Research methods
This study employs contrastive and comparative analysis to explore how conceptual metaphors depicting innocence are understood in both "The Catcher in the Rye" (1951) and "Lord of the Flies" (1954) By examining these novels through the lens of cognitive semantics, it aims to identify similarities and differences in their conceptualizations of innocence This research provides valuable insights into the cultural and psychological representations of innocence in literature, contributing to a deeper understanding of metaphoric language within the framework of cognitive semantics.
This study investigates metaphors within the framework of Lakoff and Johnson’s "Metaphors We Live By" (1980) to analyze their meanings qualitatively The metaphors are compared and contrasted to reveal their similarities and differences, leading to meaningful conclusions and implications These findings aim to enhance the teaching, learning, and translation of metaphors from a cognitive perspective, providing valuable insights for educators and language learners alike.
Scope of the study
First of all, two literary works are chosen as data for the study
The Catcher in the Rye (1951) by American author J D Salinger
This research explores conceptual metaphors related to the theme of innocence from a cognitive perspective, emphasizing both innocence and its loss It specifically analyzes metaphorical expressions that convey various aspects of innocence to understand how they reflect societal perceptions The study aims to highlight the fading innocence among young people as they transition into the real world, where humanistic values are often overshadowed by materialism and survival instincts By examining these metaphors, the research sheds light on the cultural and psychological shifts affecting youth in contemporary society.
The metaphorical language in the article highlights key themes such as society, adulthood, and school life, offering deeper insight into the characters' reflections on these aspects For example, life is likened to a game played according to rules, emphasizing societal and personal challenges Additionally, the depiction of the boys as “two continents of experience and feeling, unable to communicate” underscores their emotional and experiential differences, illustrating the barriers to understanding and connection These metaphors enrich the narrative, providing essential context for readers seeking to explore themes of societal structure, personal growth, and communication.
Significance of the study
This research provides a valuable reference for those interested in cognitive linguistics, particularly cognitive semantics It serves as an accessible resource for future studies in related fields such as literature, psycholinguistics, and psychology, supporting ongoing exploration and understanding of language and cognition.
This paper aims to help readers understand conceptual metaphors in literary works, highlighting their significance in language and literature It seeks to contribute to the effective teaching of these concepts in university foreign language and literature departments, enhancing students' literary analysis skills and language understanding through a deeper comprehension of metaphoric expressions.
The researcher aims to introduce *The Catcher in the Rye* and *Lord of the Flies* to a wider audience, highlighting their status as profound and phenomenal works of literature By examining these classic novels about adolescence, the study encourages readers to reflect on the challenges faced by young people during the tumultuous transition to adulthood Ultimately, the goal is to foster greater empathy and understanding toward the struggles of youth, promoting a more compassionate attitude towards young individuals navigating their formative years.
The researcher believes the thesis will be helpful as a linguistic and literary study material, and hopefully as a lifestyle manual.
Structure of the thesis
The master thesis is divided into five main chapters of Introduction, Theoretical Background and Literature Review, Research Methodology, Findings and Discussion, and Conclusion
The introduction of the research is essential for outlining the reasons, objectives, and core values guiding the study It comprises six key sections: the rationale, which explains the motivation behind the research; the significance, highlighting its importance and potential impact; the research goals that define the intended outcomes; the research questions that guide the investigation; the scope, specifying the boundaries and focus areas; and the research method, detailing the approach and methodology employed Providing a clear and comprehensive introduction ensures a well-structured foundation for the entire study, aligning with SEO principles by incorporating relevant keywords such as "research objectives," "study significance," and "methodology."
Chapter 2: Theoretical Background and Literature Review explores existing studies related to the research topic, establishing a solid framework for the thesis It emphasizes the role of conceptual metaphors within cognitive semantics, highlighting their significance in understanding language and cognition Additionally, the chapter discusses fundamental concepts of novels, providing context for their relevance to the study This comprehensive review supports the thesis by integrating theoretical insights and literary fundamentals.
Chapter 3: Research Methodology outlines the systematic steps undertaken to conduct the study, including detailed descriptions of the sample selection, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques This chapter provides clarity on the materials used at each stage, ensuring transparency and replicability of the research process.
Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion presents key insights gained from the research, focusing on analyzing conceptual metaphors related to the theme of “loss of innocence” in the selected novels This chapter interprets the results to reveal authors’ intentions and demonstrates how different authors utilize conceptual metaphors to depict the transition from innocence to experience Additionally, it offers a comparative analysis of the use of these metaphors across the two works, highlighting differences and similarities to deepen understanding of their literary and thematic significance.
Chapter 5 provides a comprehensive summary of the research process, highlighting how the study addressed its primary objectives It includes essential sections such as recapitulation, concluding remarks, implications, limitations, and recommendations for future research The recapitulation synthesizes key findings, while the concluding remarks offer insights into the study's significance The implications discuss the practical applications of the research outcomes, and the limitations acknowledge constraints that may affect the results Finally, recommendations for further study suggest promising areas for future investigations, ensuring continuous advancement in this field.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Cognitive Linguistics
Cognitive linguistics, as defined by Evans (2007), is a modern linguistic discipline that explores the relationship between language, the mind, and socio-physical experience This field emphasizes the connection between meaning, conceptual processes, embodied experience, and the human mind Unlike traditional approaches that focus solely on linguistic structures, cognitive linguistics concentrates on understanding how the human mind perceives and conceptualizes the world Essentially, it combines principles from linguistics and cognitive sciences, emphasizing human perception and individual experience in language understanding.
There are two principal commitments that govern cognitive linguistics, which are Generalization Commitment and Cognitive Commitment
Generalization Commitment pertains to the depiction of universal principles that govern all aspects of human language, highlighting the idea that language mirrors fundamental cognitive mechanisms This concept underpins cognitive linguistics by suggesting shared organizing principles across diverse language systems These principles include key conceptual mechanisms such as metaphor and conceptual blending, as well as linguistic phenomena like polysemy, emphasizing the interconnectedness of language and cognition.
Cognitive Commitment aligns linguistic principles with insights from broader cognitive sciences like philosophy, psychology, and artificial intelligence, ensuring that linguistic structure reflects human cognition This approach emphasizes that language principles should be consistent with what is known about human mental processes, promoting coherence between linguistics and other cognitive disciplines By doing so, Cognitive Commitment supports the idea that linguistic structures should mirror fundamental cognitive principles, reinforcing the importance of generalization commitment in language understanding.
Cognitive linguistics extends beyond the external structure of language to explore the complex cognitive processes underlying grammar, conceptualization, discourse, and thought (Fauconnier, 2006) It focuses on the intricate relationship between human language, the mind, and embodied experience, emphasizing how cognitive functions shape linguistic patterns The two most advanced subfields within cognitive linguistics are cognitive semantics and cognitive grammar, with cognitive semantics serving as the foundational area for research in this field.
Cognitive Semantics
Cognitive semantics inspects “the relationship between experience, the conceptual system and the semantic structure encoded by language.” (Evans,
Cognitive semantics focuses on how knowledge is represented through the conceptual structure and how meaning is constructed via the process of conceptualization It emphasizes that the meanings of expressions are mental, with a primary focus on lexical meaning rather than sentence meaning Language is viewed as a "lens" that explores cognitive processes, allowing insights into both the human mind and linguistic semantics Key theories within cognitive semantics include Blending Theory, Mental Spaces, and the Conceptual Metaphor Theory, which help model human cognition and understand how language reflects mental phenomena.
According to Evans (2007:31), a concept is defined as the fundamental unit of knowledge essential for categorization and conceptualization Concepts are inherently developed from early stages and are continuously refined through experiential perception and meaning analysis They can be expressed in a language-specific format called lexical concepts, serving as stable cognitive entities However, these concepts are adaptable and may be modified by ongoing episodic and repeated experiences.
Conceptualization is the process by which language contributes to meaning construction, playing a vital role in dynamic thought Linguistic units like words not only transmit meaning but also actively participate in forming understanding at the conceptual level Rich encyclopedic knowledge and diverse processes of conceptual integration further strengthen and solidify meaning, making conceptualization essential to effective communication and comprehension.
All in all, it can be summarized that “lexical meanings are dynamic and sensitive to contextual demands, rather than fixed and stable.” (Paradis, 2004)
On the other hand, construal is described as how language users
The concepts of "package" and "present" serve as linguistic constructs that shape our mental representations These words influence how listeners envision a scene by activating specific conceptual images in their minds This process involves selecting a focal point that guides the listener’s interpretation, creating a linguistically arranged scene that conveys meaning effectively.
In turn, the speaker fixates a unique construal upon that scene
According to William Croft and D Alan Cruse (2004), four main cognitive abilities are essential in constructing construals: attention/salience, judgment/comparison, situatedness, and constitution/gestalt Attention involves gaining control over information, while salience relates to planned actions that help resolve uncertainty The ability to make judgments is crucial for evaluating information, and situatedness reflects individual perspectives shaping interpretation Gestalt pertains to acquiring and maintaining meaningful perceptions, with construal operations enriching the meanings of lexical expressions through active engagement with material.
