A study on the impact of teaching inferential reading skills to efl high school studebts

been done into the effect of an inferential reading skill course on students’ reading comprehension development.. Aims of study In an attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of the teachi

INTRODUCTION

Rationale

As a specialist in English for the Tien Giang Department of Education and Training, I oversee the English teaching and learning initiatives in the province A prevalent issue is that EFL students struggle more with reading comprehension multiple choice questions (MCQs) compared to grammar and vocabulary MCQs Our goal is to enhance students' reading comprehension skills to improve their scores in progress, achievement, and proficiency tests One significant challenge students face in reading comprehension is inferential reading.

Improving students' reading comprehension remains a significant challenge for educators, particularly when addressing inferential reading multiple-choice questions (MCQs), which often present even greater difficulties.

By making dedicated efforts, the complexity of the issue can be significantly reduced This research proposes that teaching inferential reading skills to students is an effective way to address the problem.

Inferences are conclusions drawn from existing knowledge and judgments made based on the information presented in a text This strategy enables EFL students to link their prior knowledge with their understanding of reading materials By employing this approach, students learn to integrate new information, allowing it to reshape their previous knowledge effectively.

Inferential reading is a teachable skill that enables students to connect text with their existing knowledge of the world By developing these skills, learners can explain ideas, provide details about events, recognize the author's perspective and biases, draw conclusions from presented facts, and understand the tone of discourse Additionally, inferential reading supports EFL students in tackling unfamiliar vocabulary by helping them identify pronoun antecedents, deduce meanings from context, and understand the structural functions of unknown words.

Making inferences involves understanding information that is implied rather than explicitly stated Readers must grasp the author's intent beyond the direct words, as writers offer subtle hints that encourage readers to "read between the lines." This process of using clues to gain a deeper understanding of the text is known as inferring.

Inferring allows readers to delve deeper than surface details, uncovering meanings that are suggested but not explicitly stated When the connotations of words are not clearly articulated within the text, they may be implied or hinted at, prompting readers to draw their own conclusions This process of inference enables a richer understanding of the text's underlying messages.

For example, if the text says that "all the glasses on the table are full", an inference would be that "there are no empty glasses on the table".

Aims of study

This research evaluates the effectiveness of teaching inferential reading skills to EFL students, aiming to provide evidence of its impact on enhancing reading comprehension The study focuses on how mastery of these skills influences students' reading scores in progress, achievement, and proficiency tests.

Research questions

enhance EFL high school students’ reading comprehension?

1.3.2 Does teaching inferential reading skills increase EFL high school students' motivation to read?

Scope of study

The study will focus on EFL high school students at CGHS in Tien Giang Province, specifically those aged 16 to 18 in the eleventh grade In addition to using MOET’s English textbooks in their official classes, these students also engage with Cambridge English materials, including KET, PET, and IELTS books, during their intensified extra classes They are preparing for both GCSE exams and proficiency tests.

Thesis design

The M.A thesis is composed of five main chapters:

The Introduction states the rationale, aims of study, research questions, scope of study, and overview of the study

The Literature Review discusses the viewpoints that the researchers hold about inferences, the ways to teach inferential reading skills and how the ways affect students’ reading comprehension

The Methodology introduces the methods employed to gather information

At CGHS, 80 English-intensive students and 1 English teacher contribute valuable insights for the study, with the statistical data subsequently analyzed using Microsoft Excel.

The Findings and Discussion section presents key discoveries that illuminate the effects of teaching inferential reading skills to EFL high school students Following this, the article offers recommendations aimed at enhancing the teaching and learning of these essential reading skills.

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the M.A thesis, evaluates the research methods used, highlights the contributions made, and acknowledges the study's limitations Additionally, it presents future research prospects related to the topic.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The elements of reading

Armbruster, Lehr, and Osborn (2001) identified key components of reading, including phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension, which should be prioritized in early reading instruction for children Fluency, defined as the capacity to read text accurately and swiftly, allows fluent readers to recognize words automatically.

Comprehension is the reason for reading If readers can read the words but do not understand what they are reading, they are not really reading

Understanding the reading process is crucial for helping students become proficient readers, as it reveals how various elements work together Students utilize their prior knowledge and background to produce words that fit the context of their reading They actively filter the material's meaning against their comprehension, seeking a match Vocabulary and comprehension collaborate to enhance students' reading and understanding.

The reading process

Verbal efficiency theory, introduced by Perfetti in 1985, elucidates the reading process by examining eye fixations at rapid rates It posits that each reader possesses a unique verbal efficiency profile; a larger profile indicates greater attentional resources allocated to higher-level skills, resulting in faster reading speeds Consequently, readers with a more extensive verbal efficiency profile can utilize their attentional resources more effectively, enhancing their reading pace.

Schema theory, as proposed by Anderson and Pearson (1984) and Carrell and Eisterhold (1983), elucidates how individuals structure their knowledge through schemas This theory emphasizes reading as a purposeful activity aimed at learning or memorization, rather than casual reading It focuses on individuals who engage with texts intentionally to extract information or retain it for future use.

Whole language theory, as proposed by Goodman (1989) and Watson (1989), posits that reading is a natural process interconnected with speaking, listening, and writing, suggesting that the development of one language skill enhances the others This approach encourages educators to adopt a child-centered philosophy to foster learning, primarily focusing on young readers rather than adults.

