable across various language teaching contexts Their guidelines help educators evaluate and tailor language courses effectively by considering these critical criteria, ensuring the content aligns with learners' needs and goals.
Cunningsworth (1995) identifies three types of evaluation based on timing: pre-use, in-use, and post-use evaluation Pre-use evaluation occurs before a coursebook is implemented, assessing its suitability and quality In-use evaluation takes place during the coursebook’s use, allowing educators to make necessary adjustments Post-use evaluation happens after the coursebook’s completion, analyzing its overall effectiveness and impact These evaluation stages serve different purposes, ensuring the material meets learners’ needs effectively throughout its lifecycle.
Cunningsworth emphasizes the importance of evaluating coursebooks for both potential and suitability Assessing for potential involves determining what a coursebook is best suited for and identifying the contexts in which it is likely to be effective This comprehensive evaluation helps educators select resources that align with their specific teaching goals and learners' needs, ensuring effective language instruction.
Evaluating for suitability is carried out to match the coursebook against a specific requirement including the learners’ objectives, the learners’ background, the resources available, ect
Cunningsworth (1995: 15-18) puts forward four guidelines for evaluation, and especially emphasizes the role of the coursebook:
“Coursebooks should correspond to learners’ needs They should match the aims and objectives of the language learning programme.”
When choosing coursebooks, it's essential to select materials that accurately reflect the present and future language uses learners will need Effective coursebooks should equip students with practical skills to use the language confidently for their specific purposes By focusing on relevant content, learners can develop the communication abilities necessary for real-world situations.
“Coursebooks should take account of students’ needs as learners and should facilitate their learning processes, without dogmatically imposing a rigid method.” Guideline four
“Coursebooks should have a clear role as a support for learning Like teachers, they mediate between the target language and the learner.”
Cunningsworth (1995) then not only suggests a practical quick reference checklist for evaluation and selection, he also discusses thoroughly specific criteria for evaluation
Skierso (1991: 444-453) developed a comprehensive list of evaluation criteria based on multiple checklists, providing a practical framework for assessment Her Evaluation Checklist was created by adapting and adopting evaluative features recommended by numerous foreign language and second language educators This tailored checklist offers valuable insights for evaluating language learning tools and methodologies effectively.
Naturally, the checklist of criteria for evaluating Let’s Learn Eglish book 1 should be drawn up based on these valuable materials
Littlejohn’s (1998: 191) concern is, “to enable a close analysis of materials themselves, as a support to designing materials, and as a preliminary step to materials evaluation and classroom research.”
Littlejohn (1998: 192-204) proposes a general framework for analysing materials, a three-level analysis of language teaching materials Each level is discussed thoroughly Example analyses are also given
Littlejohn’s (1998: 204) preliminary framework for materials analysis, evaluation and action is somewhat similar to Hutchinson and Walters’ (1991: 98) materials evaluation process
Analysis of the target situation of use
The institution The course (proposed aims, content, methodology and means of evaluation)
1 What is their explicit nature?
2 What is required of users?
3 What is implied by their use?
To description Aspects of design Aspects of publication
How appropriate are aspects of design and the aspects of publication to the target situation of use?
Adopt the materials Reject the materials Adapt the materials Supplement the materials Make the materials a critical object
Table 2.5b: Littlejohn’s preliminary framework for materials analysis,
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the foundational concepts for evaluation, beginning with the underlying theories that shape the syllabus It explores key characteristics of students’ learning styles and the principles of needs analysis, essential for effective assessment The chapter concludes by examining various aspects of evaluation, highlighting its importance in optimizing teaching and learning outcomes.