Cognitive semantics, a key aspect of cognitive linguistics, explores both linguistic meaning and human cognitive processes Language not only reflects the world around us but also embodies a unique human perspective shaped by individual embodiment This suggests that human perception of reality is deeply influenced by personal cognitive construals, emphasizing the connection between language, thought, and embodied experience.
“projected reality.” (Evans and Green, 2006:48)
Conceptual metaphors
Traditionally, metaphor was seen as a poetic device, characterized by extravagant language with little relevance to everyday life As a result, many believed that metaphors were not commonly used in daily communication, reserved mainly for literary and artistic expression.
Philosophers were among the first to explore and analyze metaphors, emphasizing that literal language forms the core of communication They generally agree that metaphorical expressions are rare deviations from the norm, highlighting the fundamental role of literal speech in understanding language and meaning.
According to Oxford Dictionary, a metaphor is “a word or phrase used to describe somebody/something else in a way that highlights their shared qualities and enhances the description,” emphasizing its role in powerful language While metaphors are often seen as literary devices within figurative language, resembling similes as they both involve comparisons, scholars argue that metaphors have a deeper significance beyond this The Aristotelian “comparison view” simplifies metaphors as “X is Y,” similar to the ellipsis form of a simile “X is like Y,” but modern research suggests that metaphors encompass more complex cognitive and communicative functions.
Beardsley (1966) criticizes the view that metaphors are merely poetic embellishments, emphasizing their essential role in daily communication He argues that metaphors are not limited to poetry and imagination but are also vital in expository and persuasive writing, highlighting their highly functional nature in everyday conversations The introduction of Lakoff and Johnson’s Conceptual Metaphor Theory in 1980 further clarified the significant role of metaphors in shaping our understanding and cognitive processes.
Unlike the traditional view that considers metaphors merely as decorative elements in fictional works, contemporary perspectives see metaphors as fundamental to human thought, playing an integral role in shaping understanding across all aspects of life.
According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), metaphor is "pervasive" in daily life, fundamentally shaping how humans think and act They assert that our entire conceptual system, which guides our understanding and behavior, is "metaphorical in nature," highlighting the deep influence of metaphors in everyday cognition Saeed emphasizes that these metaphors are essential to how we interpret and interact with the world around us.
In 2003, it was emphasized that cognitive semantics plays a crucial role in understanding how thought and language influence metaphor Cognitive linguists assert that metaphor is highly significant, not minimal, highlighting the importance of mental construal in shaping meaning.
The 1980 release of *Live By* sparked a revolutionary shift in cognitive linguistics, emphasizing the importance of metaphor as a fundamental aspect of human thought rather than just a linguistic feature Since then, scholars have increasingly adopted the cognitive approach, exploring how metaphor reflects underlying cognitive processes This perspective asserts that metaphor is essentially a way of thinking, shaping our understanding and perception, not merely a characteristic of language As a result, research in cognitive linguistics continues to focus on the integral role of metaphor in cognition, highlighting its significance in shaping meaning and conceptualization.
People often discuss abstract concepts using language from more concrete domains For example, it is common to describe life as a journey, using phrases that evoke travel and exploration to convey life's progression and experiences This linguistic pattern helps make complex, intangible ideas more relatable and understandable.
He’s without direction in life
I’m where I want to be in life
She’ll go places in life
He’s never let anyone get in his way
She’s gone through a lot in life
Conceptual metaphors are fundamental to understanding how we interpret abstract ideas by linking them to more familiar, concrete experiences These everyday expressions, such as "life is a journey" or "time is money," exemplify how language reflects deeper cognitive processes beyond mere word meaning In this framework, the source domain provides familiar components that help us grasp the less tangible target domain, highlighting the natural human tendency to understand complex concepts through comparison This cognitive approach reveals that metaphor isn't just a linguistic device but a way our minds organize and interpret abstract ideas by mapping them onto more concrete, observable phenomena.
Metaphors play a crucial role in shaping our thinking and how we discuss the world around us They are ubiquitous in everyday conversations, serving as essential tools that reflect individuals' perceptions and understanding of their environment In essence, metaphors influence both our cognitive processes and our communication, making them vital for understanding human thought and language.
“metaphorical essence of language is the refection of human nature.” (Ma & Liu, 2008)
Contemporary views on metaphor, rooted in cognitive linguistics, highlight that thoughts and actions are inherently embedded in metaphors, which are integral to everyday language rather than just literary embellishments Writers craft metaphors that influence how characters communicate and perceive the world, making metaphors fundamental to understanding human cognition and expression Studying metaphors through this modern lens offers a more insightful and liberating perspective compared to traditional interpretations, revealing their profound role in shaping perception and language.
Conceptual metaphor in the light of cognitive semantics, especially within the theoretical framework of Lakoff and Johnson (1980), is definitely an intriguing study subject
Lakoff and Johnson (1980) describe metaphor as the understanding of one conceptual domain in terms of another, emphasizing how we experience one thing through another Evans highlights that metaphors involve mappings or correspondences between distinct conceptual domains, facilitating meaningful connections Conceptual metaphors rely on conventional mappings that link features of the source and target domains through projections, allowing characteristics from the source domain to be applied to the target For example, in the context of love, such metaphors help us grasp complex emotional experiences by relating them to more familiar conceptual domains.
A journey is a classic example of a conceptual metaphor that maps the target domain of love onto the source domain of a journey, enabling people to understand and discuss love through travel-related terms This type of metaphor is built upon conventional mappings that are deeply embedded in long-term memory, making them a fundamental and essential tool for human thought According to Evans (2007), conceptual metaphors serve as “a basic and indispensable instrument of thought,” illustrating their crucial role in shaping how we perceive complex concepts like love through familiar, everyday experiences.
According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), there are three (iii) main types of metaphors: (i) structural, (ii) orientational, (iii) and ontological
Structural metaphors are conceptual frameworks where one idea is understood and expressed in terms of another, such as the pervasive metaphor "ARGUMENT IS WAR." This means that arguments are conceptualized as battles, with language and imagery reinforcing this association, highlighting how our understanding of disputes often mirrors the structure of warfare Recognizing these metaphors is important for understanding how language shapes our perception of abstract concepts like argument and conflict, making them essential for effective communication and discourse analysis.
Metaphor and Framing
Knowledge embedded in a frame represents a conceptualization of experience that may not always align with reality The way an experience is framed depends on construal—the speaker’s interpretation of the experience being communicated to facilitate understanding for the listener.
Frames, scripts, or schemas, known as “structures of expectation,” are built upon past experiences and are reflected in the surface linguistic form of narrative sentences These structures help us process and comprehend stories, acting as cognitive filters that shape our perception Essentially, expectations about social interactions are organized into coherent sets called “frames,” which guide our understanding and responses in social contexts.
Frames are conceptual models that explain how individuals communicate and interpret messages; Bateson (1955) highlights that frames facilitate the exchange of signals allowing people to agree on the level of abstraction for messages Ross (1975) describes frames as "structures of expectations" rooted in cultural experience, which individuals use to organize knowledge and predict interpretations of new information, events, and experiences Recent discussions emphasize that framing influences perception and understanding across different contexts.
“originated as a narrowly defined technical problem in logic-based artificial intelligence” yet now it has become deeply personal and construal, as an
“embellished and modified form by philosophers of mind, and given a wider interpretation.” (Shanahan, 2003)
Basically, frame is the background knowledge that (i) concerns a particular aspect of the world, (ii) generates expectations and inferences, and
(iii) links with particular lexical and grammatical choices in language Frame is the combination of knowledge and language
According to Semino et al (2016), framing involves selecting and highlighting specific aspects of reality to shape perception, with metaphors playing a crucial role in expressing and reinforcing these conceptualizations Metaphors serve as a form of "framing" by influencing how we interpret experiences; for example, describing illness as a "fight" or a "journey" reflects different ways of conceptualizing the experience These metaphorical framings significantly affect our understanding and emotional response to situations From a cognitive perspective, metaphors are actively operated upon and emphasized in thought processes, shaping how we make sense of complex concepts.
All in all, metaphor and framing, both are universal yet deeply personal They are formed via the basis of the most humanistic needs
The relationship between framing as a process and types of conceptual metaphor is rather unclear, which gives rise to such terms as “scenario” and
Specific sub-domain categories, such as scenarios, create a platform that links the conceptual aspects of metaphors to their practical usage patterns Conceptual metaphors act as overarching frames that shape and influence discourse, guiding how topics are discussed and understood Consequently, metaphorical descriptions of the same subject can significantly impact people's reasoning and perception, underscoring the importance of understanding metaphor's role in communication.