Rauding theory, which was proposed and developed by Carver (1990, 1992a,

The theory discussed, relevant to both children and adults, emphasizes the process of normal reading A detailed description of its functioning is essential for understanding its significance in this thesis.

According to Carver (1992b), there are five fundamental reading processes: scanning, skimming, reading 2, studying, and memorizing Readers adjust their reading strategies based on their objectives; for example, they may skim when they don't need to grasp every detail, while they may switch to studying or memorizing when they require a deeper understanding for future use Typically, readers engage primarily in the third gear, known as reading 2 or rauding, which encompasses both reading and auditory comprehension.

(listening) and reading, only the second dimension will be discussed in this literature review as the thesis particularly concerns fluency in reading

According to Carver (1997), the rauding process involves readers fixating on nearly all words in a text, allowing them to comprehend most of the complete thoughts presented If comprehension falls below 75 percent, readers are considered to be reading but not rauding For effective rauding, the reading material must be accessible to the reader's ability level; texts that are too complex hinder this process Additionally, instructions play a crucial role; if readers are directed to study the text for detailed recall, they may not engage in rauding This study's relevance is underscored by two experiments using speed reading texts tailored to participants' vocabulary levels, with instructions emphasizing a comprehension target of around 70 percent without the need for memorization Participants were instructed to read at their normal speed during both pre-tests and post-tests.

The nature of reading fluency

Fluency is essential for proficient reading, as it allows readers to focus on comprehension once they become automatic in decoding (Hiebert & Fisher, 2005) This connection between fluency and comprehension is well-documented (Kuhn & Stahl, 2003; McGlinchey & Hixson, 2004; Oakley, 2005; Pinnell, 1995; Rasinski & Padak, 1996; Silberglitt et al., 2006) Without achieving fluency, learners may struggle to progress in their reading abilities (Stahl & Heubach, 2005) Additionally, increased fluency boosts readers' confidence and motivation, leading to greater enjoyment and time spent reading, which further enhances their fluency (Oakley, 2005) Furthermore, fluency is linked to first language reading, as noted by Carver (2000).

Fluency in reading refers to the ability to silently read relatively easy texts, where words are recognized effortlessly at the reader's typical pace, while fully comprehending the thoughts conveyed in the sentences In this context, fluency and rauding can be considered synonymous.

Fluency implies more than what is mentioned in the quote because the research involves learners of English in a foreign language environment

Many individuals struggle to recognize English words easily, even though they can understand most sentences Achieving this level of fluency is the primary objective of university language programs and treatments Participants can only be considered fluent when they can decode words effortlessly and grasp the main ideas in a text Therefore, a comprehensive review of the literature on fluency development is essential.

Fluency definitions primarily stem from research on first language (L1) reading, with second language (L2) reading studies often relying on L1 fluency theories In the context of L1 oral reading, fluency is characterized by the ability to read aloud quickly and accurately, as noted by Good and Kaminski (2002), Oakley (2005), and Welsch (2006) Additionally, fluency encompasses reading aloud with both accuracy and appropriate expression, as highlighted by Armbruster, Lehr, and others.

Osborn, 2001; Chard, Pikulski, & McDonough, 2005; Huey, 1968; Meyer &

Felton, 1999; Rasinski, 1989; Schreiber, 1987) Appropriate expression includes such aspects as speed, phrasing, and smoothness

Effective expression can indicate a reader's understanding of a text; however, fluency plays a crucial role in comprehension Therefore, fluency should be defined to encompass comprehension as well.

Rasinski, Blachowicz, & Lems, 2006; Stahl & Heubach, 2005)

In L1 silent reading, fluency is defined as the simultaneous ability to read and comprehend text accurately A fluent reader experiences no difficulties with word identification that could obstruct understanding.

Effective reading comprehension relies on a reader's ability to quickly and easily identify words, as highlighted by Samuels (2002) This concept is rooted in automaticity theory, which suggests that when a subcomponent skill becomes automatic, it requires fewer attentional resources, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of other related skills (Baker & Brown, 1984; Pressley & Hodges, 1995).

Afflerbach, 1995; Walczyk, 2000) Researchers also emphasize the role of smoothness and appropriate reading rate in reading fluency (Nation, 2005;

In second and foreign language learning, fluency is defined as “the ability to speak or write a particular foreign language easily and accurately” (Pearsall,

Reading fluency, particularly in a foreign language, has been underexplored, yet it is crucial for effective comprehension Researchers define foreign reading fluency as the ability to read and understand texts at a sufficient speed, with speed and accuracy serving as key indicators of this skill (Gorsuch & Taguchi, 2008).

Nation, 2005; Segalowitz, Segalowitz, & Wood, 1998; Yamashita & Ichikawa,

The indicators of reading fluency

Researchers have reached a consensus on the key indicators of reading fluency, which include automaticity, accuracy, and reading speed for silent reading or prosody for oral reading This agreement is supported by various studies (Grabe, 2004b; Harris & Hodges, 1995; Kuhn & Stahl, 2003; Rasinski et al., 2006; Richards, 2000; Tompkins, 2003; Worthy & Broaddus, 2001-2002).