The bias between the source domain and the target domain constitutes the “framing” power of metaphor According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980),
A "domain" refers to distinct chunks of conceptual structure involved in mental mappings Within this framework, a "frame" represents a sub-domain structure, allowing a domain to encompass multiple related frames For example, the BODY domain may include frames such as EXERCISE, demonstrating how domains organize complex concepts into manageable substructures, essential for understanding cognitive and linguistic processing Understanding the relationship between domains and frames is crucial for comprehending how knowledge is structured and represented in the mind.
Framing involves using metaphorical expressions to shape understanding and influence evaluations, reflecting how individuals perceive themselves through their choice of metaphors These metaphorical expressions embody personal experiences and help communicate complex ideas more effectively Additionally, conceptual metaphors highlight how broad metaphorical frameworks of similar ideas can vary across different languages and cultures, revealing diverse perspectives An example from Semino’s article illustrates how metaphorical framing plays a crucial role in shaping perception and cultural interpretation.
In 2016, debates emerged within the cancer community about the use of the term “fighter” to describe patients, as some find it empowering and motivational, while others believe it can undermine their sense of strength by implying they are losing an unwinnable battle.
Metaphor’s framing function and its framing effects are highly influential in shaping perception These implications involve specific sub-domain conceptual structures and context-dependent properties of expressions Although metaphor and framing follow distinct thinking patterns, they are highly individualistic, varying across cultures and rooted in personal experiences Ultimately, the relationship between metaphor and culture is profound, highlighting how language and cognition are deeply interconnected.
Novels and metaphor in novels
2.5.1 Novels and coming-of-age stories
Defining literature, American author Henry Van Dyke appeals,
Literature is a collection of writings that interpret the meanings of nature and life through charming and powerful language, reflecting the unique personality of the author in enduring artistic forms It serves as the manifestation of life, capturing the essence of human experiences, artistic expression, and collective passion, making it a timeless reflection of culture and human insight.
A novel is a genre of literature that is a work of fictional prose, featuring characters, events, and a specific setting to create a compelling story Although invented, novels enable an immediate depiction of individual human experience, offering readers a candid glimpse into life According to Watt (2001), a novel provides a realistic and detailed portrayal of human life and personal experiences, making it a vital form of storytelling that captures the complexities of human nature.
Coming-of-age novels focus on the transition from youth to adulthood, highlighting a protagonist's personal growth According to the Oxford Dictionary, "coming of age" refers to reaching the age of legal adult rights and responsibilities, while in genre studies, it describes stories that depict a character's journey from childhood to maturity These narratives often emphasize dialogue and internal monologue over action, primarily featuring teenage characters However, coming-of-age stories are timeless and resonate with readers of all ages because they foster meaningful connections and provide reassurance that they are not alone in their experiences (Lee, 2018).
The transition to adulthood is a universal challenge that often leaves young people feeling misunderstood, lost, and rebellious Despite perceptions of reckless behavior, internally, youth yearn for connection and belonging Coming-of-age novels provide valuable insights into their inner worlds, giving voice to their experiences As young individuals shed their innocence to face a chaotic world of responsibilities, the mourning of this loss—often expressed through metaphors—serves as an intriguing study area in both literature and human psychology.
This article explores the various elements that make up a novel, such as characters, themes, and rhetorical devices like irony and metaphor The focus is specifically on the set of conceptual metaphors that convey the theme of innocence, highlighting their role in shaping the narrative's underlying message Understanding these metaphors enhances readers' appreciation of how innocence is represented and communicated throughout literary works.
2.5.2 Metaphor and framing in novels
Metaphors were once considered solely a literary device, viewed as elaborate and decorative language for artistic works However, cognitive linguistics reveals that metaphors are fundamental tools of thought, present in all aspects of daily life According to Semino and Steen (2008), analyzing metaphors in literature requires integrating discourse analysis, corpus linguistics, and psycholinguistic methods This broader understanding highlights the pervasive and functional role of metaphors beyond literary contexts.
Frames in novels enrich literary works by offering complexity and ambivalence, setting literature apart from other forms of discourse To effectively analyze framing in novels, it is essential to approach with sensitivity, as this helps uncover the deeper implications and messages conveyed through the authors' linguistic choices.
Combining literary approaches with humanistic perspectives is the current method used to assess and analyze metaphors in literature Exploring metaphors from a cognitive perspective can reveal diverse insights, benefiting literary and linguistic research as well as social studies This interdisciplinary approach enhances our understanding of metaphorical language and its impact across various fields.
"The Catcher in the Rye and Lord of the Flies are classics of young adult fiction that explore the complexities of the human mind and adolescent development." "Despite their different settings and plots, both novels address the universal themes of growing up and losing innocence." "Written many years apart, these works remain relevant and influential in the literary world today." "The authors utilize rich metaphors and framing devices to craft immersive worlds that convey deeper messages." "Ultimately, these novels emphasize the profound challenges of adolescence and the fragile nature of innocence."
Novels, though fictional, effectively mirror various aspects of human life and experience They provide valuable insights into characters’ psyches, reveal the novels’ deeper meanings, and convey the authors’ messages Using metaphors within these stories is a powerful way to explore and understand these themes, enhancing their literary and emotional depth.
Previous studies
Cognitive linguistics is a modern school of linguistics that has gained significant scholarly attention since the 1970s, emerging as a powerful approach to studying language, conceptual systems, and human cognition This field focuses on how meaning is constructed and interconnected with various cognitive processes, extending beyond purely linguistic analysis Additionally, cognitive linguistics intersects with related disciplines such as social psychology, artificial intelligence, and anthropology, highlighting its interdisciplinary nature and broad relevance in understanding human communication and thought.
Within cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphor is a highly studied and significant area of research, gaining particular prominence since the release of Lakoff and Johnson's groundbreaking 1980 book, *Metaphors We Live By*.
This work has made metaphors and cognitive linguistics more accessible to the public, highlighting that metaphors are not just poetic or distant language Instead, they are fundamental to human thought and daily actions, shaping how we understand and navigate the world every day.
The study of conceptual metaphors has generated diverse research trends, exploring aspects from cross-domain mapping to specific metaphors representing particular themes This research demonstrates that virtually any concept can be effectively expressed and understood through conceptual metaphors For example, Cemal Çakir’s work highlights how metaphors facilitate the depiction of complex ideas across different domains, emphasizing their significance in language and cognition.
Conceptual metaphor theory and teaching English as a foreign language: A study on body part terms (2016) can be of great practical and pedagogical use
This study analyzes the translation of books from English to Turkish to explore similarities and differences in body-part-based conceptual metaphors The findings highlight that understanding these cross-linguistic variations is essential for selecting and designing effective teaching materials for English vocabulary Incorporating a cross-linguistic perspective can enhance the teaching of English metaphors to learners of English as a foreign language, emphasizing the importance of conceptual metaphors in language education Ultimately, considering such metaphors in language instruction can improve learners' comprehension and appreciation of figurative language across different languages.
Iraide Ibarretxe-Antuüano's 2013 work highlights the strong relationship between conceptual metaphor and culture, emphasizing how culture influences the way metaphors are conceptualized This connection is demonstrated through case studies on perception and body parts, two prominent domains in metaphor research Additionally, Marianna Bolognesi's 2017 book on conceptual metaphors and visual expressions explores the non-linguistic aspect of language, revealing how visuals contribute to metaphorical understanding Overall, conceptual metaphors are deeply intertwined with culture, significantly affecting both linguistic and non-linguistic everyday communication.
Research on cognitive linguistics and conceptual metaphors in Vietnam spans numerous studies, including scholarly articles and published books Notable scholars like Ly Toan Thang, who initiated the Vietnamese cognitive linguistics movement in 2005 with his book *Ngôn Ngữ Học Tri Nhận*, and Tran Van Co, author of influential works such as *Khảo luận - Ẩn dụ tri nhận* (2009) and *Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận, Từ điển* (2011), have significantly contributed to the field These works explore core concepts like mental spaces, categories, and especially conceptual metaphors, providing a solid foundation for understanding cognitive linguistics in Vietnam The body of published literature continues to grow, with key contributions from Nguyen Ngoc Vu’s 2015 study on idioms in English and Vietnamese from a cognitive perspective, and Phan Thi Huong’s 2011 elaboration on metaphor.
“love is a journey” in English and Vietnamese The paper examines the representations of the conceptual metaphor Love is a journey in English and
This article explores how Vietnamese language users employ conceptual metaphors to express abstract concepts like love through related ideas such as a journey It highlights the role of comparative analysis in understanding how different languages conceptualize love metaphorically Le Thi Khanh Hoa's 2015 master's thesis provides a comprehensive investigation into the metaphor of love, offering valuable insights into how language shapes the perception of abstract emotions This approach combines conceptual metaphor theory with contrastive analysis, enriching our understanding of cross-cultural differences in expressing love.
The concept of "love" in American and Vietnamese romantic novels from 2008 to 2013 has been extensively studied, reflecting its significance in literature Numerous research efforts have explored how love is conceptualized across various forms of artistic expression, including novels, short stories, poems, and songs As a central theme, love continues to evoke considerable passion among researchers, making it a rich subject for metaphorical analysis Overall, studies on love's metaphors reveal diverse and profound interpretations, confirming its status as a stimulating and comprehensive topic within literary and cultural research.
Existing research on metaphor conceptualization in cognitive linguistics has extensively explored its theoretical foundations, yet the themes of innocence and coming-of-age stories remain underexplored This study applies framing theory to comprehensively analyze metaphor groupings related to these themes, contributing new insights to the field Unlike previous studies mainly comparing English and Vietnamese, this research seeks to broaden the scope by examining additional dimensions, offering a more diverse understanding of metaphor use in cultural narratives.
American and British cultures, while both classified as Western cultures, exhibit notable differences in societal values, lifestyles, and traditions that highlight their unique identities These cultural distinctions influence how each society perceives and expresses concepts of life, demonstrating that cultural nuances shape our understanding of everyday experiences The use of conceptual metaphors to explore themes of life remains relevant, reflecting that the way cultures conceptualize life continues to evolve and resonate across societies.
Conceptual metaphors and framing, as explored through cognitive semantics, are essential to understanding language and thought, with metaphors being ubiquitous in everyday communication rather than just literary devices Framing creates structures of expectation that influence individuals' perspectives and decision-making processes In literature, especially novels, metaphor and framing serve more than stylistic purposes; they intersect with humanistic disciplines like psychology and sociology, enriching their interpretive potential Research grounded in these theories offers valuable insights, highlighting key areas of interest and providing essential guidelines for conducting comprehensive studies on language, cognition, and literature.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research design
This study employs a qualitative, descriptive research approach to explore the characteristics of the research subjects, focusing on understanding their qualities rather than comparing measurements The process involves gathering, analyzing, and presenting data to offer in-depth insights into the 'how' of the research By using this comprehensive research design, the researcher effectively describes the current situation and provides meaningful understanding of the study context.
This research is grounded in Conceptual Metaphor Theory by Lakoff and Johnson, along with Fillmore’s framing theory, supported by contrastive analysis to explore metaphor implications The framework of conceptual metaphor and framing helps uncover the underlying messages conveyed through metaphors A contrastive analysis is subsequently employed to compare how metaphors are conceptualized in two novels from different countries, highlighting cultural differences The main aim is to reveal the novels’ core messages, explore cultural distinctions, and offer valuable insights for studying English language and culture within the Vietnamese context.
Data for the study
Both classic coming-of-age novels explore the themes of innocence and its gradual loss, reflecting the societal shifts following World War II Published in the early 1950s, these works subtly incorporate numerous conceptual metaphors that reveal insights into their writing styles and social contexts Analyzing the similarities in metaphorical framing highlights shared cultural influences, while examining the differences uncovers distinct British and American perspectives rooted in their unique cultural backgrounds A comparative study of innocence-related metaphors in these novels offers valuable insights into linguistics, literature, and cultural studies.
3.2.1 J D Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye (1951)
Regarding The Catcher in the Rye, it was written by American author
J D Salinger and first published in 1951 It is considered a classic among readers of all ages In 2010, the novel was included on Time’s list of the
"The Catcher in the Rye, ranked 15th on the BBC’s survey The Big Read in 2003, is considered one of the 100 best English-language novels since 1923 Originally aimed at adult readers, it gained immense popularity among adolescents due to its relatable themes of teen angst and alienation Recognized as 'the defining work on what it is like to be a teenager,' this novel explores issues of identity, loss, and connection through its protagonist, rebel icon Holden Caulfield The story is narrated by Holden, recounting his tumultuous experiences after deciding to run away alone to New York City during Christmas."
Holden Caulfield, the protagonist of *The Catcher in the Rye*, is recognized as an iconic rebel figure in modern literature His reckless behaviors may seem dismissive, but they stem from his disillusionment with a society dominated by materialism and corrupted adults Holden’s actions reflect his perception of societal values where human worth has been devalued His deep longing for genuine connection and his protective attitude toward the innocent highlight his profound loss of innocence, making his character a compelling subject for this research.
3.2.2 William Golding’s Lord of the Flies (1954) Lord of the Flies is the 1954’s debut of Nobel Prize–winning British author William Golding The novel tells the story of a group of schoolboys who get stuck on a deserted island in the aftermath of a plane crash The boys, at first, without adults’ supervision, feel as free as the wind As time goes by, the burden and dread of self-governing prove too much for them, entailing a series of catastrophic events The novel’s theme is centered on the conflicting human desires between living in civilization and gaining supreme power Here, the line separating innocence and corruption becomes thinner In 2003,
Lord of the Flies was voted number 70 on BBC’s The Big Read In 2005, Time hailed it as one of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to
2005 Conrad (2011) regards Lord of the Flies as a “masterpiece” that “has never lost its relevance.”
The schoolboys from Lord of the Flies are in their middle childhood or pre-adolescence They are still called “kids.” However, what the so-called
"Children's actions can surpass expectations, highlighting how easily innocence can be lost in adverse circumstances When a group of boys becomes stranded on a deserted island after a plane crash, their illusions of freedom and independence begin to fade Gradually, they abandon civilization, descending into savagery and losing their childhood innocence This novel serves as an allegory for a chaotic world without order, illustrating how children are thrown into the harsh realities of the real world Without proper guidance, the world can become a dangerous and tempting place that challenges their morals and safety."
The loss of innocence in *Lord of the Flies* is portrayed as more tragic than in *The Catcher in the Rye*, highlighting the devastating impact of societal breakdown on young minds Both novels emphasize the profound dangers the world poses to young souls, serving as powerful warnings about the fragility of innocence These stories urge readers to develop greater empathy and to take action to protect and preserve the inherent goodness in children.
Research procedures
In summary, the research procedures include three main steps as follows,
Firstly, the surface linguistic evidence of conceptual expressions denoting the conceptual metaphors is collected
Secondly, the conceptual metaphors are grouped into frames in order to explore their meanings
This article examines how metaphors are compared and contrasted to reveal their implications for metaphorical conceptualization It explores how these comparisons influence the novels' intended messages and reflect cultural realities Additionally, the discussion highlights the significance of understanding metaphors for effective English teaching and learning in Vietnam, emphasizing their role in cultural integration and language development.
Data collection
24 samples of metaphorical expressions signifying the theme of innocence, or the loss of innocence, are collected in the two 1950s’ novels
The Catcher in the Rye features 14 key expressions that reveal the protagonist’s contemplations, opinions, and reflections, offering deep insight into his character Similarly, Lord of the Flies contains 10 significant expressions that showcase the characters' thoughts and the author’s depiction of their inner struggles These expressions are essential for understanding the themes and psychological depth within each novel, making them valuable for both readers and SEO-focused content.
In "Catcher" and "Lord," the collected samples are organized into distinct narrative frames, with four main frames identified in "Catcher" and three in "Lord." Notably, some frames overlap between the two novels, highlighting shared thematic elements Specifically, "Catcher" features key frames such as (1), which play a crucial role in shaping its narrative structure, emphasizing the importance of character development and thematic continuity This framing analysis provides valuable insights into the storytelling techniques and thematic overlaps present in both literary works.
School and education; (2) Life; (3) People and the adults; and (4) Mentality
On the other hand, Lord offers three frames of (1) The boys; (2) Mentality; and (3) Life.
Data analytical framework
The analytical process of the metaphors and frames is illustrated as follows
Figure 3.1 Analytical process of the metaphors and frames
The primary goal of the study is to explore the meaning of metaphors and their associated cultural connotations By analyzing conceptual metaphors through their smaller components, the research examines the relationship between the source domain and the target domain This approach aims to uncover how these domains map onto each other and to gain deeper insights into the cultural significance embedded within metaphorical language.
Surface linguistic cue in bad shape
EMOTIONAL HEALTH IS PHYSICAL FORM
Frame mentality according entailment Other than that, the theory of frame and framing is also employed; and lastly, a compare-and-contrast approach will unveil the artistic and cultural implications
This article explores the theme of fading innocence through carefully selected conceptual metaphors that illustrate its decline Innocence, as defined by the Oxford Dictionary, refers to both the absence of guilt and a lack of knowledge about evil or unpleasant realities, often associated with children who are seen as pure and untainted Children are typically compared to blank slates, reflecting their innocence and limited exposure to the harshness of the real world However, the novels reveal that seemingly innocent children can harbor negative thoughts and commit immoral actions, revealing the complex nature of innocence The progression, causes, and consequences of this loss are effectively conveyed using conceptual metaphors, shaped by the perspectives of the young protagonists and the authors’ own portrayals, enhancing the understanding of innocence’s fragility.