Automaticity is widely accepted as one of the indicators of fluency in reading

Automaticity refers to the ability to perform tasks with minimal attentional resources In the context of reading, it involves the effortless, accurate, and rapid recognition of words Research indicates that automaticity is essential for skilled reading, as it enables readers to conserve cognitive resources for more complex tasks and enhances comprehension.

According to Rayner and Pollatsek (1989), word recognition and comprehension vie for a reader's attention Samuels (2002) suggests that if readers spend excessive time identifying words, their ability to focus on comprehension diminishes Consequently, reading instructors should assist learners in enhancing automaticity by minimizing dependence on controlled processes (Segalowitz et al.).

1998, p 54) The overall principle of chunking is most human beings can apprehend about “seven recently learned chunks of similarly classified data”

The chunking principle emphasizes that readers group words into information units, enhancing their word recognition skills This process not only accelerates reading speed but also alters the size and nature of the basic units processed by the reader Despite its significance, the assessment of recognition units in reading fluency has often been overlooked in research However, recent literature over the past two decades has begun to address the concept of automatization in second language reading.

Research indicates that L2 university students who exhibit greater reading fluency tend to possess superior automaticity in word recognition Additionally, a significant correlation exists between high proficiency levels and automatic word recognition in second language learners.

Prosody plays a crucial role in assessing fluency in oral reading Research in first language (L1) oral reading has identified key language features that contribute to prosody, such as stress, pitch variations, intonation, pace, phrasing, and pausing.

In oral reading, children's comprehension can be partially expressed through prosody, but silent reading lacks immediate indicators of understanding Consequently, many researchers advocate for the inclusion of comprehension accuracy as a key measure of fluency in silent reading (Gorsuch & Taguchi, 2008; Nation, 2005; Segalowitz et al., 1998).

According to Yamashita and Ichikawa (2010), reading speed is irrelevant if comprehension is lacking A proficient reader must be capable of reading quickly while also understanding the content simultaneously.

Comprehension accuracy is a crucial indicator of fluency in silent reading, with researchers recommending a target of at least 75% comprehension for L1 reading and around 70% for L2/FL reading In oral reading, accuracy is linked to decoding, which involves the ability to correctly produce a phonological representation of each word, either from the reader's sight-word vocabulary or through more effortful strategies like sounding out words Typically, decoding accuracy is assessed by counting the number of correct words read per minute.

Silent reading speed, also known as silent reading rate, is a key indicator of reading fluency, defined as the number of words a person can recognize per minute Extensive research has focused on L1 reading, examining factors such as fixations, saccades, and regressions, as well as comprehension levels and variations in reading rates Skilled L1 readers typically read at 250-300 words per minute (wpm) with about 90 fixations per 100 words, while normal oral reading speeds range from 100 to 200 wpm Influential studies by Carver have highlighted the concept of an optimal reading speed, termed the rauding rate, which maximizes comprehension efficiency, suggesting that 300 wpm is ideal for college students, although this rate may vary among individuals and is generally below 400 wpm.

In 1985, it was noted that proficient readers, including speed readers, professionals, and college students, typically read at speeds ranging from 300 to 600 words per minute (wpm) For these individuals, the reading rate remains relatively constant when adjusted for word length.

1983) Thus, it is possible that teachers can predict how fast a student will read a text if they know the difficulty level of the text

Reading speed is often believed to be influenced by factors such as the purpose of reading, text difficulty, and reader engagement (Nell, 1988) However, it's important to distinguish that Carver's concept of rauding rate differs from the commonly used term reading speed Additionally, Carver's research focused on L1 reading, suggesting that his rauding theory may not be applicable to L2 reading contexts.

Research on reading speed in L2/FL silent reading is a relatively new area

Researchers indicate that second language learners should aim for a reading speed of approximately 250 words per minute (wpm) when engaging with familiar materials, as noted by Nation (2005) However, it is important to recognize that reading speed in a second language (L2) or foreign language (FL) tends to be slower compared to first language (L1) reading, as highlighted by studies from Droop & Verhoeven (2003), Fraser (2007), and Segalowitz et al.

Komoda, 1991; Taguchi, Gorsuch, & Sasamoto, 2006) Although recently L2/FL researchers and educators are focusing on methods to increase L2 and

FL reading rate (Day & Bamford, 1998; Grabe, 1991, 2004a; Silberstein,

1994), the area of reading speed in L2/FL is still in its infancy.

Assessing reading fluency development

Numerous studies have focused on designing effective reading programs to enhance learners' reading fluency Research has identified key activities that promote fluency improvement, particularly in L1 oral reading Recommended strategies include using high-success texts, modifying teacher responses to reading errors through techniques like pause-prompt-praise, modeling fluent reading, and fostering free, voluntary reading Additionally, repeated reading, extended practice, and allowing student choice are essential for developing children's reading fluency (Allington, 2009; Ehri, 1995; Rasinski, 1989; Stahl, Heubach, & Cramond, 1996; Stahl & Heubach, 2005; Welsch).

Linguists and language practitioners have investigated various activities to enhance fluency in second language (L2) and foreign language (FL) reading Key techniques include repeated reading, paired reading, the 4/3/2 technique, extensive reading aloud, read and look up, speed reading courses, easy extensive reading, silent repeated reading, and issue logs.

Redfield, 1999; Taguchi, Takayasu-Maass, & Gorsuch, 2004)

Curriculum-based measurement (Deno, 1985) has been utilized in various studies to evaluate L1 oral reading fluency, serving as a comprehensive assessment of a student's abilities in reading, writing, and spelling Reading accuracy is calculated by dividing the number of words read correctly per minute by the total words read, allowing for a comparison against established target rate norms Additionally, the reading rate is determined by counting the total number of words read correctly per minute and comparing this performance to the target rate norms.

This weekly evaluation test enables both students and teachers to assess progress more frequently than the traditional monthly assessments Informal reading inventories, which have been utilized for decades, emphasize word decoding ability as a key indicator of a reader's improvement (Johnson, Kress, & Pikulski, 1987) Additionally, researchers have created rubrics and fluency norms to evaluate reading fluency and overall proficiency (Fuchs et al., 1993; Good & Kaminski, 2002).

Hasbrouck & Tindal, 1992; Marston & Magnusson, 1985; Rasinski, 2000;

Many studies on L1 oral reading fluency have overlooked comprehension until Allington (1983) emphasized its importance in fluency assessment He proposed methods for assessing comprehension, including story retelling, which encourages readers to recall details from the narrative Some educators utilize idea units to facilitate comparisons between the original story and the retelling Recent research has highlighted the significance of measuring reading comprehension (Daane et al., 2005; Pinnell et al., 1995), with some studies employing a four-point scale that reveals a strong correlation between fluency and reading comprehension performance (Pinnell et al., 1995).

Recent advancements in reading instruction have increased the importance of assessing silent reading fluency Consequently, researchers are working to develop effective methods for evaluating both reading rate and comprehension in first language (L1) silent reading.

Research on L2/FL silent reading has utilized various methods to measure reading speed, including the one-minute reading probe and the entire text method, as seen in both L1 and L2/FL studies In L2/FL research specifically, techniques such as the three-minute probe and the ten-second interval method have been employed For assessing comprehension, common methods include true-false questions, multiple choice questions, short answer questions, recall tests, and participant self-reports.

Iwahori, 2008; Lai, 1993; Paretz & Shoham, 1990; Taguchi, et al., 2006)

In a speed reading course, students track their reading speed in words per minute alongside their comprehension scores from related questions This method allows instructors to monitor both the improvement in reading speed and the students' understanding of the material (Macalister, 2008; Millett, et al., 2007).

Fluency, accuracy and complexity

L2/FL performance and competence are intricate concepts encompassing various components, as noted by language practitioners and researchers Historically, research has focused on three key factors: fluency, accuracy, and complexity (Ellis & Barkhuizen, 2005; Skehan, 1998) Since the 1990s, these variables have gained prominence in L2/FL learning studies, serving as both performance descriptors and proficiency indicators Fluency is characterized by native-like rapidity in language use, accuracy denotes error-free communication, and complexity reflects the ability to utilize a diverse range of structures and vocabulary (Wolfe-Quintero, Inagaki, & Kim, 1998, p 4).

Accuracy has been distinguished from fluency since the 1980s when researchers were trying to depict and measure second language oral skills

Research has identified two main types of activities in language programs: fluency-oriented and accuracy-oriented Fluency activities enhance spontaneous oral language production, while accuracy activities emphasize the correct use of language structures (Brumfit, 1984) In the 1990s, complexity was introduced as a third component of language learning by Skehan (1998) and is defined as the elaborateness and variety of language produced during tasks (Ellis, 2003) or the breadth of second language knowledge (Wolfe-Quintero et al., 1998) Complexity is linked to language tasks and production in L2/FL acquisition literature, and it can be further divided into cognitive complexity and linguistic complexity (Housen, Daele, & Pierrard, 2005; Williams & Evans, 1998).

Cognitive complexity in second language learners is influenced by individual factors, such as memory span, while linguistic complexity pertains to the language system itself Key indicators of a learner's linguistic complexity include the diversity of grammatical structures and an extensive vocabulary.

Previous research has explored how external factors influence learners' accuracy, fluency, and complexity in language performance, proposing methods to evaluate these components and their development Wigglesworth (1997) found that in first language acquisition, planning time significantly benefits high proficiency learners in producing complex and fluent language; however, the findings were inconclusive regarding the impact on accuracy.

Wigglesworth and Storch (2009) found that collaborative writing positively influenced the accuracy of second language learners, but did not enhance fluency or complexity In the context of L2/FL learning, various measures of complexity, accuracy, and fluency have been utilized to assess the impact of treatments on language production Research by Yuan and Ellis (2003) and Mehnert (1998) demonstrated that providing planning time significantly improved learners' writing in terms of fluency, accuracy, and complexity However, other studies, including those by Ellis, present differing perspectives on these findings.

Research by Crookes (1989) and others in 1987 highlighted that planning time impacts language production complexity but does not significantly affect accuracy However, recent findings by Ahmadian and Tavakoli (2011) suggest that while careful planning time enhances both complexity and accuracy, it may also lead to increased dysfluency.

Although a considerable amount of literature has been published on the association between the three aspects of language, there has not been agreement that fluency, accuracy, and complexity develop simultaneously

This experiment therefore set out with the aim to determine if development in fluency through the speed reading course leads to improvement in accuracy and complexity.