For this qualitative research, the theory of frame and framing is applied
In detail, the metaphors can be classified into corresponding “frames,” basing on the lexical signals Essentially, this is the first step to explore the implications behind the metaphors
The concept of "frame" serves as the central idea underpinning various metaphors throughout the article These metaphors are organized within specific frames that reflect characters' reflections on adults, school, and life itself This structure leads to the conclusion that the inevitable loss of innocence is near, highlighting the theme of growing maturity Importantly, the researcher emphasizes the enduring goodness and purity of the soul, which become increasingly evident despite life's challenges and temptations.
The “participation framework” enhances understanding by immersing readers and researchers in the characters’ embodied experiences, making their perspectives more relatable For example, in *The Catcher in the Rye*, the teacher’s statement “life is a game” serves as a rich conceptual metaphor, requiring the researcher to explore the domains of “life” and “game” to interpret its meaning By aligning the characters’ viewpoints with the reader’s perspective through this framework, the characters’ life stories become clearer and more meaningful This approach is especially valuable for analyzing metaphors and character development, ultimately providing insights into the societal context of the time.
In detail, the three research questions are investigated within the theoretical framework of frame and conceptual metaphors
The analysis of the conceptualization of the metaphors is conducted within three steps as follows
The initial step involves collecting surface linguistic evidence of expressions related to the theme of lost innocence This includes gathering all linguistic profiles associated with “innocence,” such as children’s perceptions of the education system, adult behavior towards one another, and broader ways of life Analyzing these expressions provides insights into how innocence is portrayed and whether it has been diminished or lost throughout various contexts Incorporating SEO keywords like "lost innocence," "linguistic evidence," and "perceptions of innocence" helps optimize the content for search engine visibility.
The target and source domains are identified to analyze their similarities and differences, revealing what makes the metaphor meaningful By examining corresponding concepts across these domains through projection, we gain deeper insights into how the metaphor functions and enhances understanding This approach helps in uncovering the mapped relationships and subtle distinctions that contribute to effective metaphorical communication.
Once the domains, mappings, and projections are completed, the researcher employs the process of entailment to explore deeper meanings and messages within the conceptual metaphors, enhancing understanding and revealing nuanced insights.
E.g “Since 1888 we have been molding boys into splendid, clear-thinking young men.” (Salinger, 1991:2)
PEOPLE ARE WORKS OF ART
- Profile related to innocence: school or education system
- Source domain: WORKS OF ART
- Similarities: both are beautiful and easy to manipulate
- Differences: PEOPLE have feelings and opinions and WORKS OF ART do not
Mapping: People can be handled like an object of creation
- Entailment: People, especially young people, are beautiful yet vulnerable and inexperienced; hence easy to be manipulated and affected by life - both the good and bad forces of life
Table 3.1 The analysis of the conceptualization process of a metaphor
The framing process of a metaphor is illustrated within the two following steps
A frame is a system of interconnected concepts that gain meaning only when considered together within the context of the entire framework Understanding that no individual concept or profile is meaningful in isolation emphasizes the importance of the governing frame, which organizes the relationships between concepts In the context of this thesis, the governing frame can vary widely, encompassing themes such as life, the boys, or mentality, providing a coherent structure for analyzing the interrelated concepts and their underlying metaphors.
After completing the instantiations, the researcher explores the underlying conceptual metaphors, which contain multiple layers of interconnected ideas These metaphorical layers reveal complex and intriguing matrices of concepts, offering deeper insights into their meaning and significance.
All those concepts are taken into investigation in order to determine the subtle messages imprinted by the authors - or in other words - the further meaning of the metaphors
E.g “The heart of flame leapt nimbly across the gap between the trees and then went swinging and flaring along the whole row of them.” (Golding,
- Governing frame: the boys - or the depiction of the boys
- Possible frames: warmth, heat, food, destruction, nature, pain, damage, power, etc
FIRE can be put under the concept of SUPPORT as in culinary work However, FIRE can also be seen as DISASTER that can wipe out everything in its path
The boys, though young, can possess unforeseen and destructive power beyond control They can be as wild and commanding as nature itself
Table 3.2 The analysis of the framing process of a metaphor
The study on the similarities and differences between the conceptual metaphors in the two novels is handled within three steps below
Exploring the significance of conceptual metaphors through cognitive semantics and framing uncovers their artistic and social connotations By comparing and contrasting the metaphors in two novels, we can reveal the authors' literary intentions and the socio-cultural contexts influencing their work This analysis aims to highlight the impact of these metaphors and bring the core themes of the novels to light, providing deeper insight into their overall message.
First, the similarities are drawn in the formation of the metaphors denoting the theme of lost innocence in both novels
Second, the differences are gathered, and then compared and contrasted
It should be noted that both the similarities and differences can derive from the conceptualization and framing of the metaphors
Analyzing the similarities and differences in conceptual metaphors reveals each author's unique artistic style and offers insights into the underlying portrayal of contemporary society depicted in their novels These metaphorical patterns help uncover the authors' perspectives and the social contexts reflected within their works Understanding these linguistic strategies enhances our comprehension of how literature mirrors societal realities, making them essential for SEO-focused analysis of literary themes.
E.g “Old Stradlater was one of his pets.” (Salinger, 1991:25)
“He lay against a log, his mouth gaping, blue shadows creeping round his lips.” (Golding, 2006:79)
PEOPLE ARE ANIMALS HUMAN IS DARKNESS
The target domain: HUMAN BEING
The governing frame: the boys - the depiction of the boys
- The source domain - The source domain is
- Possible frames: instinct, thought, language, herd, life, nature, wild, manipulation, domestication, owner, etc
- Possible frames: light, power, fear, struggle, opposition, contrast, hope, dream, etc
- With first-person story telling based on the words of the rebellious Holden - the language used tends to be colloquial and vulgar
- With third-person narrative and a masterful way of descriptive writing and foreshadowing - Golding employs abstract and poetic concepts in his metaphors
- The “baby-boom” generation in the USA back then expressed an outward contempt towards the shallow society - one full of capitalism and weapon trade
Golding served as a wise observer during Great Britain's challenging post-WWII era, when the nation faced gloom and the decline of its former imperial power His insights provided a guiding light for a country navigating a painful and uncertain reconstruction period.
Table 3.3 The analysis of the similarities and differences between the conceptual metaphors in the two novels
This chapter outlines the research design, data collection, analytical framework, and procedures employed in the study A total of 24 conceptual metaphor samples are extracted from two novels, covering key themes such as life, mentality, and education The analysis is grounded in Lakoff and Johnson’s conceptual metaphor theory alongside Fillmore’s framing theory, providing a robust framework for examining the metaphors and frames in detail These theoretical approaches enable an in-depth analysis of the identified metaphors and frames in the subsequent chapter.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Conceptual metaphors and frames in The Catcher in the Rye
"The Catcher in the Rye centers on Holden Caulfield, who decides to leave school and escape to New York City, embodying reckless and careless attitudes that reflect his apathy towards the world." "Despite his cynicism, Holden harbors a deep desire to protect children's innocence, aspiring to be 'the catcher in the rye' by preventing them from falling into corrupt adulthood." "The novel is narrated in first person by Holden, offering readers an intimate glimpse into his rebellious perspective and inner world." "Throughout the story, 14 conceptual metaphors reveal Holden’s perceptions of the world and his ways of coping with life's changes." "These metaphors are organized into four main themes: school and education, life, people and adults, and mentality, providing a structured understanding of the novel's deeper meanings."
Figure 4.1 Conceptual metaphors and frames in The Catcher in the Rye
In the framework of school and education, various conceptual frames help shape our understanding of metaphors For example, the relationship between teachers and students plays a crucial role in the educational process Teaching and learning methods are fundamental in shaping individuals' development Additionally, rules and regulations within educational settings maintain order and structure Overall, school and education serve as a microcosm of civilized society, reflecting its essential values and social dynamics.
Holden, a school dropout, exhibits a clear disdain for the educational system and those involved in it Throughout the novel, he repeatedly expresses his negative feelings about school, highlighting his alienation and disconnection Notably, Holden employs conceptual metaphors on two occasions to vividly illustrate his complex feelings towards his school experience, emphasizing his deep sense of rejection and frustration.
(1) Since 1888 we have been molding boys into splendid, clear- thinking young men
For this description, it can be seen that this is an instantiation of the conceptual metaphor PEOPLE ARE WORKS OF ART
Both WORKS OF ART and PEOPLE require significant time and effort to create, each embodying beauty and delicacy in its own way However, PEOPLE are unique, resilient biological entities with individual ideas and consciousness, whereas WORKS OF ART are crafted objects that can be mass-produced and manipulated Unlike PEOPLE, works of art lack a voice or autonomous thought, existing primarily for display rather than personal expression or purpose.
Students are often perceived as beautiful and worthy, akin to a masterpiece of art, highlighting their intrinsic value However, the harsh reality of the current education system reveals a troubling truth: students are sometimes treated as mere objects, devoid of a soul, and easy to mold or control This ironic portrayal underscores the disconnect between students' true worth and their treatment within educational structures, raising critical questions about the ethics and effectiveness of such approaches.