First and second language reading fluency

There have been numerous studies on L1 reading fluency (Breznitz & Share, 1992; Dowhower, 1987; Kuhn & Stahl, 2003; Perfetti, 1985; Samuels, 2006;

Stanovich, 2000) and L2 reading fluency (Arevart & Nation, 1991; Chang, 2010; Kroll, et al., 2002; O’Brien, Segalowitz, Freed, & Collentine, 2007;

Research indicates that first language (L1) reading proficiency significantly influences second language (L2) reading performance (Yamashita & Ichikawa, 2010; Bossers, 1992; Brisbois, 1995; Carrell, 1991; Hacquebord, 1999; Roller, 1988) The short-circuit hypothesis, or language threshold hypothesis, suggests that learners must attain a certain level of L2 knowledge to effectively transfer their L1 reading skills to L2 reading (Clarke).

Research has explored the connection between word recognition and comprehension in second language (L2) reading (Levy, Abello, & Kysynchuk, 1997) Additionally, studies indicate that first language (L1) reading strategies and attitudes can transfer to L2 reading, which may help learners overcome affective barriers and boost their confidence in reading in a second language (Seng & Hashim, 2006; Yamashita, 2004).

Pitchette, Segalowitz, and Connors (2003) conducted a study examining the relationship between first language (L1) reading ability, second language (L2) knowledge, and L2 reading ability among Bosnian informants who had recently relocated to Quebec City These participants had completed the Quebec government's French program and were enrolled in French courses during the research The study involved administering cloze tests in both L1 and L2 to assess reading abilities, along with a standardized test to evaluate L2 knowledge Findings revealed that L1 reading ability and L2 knowledge are closely linked to L2 reading ability; specifically, L1 reading ability was a significant predictor for high-level learners, while L2 knowledge was more indicative for low-level learners Additionally, the results showed that informants continued to transfer their L1 reading skills to L2 reading despite a lack of L1 practice, although those who maintained L1 reading improved their L2 reading skills, unlike those who did not engage in L1 reading.

The research explored how reading speed development in one language influences reading speed in another language The findings can guide educators in determining the appropriate amount of practice needed in both L1 and L2 reading to enhance skills in each language, ensuring that improvements in L2 reading are supported by L1 reading instruction.

This thesis examines the impact of increased reading speed in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) course on various facets of EFL development, highlighting the often-overlooked effects of reading practice on language proficiency.

Comprehension and speed in reading

To understand a text, readers adapt its organizational structure to suit their needs (Calfee & Curley, 1984) Extensive research has explored the elements of comprehension, highlighting the simple view of reading, which posits that comprehension consists of both linguistic comprehension and reading comprehension (Dombey, 2009; Dreyert & Katzt, 1992; Gough & ).

Linguistic comprehension involves using vocabulary knowledge to interpret text, while reading comprehension relies on processing printed information To evaluate linguistic comprehension, testers should pose questions about orally presented texts, whereas reading comprehension is assessed through questions on printed materials Additionally, some researchers differentiate comprehension into two components: comprehension and interpretation.

Comprehension is shaped by the reader's specific goals, while interpretation highlights the variations in understanding among different readers or even within the same reader across various texts These discrepancies often stem from individual background knowledge and cultural assumptions.

Previous research has introduced various methods for predicting and evaluating comprehension in L1 The compensatory encoding model (Stanovich, 1980) suggests that the key resource for text comprehension is the time available for reading In situations without time constraints, the relationship between verbal efficiency and comprehension may not be evident, as readers can employ compensatory behaviors and strategies to enhance understanding These compensatory adjustments are designed to mitigate inefficiencies in other reading components, but they require time to implement, thereby increasing the overall time needed for comprehension Notably, compensatory behaviors are generally less time-consuming than compensatory strategies.

When compensatory behaviors are ineffective, readers may resort to compensatory strategies such as slow reading, pausing, regressive eye movements, rereading, reading aloud, and shifting attention These strategies help explain the varying reading times among individuals for the same text However, the compensatory encoding model is not applicable to beginning readers.

The advocates claim that it is only true for readers beyond the fourth grade

This model effectively addresses the weak correlations between verbal efficiency and comprehension identified by researchers (Walczyk et al., 2001) It suggests that, when reading without time constraints, more efficient readers tend to rely less on compensatory mechanisms However, these compensatory encoding strategies do not fully account for why some readers struggle with comprehension despite employing them Additionally, readers who slow their reading pace often lose critical information stored in short-term memory before completing the text, leading to comprehension difficulties.

In 1981, 1984, and 1990, researchers developed a formula to predict L1 silent reading comprehension based on three key variables: accuracy, rate, and efficiency Accuracy is determined by two factors: the number of thoughts conveyed by the writer and the number of thoughts understood by the reader Typically, comprehension accuracy is measured by the ratio of comprehended thoughts to presented thoughts in various reading contexts.

Rate is the number of thoughts presented during a certain length of time

The efficiency of comprehension refers to the number of thoughts understood within a specific timeframe Rauding suggests that comprehension levels can be predicted based on two text characteristics—presented thoughts and difficulty level—as well as two reader characteristics—reading ability and rate—along with the time spent reading Notably, prior knowledge, prediction activities, and text type have minimal impact on comprehension (Carver, 1992a).

While some researchers, such as Allington (2009), Nation (2005), and Rasinski (2003b), have overlooked comprehension in their definitions of reading fluency, they acknowledge that fluency—characterized by speed—can bridge comprehension and decoding Ultimately, comprehension remains the primary objective of reading, warranting equal focus in the development of fluency.

Research indicates a complex relationship between reading speed and comprehension, with past studies highlighting a strong correlation in first language (L1) reading Notable studies by Bowey (2005), Fuchs et al (2001), Perfetti et al (2005), Pinnell et al (1995), and Stanovich (2000) support this connection Additionally, Tan and Nicholson (1997) and Levy et al have contributed to the ongoing discussion surrounding this topic.

Research indicates that while rapid decoding training can benefit poor readers and enhance comprehension in children's oral reading, the relationship between fluency skills and reading comprehension is not strong Some studies suggest that speed reading techniques may actually hinder comprehension For instance, an extensive reading program has been shown to improve both reading speed and comprehension, but the impact of fluency on comprehension diminishes with age Ultimately, once a reader achieves fluency, other factors begin to play a more significant role in comprehension.

The relationship between comprehension and speed in second language (L2) and foreign language (FL) reading is often misunderstood Research indicates that speed and comprehension are not opposing forces in L2 performance; rather, they support each other, with increased reading speed enhancing comprehension accuracy, which is crucial for fluency development (Alessi & Dwyer, 2008; Segalowitz & Segalowitz, 1993) In a study by Chang (2010), a 13-week reading activity was incorporated into the curriculum, resulting in a 25% increase in reading speed and a 4% improvement in comprehension among 84 college students.

This low increase is probably due to a ceiling effect in the measurement, but it shows that speed increase does not result in a drop in comprehension

There is currently no consensus on the relationship between reading speed and comprehension in both first language (L1) and second language/foreign language (L2/FL) contexts Therefore, it is essential to explore how reading fluency development impacts comprehension in L2/FL reading by analyzing comprehension scores across various text types.

Reading fluency

Fluency in reading is defined as the ability to read "like you speak," encompassing three essential elements: accurate reading of connected text, a conversational reading rate, and appropriate prosody or expression, as stated by Hudson, Lane, and Pullen Non-fluent readers often struggle with one or more of these components, resulting in frequent mistakes, slow reading speeds, or a lack of proper expression and phrasing.

Reading fluency, defined as the ability to read text accurately, is essential for school-aged children as it lays the groundwork for intellectual development and is closely linked to comprehension This skill is also associated with academic success, making its acquisition vital during early childhood education Factors influencing reading fluency include the development of oral language and the child's early linguistic experiences.

According to Yen, Thi Ngoc Tran (2011), consulting on speed reading significantly enhances students' reading rates and fluency, which in turn contributes to the development of language complexity.

According to Sen (2009), reading is the essential foundation for student learning By adopting specialized reading strategies, students can enhance their time management and engage in more effective and sustained reading experiences.

Increasing brain power at the time of reading is directly related to developing strategic reading skills.

Inferential reading

Inferences are evidence-based conclusions that readers make about what is not explicitly stated, relying on the information provided According to Smith (2008), these inferences are similar to those we draw in our daily lives.

Proficient readers leverage their prior knowledge and textual information to make predictions about future events in a narrative Teachers can enhance students' comprehension by modeling their reading processes through think-alouds, where they pause to predict outcomes, illustrating the importance of inferring in understanding text.

According to Anne Kispal (2008), inference questions are often prefaced by

The passage suggests that certain inferences can be drawn, as indicated by common question stems such as “The passage implies that which of the following was true of x” and “It can be inferred from the passage that.” Additionally, phrases like “The passage suggests which of the following about x” and “The author implies that x occurred because” highlight the author's intent Furthermore, the statement “The author implies that all of the following statements about x are true EXCEPT” emphasizes the need to critically evaluate the information presented.

Anne Kispal (2008) added that Tone & Style are, besides, types of inferences

Tone questions require you to determine the author's attitude or mood within a specific section or the entire passage These questions typically feature answer choices that consist of one to three-word phrases with adjectives They assess your ability to identify the author's disposition, often indicated by specific trigger words It's important to avoid basing your interpretation of the tone on a single word, as this is insufficient for capturing the overall tone of the passage Although tone questions are less common, they can be recognized through typical question stems such as, “The attitude of the author of the passage toward x is best described as one of” or “The tone of the author is best described as.”

Inferential reading skills

Inference is a crucial foundational skill necessary for higher-order thinking and 21st-century competencies, as highlighted by Marzano (2010) It is essential across various subjects, including English language arts, science, and social studies While many students find inferring challenging due to its demand for advanced thinking skills, explicit instruction in inferential strategies can facilitate learning Observations involve direct experiences, whereas inferences are conclusions drawn from those experiences By teaching students to recognize implied information, we can enhance their ability to draw conclusions and make inferences, which are vital for various academic tasks Developing inferential thinking is a complex process that requires time and experience.

Marzano (2010) emphasizes the importance of four key questions that teachers should ask students to enhance discussions about inferences The first question, “What is my inference?” encourages students to recognize their own inferences based on incomplete information The second question, “What information did I use to make this inference?” prompts students to reflect on the various sources of information, including text and personal background knowledge, that inform their inferences The third question, “How good was my thinking?” allows students to evaluate the validity of their reasoning by examining the premises of their inferences Finally, the question “Do I need to change my thinking?” encourages students to consider adjustments to their inferences, fostering a habit of updating their understanding as they acquire new information.