The article highlights how words like "splendid" and "clear-thinking young men" reflect the idealized image of students, while also capturing Holden’s frustration with the educational system It critiques how schools treat students as soulless products lacking autonomy, forcing them to conform and follow a rigid set of rules without the freedom to think independently about their choices.
Educational standards should foster confidence and independence in students, empowering them to lead fulfilling lives instead of simply conforming to a predetermined mold Schools must provide the right tools, such as self-reliance and critical thinking skills, rather than focusing solely on monetary gains or superficial success True education emphasizes meaningful connections and personal growth, encouraging students to forge their own unique paths.
According to Golub (2010), high school education increasingly prepares students for adulthood rather than college, focusing on skills like dressing appropriately, making suitable social choices, and engaging in civic life However, this curriculum often neglects core human values such as innocence and moral development Living within these institutions and societal structures, it is unfair to solely attribute Holden’s struggles to personal fault, as the educational environment may influence his challenges.
Schools are meant to be environments of equality where every student is treated fairly; however, it is common for some students to receive more attention than others Holden notices this disparity and uses a metaphor to express his feelings about the unequal treatment in educational settings.
(2) Old Stradlater was one of his pets
Humans are often metaphorically compared to animals, highlighting their biological similarities yet acknowledging their higher position in the creature hierarchy due to advanced reasoning and language skills Describing a person as an animal can imply they lack independent will and are easily directed For example, when Holden refers to a student as a teacher’s pet, it suggests the teacher is guiding the student like herding animals, and the student obediently follows like a loyal domesticated animal.
This is an “idiomatic” metaphor which is non-productive (Taylor,
The phrase "being someone's pet" is a common expression that signifies favoritism and affection, often implying that a student is cherished and cared for by a teacher in a manner similar to how an owner treats a pet Holden is perceptive enough to recognize this dynamic, highlighting the subtle nuances of favoritism within the classroom setting Through his keen observations, he notices how certain students are subtly prioritized, emphasizing the underlying social dynamics Additionally, Holden’s use of irony when describing these relationships underscores his critical view of the superficiality and complexities of adult and educational interactions.
Stradlater,” it is clear that he does not approve of this conspicuous behavior
Looking through Holden’s - a student’s perspectives - it is extremely discouraging to find out that there is someone else that has greater care and attention
The act of favoritism is a common human inclination Nevertheless, when it becomes too obvious, it can hurt a lot of feelings, especially in an educational setting
In Holden's eyes, school resembles a factory, where rigid teachers act as heartless manufacturers offering little value and showing little respect to students The novel subtly incorporates metaphors such as PEOPLE ARE WORKS OF ART and PEOPLE ARE ANIMALS, which reinforce Holden’s negative perception of the school environment For Holden, school is ironically the one place where young people should learn about and strive for goodness, yet it fails to foster such ideals.
Life is an abstract and mystifying experience that extends beyond the boundaries of school and education Society remains the fundamental foundation, influenced by human interaction, communication, and existential crises Life is a complex blend of hierarchy, rules, and a continuous flow of emotions such as joy, sorrow, and Sentiments, making it a vibrant yet mysterious journey While life’s beauty is undeniable, it often remains an enigmatic mystery, as reflected in Holden’s perspective.
Life, to Holden, is nothing more than suffering He is “depressed as hell,” thinking about how unfair and tainted life is Contemplating about life,
Holden offers a sharp metaphor and also his teacher Old Spencer spares a thought
First, before leaving his school Pencey, Holden comes to Old Spencer to say good-bye Old Spencer shares his wisdom and comforts Holden
(3) Life is a game , boy Life is a game that one plays according to the
Life is often metaphorically described as a game, with rules, winners, and losers, reflecting the complexities and injustices of real life Older Spencer, with his greater experience, understands that life is not fair and has seen the tricks and hardships firsthand, unlike teenage Holden who is just beginning to realize this harsh truth Despite following rules and trying his best, Holden observes that success is not guaranteed, highlighting that life's challenges and unforeseen losses can occur even to the kindest and most cautious individuals Holden expresses his cynicism by questioning the very concept of the game, saying, “Game, my ass Some game If you get on the side where all the hot-shots are, then it’s a game, all right – I’ll admit that But if you get on the other side, where there aren’t any hot-shots, then what’s a game about? Nothing No game.” This realization underscores the importance of money, power, and relationships in life, a reality that Old Spencer has accepted, and that Holden—at just 16—begins to understand This moment represents a poignant loss of innocence, as Holden struggles to remain resilient and confident without proper guidance in navigating life's harsh truths.
Teenage Holden is struggling not only with losing "the game" but also with financial worries, as he has not yet earned any money His frustration and misery grow when he thinks about his lack of income, highlighting his concerns about financial stability and the challenges of growing up without financial independence.
(4) Goddam money It always ends up making you blue as hell
Conceptual metaphors and frames in Lord of the Flies
"Lord of the Flies is a timeless allegory exploring a world devoid of order, extending beyond a simple coming-of-age story to include deep religious and political symbolism." "Focusing on childhood innocence, the novel depicts a group of schoolboys stranded on a deserted island, where initial perceptions of freedom quickly give way to chaos due to the absence of rules and morality." "The story gradually reveals how the boys lose their innocence and descend into animalistic behavior, highlighting the fragile nature of childhood purity." "Through ten conceptual metaphors categorized into three main frames—The Boys, Mentality, and Life—the novel offers a profound insight into the characters' psychological states and the human condition." "This metaphorical framework provides readers with an in-depth understanding of the internal and external worlds of the characters in Lord of the Flies."
Figure 4.2 Conceptual metaphors and frames in Lord of the Flies
The author captivates readers by presenting a vivid portrayal of the boys, emphasizing their physical appearances and personalities Central themes include notions of goodness versus badness and control versus chaos, with youth and innocence serving as core framing elements As the story progresses, readers are taken on an unforgettable journey that explores the complexity of the boys' characters beyond initial perceptions.
(1) They walked along, two continents of experience and feeling, unable to communicate
The conceptual metaphor "HUMAN IS LAND" highlights the idea that humans are biological and mortal beings with a seemingly insignificant stance in the vast universe However, like land—an essential component covering much of Earth’s surface—humans play a crucial role in the interconnected web of life Both humans and land are indispensable parts of the Earth's ecosystem, emphasizing their intertwined significance.
Human beings and the Earth are profound concepts that are difficult to define, yet referencing humans as small parts of the vast, ancient Earth creates a poetic perspective The Earth’s intricate history contrasts with humanity's complexity, highlighting that humans are just a tiny fragment of the universe filled with endless mysteries Similarly, teenage boys are described as "landmasses of experience and feeling," burdened by a whirlwind of emotions and unanswered questions as they navigate their journey of self-discovery The phrase "unable to communicate" underscores their feelings of powerlessness in forming meaningful connections In Chapter 3, boys are introduced as beautiful and complex beings, setting a contemplative tone for the entire novel.
Golding has numerous ways to depict the boys Done with the massive Earth, the author chooses an object that is more tangible and familiar
(2) The heart of flame leapt nimbly across the gap between the trees and then went swinging and flaring along the whole row of them
The metaphor "Human is Fire" illustrates the complex and unpredictable nature of human beings, especially teenagers Fire symbolizes both warmth and destructive power, reflecting the multi-layered personality of a human, particularly a teenage boy While they may appear innocent and helpful, like a flickering flame in a furnace, their inner "fire" remains uncontrollable, ready to erupt In the novel, these boys are depicted as a raging, swift-moving fire, embodying intense, competitive energy that can quickly turn destructive.
The boys are the Earth, the fire, and once again, they are the animals
The novel illustrates how, when stranded on the island, boys begin to lose their sense of order and civilization—key elements of human society—revealing that humans are inherently animals Holden also shares this perspective in "The Catcher in the Rye," emphasizing the primal instincts that emerge when societal norms break down As the boys' connection to civilization weakens, their animal instincts take over, highlighting the fragile boundary between human and animal nature in extreme situations.
Golding's description of the boys as a "creature" highlights their chaotic, brutal, and wild nature, emphasizing the primal instincts that emerge in their group behavior Although he does not specify any particular animal, he depicts the boys traveling in groups while searching for food, symbolically comparing them to a creature This collective mass lacks a defined physical shape, but viewing it as a creature evokes both a sense of unity and a feeling of dread Golding’s skillful use of language masterfully captures the unsettling transformation of the boys into a primal force, reinforcing themes of savagery and the loss of civilization.
Again, mentioning the group of boys, Golding makes use of this metaphor
(4) He lay against a log, his mouth gaping, blue shadows creeping round his lips
The foundational metaphor in this context is "HUMAN IS DARKNESS," linking the domain of darkness to human nature As the story unfolds, a boy named Piggy hides from the hunting boys, lying quietly while shadowy figures pass by, symbolizing the concealment of darker instincts Shadows, known for their secrecy and vast coverage, represent the hidden, often darker aspects of human personality The narrative reveals that the boys are gradually exposing their own dark sides, which are as expansive and ominous as the shadows they cast Thus, the boys are portrayed as complex, enigmatic, and impulsive beings, embodying the theme that beneath external appearances lies a realm of darkness and mystery.