Teaching students to "read inferentially" enhances their strategic reading skills, as noted by Marzano (2010) This approach is based on a teaching model where students build knowledge by interpreting new information through the lens of their past experiences, allowing them to reevaluate previous knowledge in light of new insights.

2.10.1 Categorization of inferential reading skills

According to Chikalanga (1991), the inference taxonomy has three basic categories: lexical, propositional, and pragmatic or scriptal inferences The suggested taxonomy is summarized in the table below:

- spatio-temporal (b) Elaborative Explanatory – motivational

In her 2008 literature review, Anne Kispal highlighted the identification of numerous types of inference, emphasizing the main categories that are commonly referenced in academic discussions.

Coherence or intersentence or text- connecting

Peter begged his mother to let him go to the party

The reader would have to realise that the pronouns ‘his’ and ‘him’ refer to Peter to fully understand this sentence

Elaborative or gap-filling or knowledge- based

Katy dropped the vase She ran for the dustpan and brush to sweep up the pieces

Enriches the mental representation of the text

Drawing upon life experience and general knowledge, the reader would have to realise that the vase broke to supply the connection between these sentences

As above Dan stood his bike against the tree

He rushed off, leaving his bike unchained

Creates a coherent representation at the local level of sentences and paragraphs

As above The reader would realise that the tree is assigned to a location role

The reader would infer that Dan was in a hurry and left

3 Antecedent causal inferences his bike vulnerable to theft

Inferences about the theme, main point or moral of a text

To create a coherent representation of the whole text, the reader would infer overarching ideas by drawing ideas on local pieces of information

Superordinate goals of characters or causal antecedents that explain why something is mentioned in the text

These inferences are necessary to understanding and are drawn automatically during reading

Forecasting future episodes in a text

Inferences drawn strategically after reading, usually during a later retrieval task Not essential to understanding

According to Anne Kispal (2008), the cognitive processes involved in drawing inferences are initiated by either activating a complete schema or triggering one of Graesser’s 'production rules'.

In the Middle stage, a mental puzzle or syllogism arises from either the creation of an unsolved equation or the identification of inconsistencies within the text In the End stage, an inference is drawn, serving as the 'mediating idea' or 'solution' to the equation, which is then validated through a 'reality check' against existing background knowledge.

Anne Kispal (2008) provided a comprehensive overview of effective strategies for teaching inferential reading skills She emphasized the importance of developing fluent basic reading skills, vocabulary enhancement, and understanding local cohesive devices at the word level At the text level, Kispal highlighted the need to clarify story structures, the significance of titles, and the potential for multiple interpretations in fiction She recommended that teachers ask the question "How do you know?" to encourage inference generation and foster comprehension monitoring through targeted questions about character relationships and motivations Kispal cautioned against interrupting students during reading and advised allowing time for mental consolidation before engaging in questioning Additionally, she suggested that students practice formulating "why" questions to enhance their understanding, along with other question types, in small group settings where they can collaboratively generate and answer questions derived from the text.

METHODOLOGY

Data collection

After one month of instruction, which included two periods per week and integration into English lessons, a post-test is administered to assess improvements in students' performance on inferential reading questions The test scores reflect any advancements made To ensure the reliability of the assessment, a second teacher evaluates the tests using a standardized marking scheme.

The reading tests

The reading assessment consists of a pre-test and a post-test, each lasting approximately 60 minutes Both tests evaluate students' reading comprehension skills, including their ability to make inferences, with the questions differing between the two assessments All students receive identical questions, are allotted the same amount of time, and are graded using a consistent marking scheme by the same rater.

Student questionnaire

A student questionnaire was administered to two groups after the post-test to assess their attitudes toward the teaching of inferential reading skills The questionnaire consists of 7 close-ended questions and 3 opinion-based questions, written in Vietnamese, allowing respondents to answer in either English or Vietnamese.

Data analysis

Data collected from the reading tests and student questionnaire are analysed using inferential and descriptive statistics respectively

The impact of teaching is assessed using a 1-tail t-test for comparisons within a single group and a 2-tail t-test for comparisons between two groups Specifically, the 1-tail t-test evaluates the mean scores of pre-tests and post-tests within the same group, while the 2-tail t-test compares the mean scores of pre-tests and post-tests across the two groups.

Students‘ responses in the questionnaire are analysed using descriptive statistics, namely percentages, frequency count and means.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Results

This chapter summarizes the key findings of the study and discusses pedagogical implications for EFL high school teachers, particularly regarding challenges in teaching inferential reading skills It also addresses the limitations of the experimental study and offers suggestions for future research on the instruction of these skills.

The general test or placement test is crucial in the research process, as it assesses the competence levels of two groups of students The results ensure that both groups start at a comparable level of ability.

The general test results indicated that more than 60% of the groups achieved scores of 5 points or higher, with mean scores of 2.53 for the treatment group and 2.58 for the control group, as illustrated in Table 2.1 and Charts 1a and 1b.

Table 2.1: The results of the general test taken by the treatment group and the control group

Treatment group Control group scores percentage scores percentage

Chart 1a and chart 1b: The results of the general test taken by the treatment group and the control group

4.1.2 Pre-test and post-test results

First and foremost, data gathered from the pre-test, also called diagnostic test, are to be scientifically and statistically analysed

In the assessment of inferential reading skills, 35% of students in the treatment group scored below 5, while 30% of students in the control group also failed to achieve a score of 5 or higher.