The boys have been described using rather negative connotations Now, a lighter subject is introduced when the author mentions the brightness in their soul with this metaphor as follows
(5) The usual brightness was gone from his eyes and he walked with a sort of glum determination like an old man
The article explores the conceptual metaphor "Personalities are Eyes," rooted in the idiom "Eyes are the window to the soul." This metaphor highlights the connection between eyes and personalities, emphasizing how eyes reveal inner traits and emotions The source domain is eyes, which are often seen as reflective of a person's true nature, while the target domain is personalities Both eyes and personalities share features such as darkness and openness, symbolizing hidden depths and expressiveness, making this metaphor an effective way to understand how we interpret and perceive individual character through eye expressions.
The eyes are considered the most powerful and revealing body part, often betraying hidden truths regardless of one's attempts to conceal them They symbolize outward character, while true personalities reside deeper within, creating a connection between internal and external traits Young boys are often described as “bright,” representing intelligence and kindness, which makes them appear happier and more clever in their initial innocence However, this “brightness” is temporary; in a harsh wilderness setting, it eventually fades, and the boys revert to their survival-driven routine on the deserted island.
Golding highlights the contrast between the boys’ inner brightness and the underlying darkness that prevails Despite attempts to portray their innocence, the boys are fundamentally driven by primal instincts and survival instincts, revealing their animalistic nature His use of poetic and terrifying metaphors vividly depicts the boys’ true nature, with five key metaphors emphasizing their connection to land, fire, and animals These metaphors serve to symbolize human qualities and personalities, illustrating the underlying savagery lurking beneath their outward appearance.
The boys’ mentality on the forsaken island is a compelling and complex aspect of the story, highlighting the contrast between strengths and weaknesses that distinguish leaders from followers Their characters embody opposing traits such as compassion and ruthlessness, which influence their actions and relationships Despite these contrasts, the predominant emotion among the boys is melancholy, reflecting a deep yearning for the peaceful past they once experienced before being stranded on the island.
Boys typically thrive by learning, playing, and interacting within a community, but their situation has changed drastically Now stranded on a deserted island, their primary focus shifts entirely to survival, which takes a significant toll on their mental well-being This challenging environment deeply impacts their psychological resilience, especially since their mental strength was already fragile.
Dealing with starvation, insanitary, and overall stress, none of which they have experienced before; the boys resort to the only way they know how
(6) As if this information was rooted far down in the springs of sorrow, the littlun wept
The article explores the conceptual metaphor "IDEAS ARE PLANTS," illustrating how young boys perceive the potential presence of a beast on the island as deeply ingrained, like tree roots, in their minds Just as plants have numerous roots and branches, ideas can spread in many directions, grow strong, and become pervasive The combination of fear and sadness gradually erodes the boys’ mental resilience, highlighting how a young mind is susceptible to internalizing negative ideas Even implausible fears, such as the beast, become fixed in their consciousness, leading to emotional breakdowns triggered by negative thoughts.
Again, the struggle for survival every single day has brought the boys to their feet They have become exhausted and demotivated
(7) He found himself understanding the wearisomeness of this life, where every path was an improvisation and a considerable part of one’s waking life was spent watching one’s feet
The concept of EMOTION as a CONTAINER illustrates how feelings like tiredness can trap individuals within their own experience In this analogy, exhaustion becomes a tangible container that envelops and nearly devours the boys, emphasizing the intensity of their fatigue As their struggles persist and threaten to overwhelm them, these emotions shift from internal battles to external realities, highlighting the weight of their responsibilities The boys are acutely aware of their pain, almost able to taste and feel it, underscoring how emotions like tiredness can dominate their perception and sense of reality.
Dealing with the pain and pressure, some boys break down while some others prevail It is Ralph - the supposed leader - who is smart and brave enough to continue
(8) He bound himself together with his will, fused his fear and loathing into a hatred, and stood up
The founding conceptual metaphor is also EMOTION IS A PHYSICAL
OBJECT This time, Ralph can manipulate his “will” and his “fear,” handling them any way he wants His emotions are now tangible entities that he has
Comparison of the conceptualization and framing of metaphors
The conceptualization and framing of metaphors in the two novels reveal both similarities and differences, offering insights into the authors’ artistic styles and intended messages By analyzing these metaphors, readers can better understand how each author constructs their unique literary world and legacy The use of conceptual metaphors also reflects the social and cultural contexts underlying each setting, allowing for a deeper exploration of the novel’s thematic layers This approach highlights the importance of metaphorical analysis in uncovering the nuanced cultural and social connotations embedded within the narratives.
Both novels are compelling coming-of-age stories that explore the theme of loss of innocence, focusing on schoolboys who are left isolated either physically or mentally In "Lord of the Flies," boys are stranded on an island, while Holden Caulfield in "The Catcher in the Rye" deliberately runs away from home—all driven by personal reasons and visions of the future As the stories unfold, their original innocence gradually fades under the weight of mature realities, highlighting that human beings cannot remain young and naïve forever Nonetheless, the journey toward adulthood and moral growth should be celebrated and guided, rather than feared or detested, emphasizing the importance of embracing maturity.
Both Catcher and Lord use metaphors centered around LIFE, often depicting it as a RACE or GAME where winners and losers are always present These metaphors highlight that life's rules, whether explicit or implicit, mirror the competitive nature of races and games They reveal the harsh reality that success often favors those with power and determination Even at a young age, boys begin to realize and adapt to these underlying truths of life.
Young minds are captivated by the theme of IDEAS, which serve as a powerful force distinguishing individuals from one another In the two novels analyzed, three key conceptual metaphors highlight the significance of ideas: as directions that guide our paths, as deep-rooted plants symbolizing growth and stability, and as challenging puzzles seeking resolution These metaphors illustrate that ideas are deeply personal and sometimes overwhelming, reflecting their complex role in human experience Overall, the concept of IDEA is a compelling and frequently explored subject in literature, emphasizing its universal relevance and profound impact.
In both novels, abstract concepts like MEMORY and YOUTH are symbolized as OBJECTS, such as ORNAMENTS or MOVING OBJECTS in Catcher, while EMOTION serves as a guiding mapping in Lord These authors aim to encapsulate complex ideas into the struggles of the main characters, helping readers understand that life and adulthood can be overwhelming due to a lack of experience By portraying EMOTION and MEMORY as tangible OBJECTS that boys can grasp and control, the novels illustrate how these symbols provide comfort and stability amid life's turbulence and challenges.
There are various metaphors detailing PEOPLE as well Most notable is the metaphor PEOPLE ARE ANIMALS that appear in both novels Holden in
In the novel, the Catcher shows intense contempt for adults, referring to them as “rats” to emphasize their untrustworthy and contemptible nature Meanwhile, the roles have shifted in Lord, where young boys are now labeled “creatures,” highlighting their savage and animalistic behaviors This comparison of humans to animals is a classic literary trope; however, the context in which it is used reveals the author’s true intentions and the underlying themes of the story.
The concept of MENTALITY is a recurring theme throughout both novels, reflecting the journey of young individuals navigating adulthood and survival The protagonists’ mindsets, emotions, and actions are central to the stories' development While there are differences in how MENTALITY is conceptualized, a key approach involves using concrete objects—such as locations, plants, or puzzles—to represent mental states This method simplifies abstract notions, making them more accessible and relatable for readers, thereby fostering greater empathy for the characters' internal experiences.
Both *Catcher in the Rye* and *Lord of the Flies* explore the theme of loss of innocence through similar conceptual metaphors, highlighting their conceptual and thematic alignment These novels share predominant frames of LIFE and MENTALITY, with MENTALITY being the most frequently used frame, incorporating multiple metaphors—six in *Catcher* and three in *Lord* The metaphors are expressed in nearly universal terms, such as ideas linked to plants, life as a game, people as animals, and emotions as containers, emphasizing their broad, relatable conceptualizations of innocence and human nature.
4.3.2 Differences Catcher and Lord share the same creative theme yet there are undoubtedly a number of differences in the conceptualization of metaphors These differences help to demonstrate the diverse artistic flairs of the two authors, as well as the hidden picture of the contemporary society
In the context of LIFE, Salinger’s "Catcher in the Rye" depicts life as a game, emphasizing the unpredictable and playful aspects of existence Conversely, William Golding’s "Lord of the Flies" portrays life as a race, highlighting the necessity of speed and urgency for survival The boys on the island must constantly run to find food and stay alive, making speed and agility essential This racing motif foreshadows the harsh realities of their survival, where being quick and sometimes brutal becomes vital to endure in their hostile environment.
Both novels explore the conceptual metaphor "PEOPLE ARE ANIMALS," but they approach the human subject differently In "The Catcher in the Rye," adults are discredited for their superficiality, whereas in "Lord of the Flies," it is the young boys who are portrayed as possessing animalistic and corrupt traits "Lord of the Flies" uses metaphors like "PEOPLE ARE ANIMALS" and "HUMAN IS DARKNESS" to subtly reveal the dark aspects of human nature While Holden’s story evokes feelings of depression and fear, "Lord of the Flies" functions as an allegory that highlights an unsettling view of human nature, emphasizing the inherent darkness within people.
In terms of IDEAS, while Holden thinks of IDEAS as DIRECTIONS, it is the domain of PLANTS that is employed in Lord In detail, in Catcher,
Holden is a孤独者, seeking separation from the world and feeling misunderstood, which Salinger highlights through the metaphor of DIRECTIONS to emphasize his isolation on his personal journey Conversely, the young boy, “the littlun,” is too “little” to form his own ideas and merely absorbs preconceived notions, making his sense of safety fragile when faced with the stresses of self-sufficiency on the island His emotional response, crying, is understandable given the circumstances, reflecting his vulnerability amidst the chaos.
Next, the frame of EMOTION is also employed frequently Nonetheless, Lord deals strictly with EMOTION, whereas Catcher mentions
EMOTIONAL HEALTH Specifically, EMOTIONAL HEALTH is referred to as A LOCATION or PHYSICAL FORM in Catcher, owing to the fact that
Catcher delves into Holden's inner turmoil as he navigates the turbulent transition to adulthood Holden perceives this phase as highly unstable, frequently teetering on the verge of a breakdown Key phrases such as “a terrible fall” highlight the intense emotional struggle Holden experiences during this period.
“the edge of some crazy cliff” is enough to remind readers of how unhinged Holden’s mental health is In Lord, EMOTION is seen as a PHYSICAL
OBJECT - one that the boys can grasp and manipulate at their own disposal
The boys in Lord exhibit greater emotional control than Holden, effectively leveraging their emotions to their advantage While Holden struggles to master this skill, an overreliance on emotions among the boys risks undermining order and civilization This contrast highlights how emotional awareness impacts social stability and individual behavior.
In the novels, the conceptualization of "human" or "people" differs significantly In "Catcher," people are primarily depicted as sellers or buyers, highlighting a focus on transactional roles and societal functions This contrast emphasizes how each novel explores human identity through different lenses, with "Catcher" emphasizing economic and social identities over individual qualities.
PERSONALITIES equal BODY PARTS In contrast, HUMAN is LAND, FIRE, and DARKNESS in Lord It can be observed that the domains used in
Lord are far more abstract This can be accounted for by the narrative style of the two novels While Catcher is on the first account of a teenager - Holden
Implications behind the comparison
4.4.1 In terms of artistic style 4.4.1.1 In The Catcher in the Rye The Catcher in the Rye is written in first-person narrative, using the protagonist - Holden Caulfield as the eye (and I) of the story Therefore, teenage colloquial speech sets the main tone for the novel The language used is highly informal and conversational, which makes way for various idiomatic and conventionalized metaphors
The use of conventionalized metaphors such as "FEELING IS COLOR" (e.g., "making you blue") and idiomatic expressions like "PEOPLE ARE ANIMALS," "EMOTIONAL HEALTH IS PHYSICAL FORM," and "PERSONALITY ARE BODY PARTS" reflect Holden’s rebellious, down-to-earth personality These metaphors highlight his tendency to simplify complex emotions using tangible physical objects, aligning with his young age and quest to make sense of a chaotic world Holden’s language incorporates highly localized and distinctive idiomatic expressions, making him one of the most relatable literary characters Salinger’s deliberate use of such language reveals his immersion into Holden’s psyche, effectively capturing the character’s youthful perspective and emotional landscape.
The conceptualization of metaphors is significantly shaped by a novel's narrative style and character portrayals In the case of a first-person narrative featuring a rebellious icon like Holden Caulfield, metaphors tend to be casual and vulgar, reflecting the protagonist's raw voice and rebellious attitude This approach creates vivid, relatable imagery that enhances reader engagement and understanding of the character's perspective Incorporating these elements strategically can improve the effectiveness of metaphors in conveying themes and emotions within the story.
4.4.1.2 In Lord of the Flies
In *Lord of the Flies*, William Golding employs an omniscient third-person narrator, which allows the story to be conveyed primarily through Golding’s own voice The novel’s language is notably more formal and expressive compared to *The Catcher in the Rye*, providing a richer and more nuanced narrative Additionally, Golding’s writing style is less straightforward, creating space for effective foreshadowing that enhances the story's depth and tension.
Golding’s use of abstract domains such as “PEOPLE,” “DARKNESS,” and “LAND” highlights his elaborate writing style and sets a foreboding tone for the novel, serving as foreshadowing of future events While concrete terms like “ANIMALS” and “SELLERS” are used in Catcher, the abstract references in Lord emphasize the mysterious and uncertain nature of the island setting The boys are initially overwhelmed by the unfamiliar environment, and their experiences are vague and challenging, illustrating their ongoing process of learning and adapting in an unpredictable situation.
Golding’s descriptive writing style vividly captures human experience and emotion, as seen in sentences like “They walked along, two continents of experience and feeling, unable to communicate,” and “He found himself understanding the wearisomeness of this life, where every path was an improvisation and a considerable part of one’s waking life was spent watching one’s feet.” He pays close attention to details, using a rich variety of nouns and adjectives to create highly expressive and graphic scenes that immerse the reader in his descriptions.
In "Lord of the Flies," Golding demonstrates a profound ability to create a sense of ambiguity and suspense, making the narrative both chilling and captivating His use of abstract lexical fields and source domains enhances the thematic depth and emotional intensity of the story Overall, Golding's work effectively explores complex human nature and societal collapse, engaging readers with its thrilling and thought-provoking content.
In "The Catcher in the Rye," the subjective tone creates a relatable and personal connection with readers, while "Lord of the Flies" employs third-person narration to provide a comprehensive perspective of the story Salinger’s use of colloquial language, idiomatic expressions, and conventional metaphors enhances the novel’s authenticity, contrasting with Golding’s use of abstract and descriptive source domains in his metaphors This fundamental difference in metaphor conceptualization distinguishes the two authors and their works, contributing to the rich landscape of 1950s coming-of-age stories.
4.4.2 In terms of social and historical context 4.4.2.1 In The Catcher in the Rye
The Catcher in the Rye sustains its allure to date thanks to Holden
Caulfield’s “brutal honesty and introspective nature.” (Neffinger, 2014) The contemporary American society is vividly and realistically portrayed in the eyes of Holden
The 1950s was a period of unprecedented growth in America, characterized by a booming economy and a significant baby boom During this time, baby boomers emerged as the most enthusiastic readers of literature, with J.D Salinger's *The Catcher in the Rye* capturing the insecurities faced by those born in the atomic age According to Hamilton (1998), the novel resonated deeply with this generation’s experiences Neffinger (2014) notes that the economic prosperity of the era led parents to emphasize traditional values, believing that true happiness was achieved through stability and adherence to societal norms.
Many young people today reject the traditional notion of "living a long and successful life," instead seeking purpose and individuality Youth often desire a sense of purpose and direction but struggle to define their identity while moving away from their parents' ideals Additionally, Americans are known for their strong sense of individualism, which influences young people's desire to be understood and taken seriously Throughout the novel, this yearning for recognition and personal authenticity is a recurring theme, reflecting the broader societal push for self-expression and independence.
Weaponizing ideas as guiding directions, baby boomers desperately sought societal sympathy Often feeling isolated, their voices remained firm and resolute, emphasizing their desire to be heard and understood.
depicting individuals as soulless objects, and continued to promote commercialization, revealing a societal obsession with money and material success.
Salinger masterfully captures the landscape of psychological discontent amid global and personal turmoil, as highlighted by Hamilton (1998) Through *The Catcher in the Rye*, he vividly portrays contemporary American society's issues, including materialism, selfishness, and superficiality The novel's powerful use of conceptual metaphors enhances this critique, with Holden Caulfield serving as a symbolic figure representing youthful alienation and emotional struggle in a superficial world.
4.4.2.2 In Lord of the Flies
"Lord of the Flies has been adapted into three notable films and continues to resonate with audiences today." "This compelling novel, often required reading in introductory English courses, also holds valuable lessons for biology, economics, psychology, and philosophy." "Its powerful story of survival and human nature serves as an important reminder and wake-up call for society."
In the 1950s, Britain faced the lasting trauma of WWII, suffering even greater damage than the USA due to its direct involvement in declaring war against Germany Despite victory, British cities and the economy lay in ruins, marking the decline of the British Empire and diminishing its global influence The country’s post-war reality was characterized by loss of military power and economic strength, leaving only moral prestige for standing against Adolf Hitler The metaphor “LIFE IS A RACE” highlights Britain’s desperate efforts to revive its former imperial dominance, after being shattered by the war that ended the era when “the sun never set” on the British Empire.