With a view to looking at the types of question of the test items, items 1, 2, 3,

The study revealed that items 4 and 5 were low-inference questions, while items 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 were categorized as high-inference questions Notably, 63% of test-takers in the treatment group answered items 6, 7, and 8 correctly, whereas only 60% managed to answer these items correctly overall Alarmingly, none of the participants from either group answered items 9 and 10 correctly, indicating that inferential reading skills were unfamiliar to more than half of the students, as evidenced by an average correct response rate of just 32.5% Additionally, some students admitted to guessing rather than demonstrating a true understanding of inferential reading skills, highlighting the need for targeted instruction in this area.

The data and analyses presented provide a foundational understanding of the initial competencies of the two student groups, which will be compared and contrasted with the competencies acquired through the experimental treatment.

Table 2.2: The results of the pre-treatment test taken by the treatment group and the control group

Treatment group Control group scores percentage scores percentage

Chart 2a and 2b: The results of the pre-treatment test taken by the treatment group and the control group

Table 2.3: The students’ performance in the pre- test

Right Wrong Missing Right Wrong Missing Frq % Frq % Frq % Frq % Frq % Frq %

The post-test, or progress test, is crucial for assessing the advancement of students' inferential reading skills following targeted instruction This test, which mirrors the format of the initial assessment, consists of 10 items designed to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment experiment.

Below are the discussions of the statistic results included in Table 2.4 and Charts 3a and 3b

First come items 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 which are low-inference questions: all test- takers gave the right answer to items 1-5 and 92,5% could answer items 6-10

On average, 92.5% of test-takers pass, indicating a significant improvement compared to the pre-test result of 60% This suggests that a greater number of students benefit from instruction in inferential reading skills.

The treatment group demonstrated a remarkable improvement in post-test scores, with 92.5% passing compared to only 82.5% of the control group Notably, 27.5% of the treatment group achieved a score of 8, 17.5% scored 9, and an impressive 20% attained the highest score of 10 In contrast, the control group had only 20% scoring 8, 5% scoring 9, and none achieving a score of 10.

Table 2.4: The results of the post-treatment test taken by the treatment group and the control group

Treatment group Control group scores percentage scores percentage

Charts 3a and 3b: The results of the post-treatment test taken by the treatment group and the control group

Table 2.5: The students’ performance in the post- test

Right Wrong Missing Right Wrong Missing

Frq % Frq % Fr q % Frq % Frq % Frq %

In the study, 72.5% of high-level students in the treatment group scored between 8 to 10 points, while only 10% of the control group achieved 8 points, with none reaching 9 or 10 points This significant difference highlights the effectiveness of explicit instruction in inferential reading skills, enabling trained students to tackle more challenging reading questions and excel on the grading scale.

4.1.3 Results from the reading sessions in the experiment

Table 3: The difference in progress of reading comprehension scores between the two groups

The initial reading comprehension scores show a significant difference between the two groups The t-test results indicate a p-value of 0.0000, which is less than 0.05, confirming a substantial difference between the average scores of the pre-treatment and post-treatment tests Consequently, the average score of the post-treatment test exceeds that of the pre-treatment test, highlighting the positive impact of the treatment.

Statistical analysis reveals a standard medium deviation (SMD) of 1.19, indicating that the SMD is both situationally realistic and statistically significant This highlights a substantial difference in average values between the treatment and control groups, demonstrating the significant impact of teaching inferential reading skills on the reading comprehension of EFL high school students.

Chart 4a versus chart 4b: The results of the post-treatment test taken by the treatment group and the control group

Chart 5: The distinctive progress of the treatment group over the control group

Next come the detailed data on the results of the students’performance in the post-test after the treatment

Regarding the pass-fail balance of the two groups, the test-takers of the treatment group who passed the test accounted for 95% whereas, the control

Treatment group Control group group did 82,5% As a consequence, the treatment group gained a considerable victory over the control group in the reading comprehension test

In the post-test results, 87.5% of students in the treatment group scored between 7 and 10 points, significantly higher than the 52.5% of control group students achieving the same range Notably, 27% of the treated students earned a perfect score of 10 points, compared to only 7.5% of the control group These findings indicate that the teaching of inferential reading skills effectively improved student performance.

Between 2016 and 2017, an experiment was conducted in a high school in Tien Giang Province, Vietnam, to investigate the teaching of inferential reading skills The study revealed that the ability to make inferences is crucial for reading comprehension, indicating that inadequate inferencing skills lead to poor understanding of texts.

The major findings will be summarized first, and then the discussion will be explained later Here is an overview of major findings in this study:

Teaching inferential reading skills explicitly has proven effective in boosting reading comprehension scores among EFL high school students This approach significantly enhances their overall reading comprehension abilities.

Discussion

The study revealed that both the treatment and control groups improved their inferential reading skills based on their proficiency levels Notably, participants in the treatment group demonstrated significantly higher gain scores compared to those in the control group.

The statistical analysis reveals a t-test value of \$p = 0.000\$, which is less than \$0.05\$, indicating a highly significant difference between the average scores of the pre-treatment and post-treatment tests This suggests that the average score in the post-treatment test is substantially higher than that of the pre-treatment test, demonstrating that the treatment had a significant effect.

The Standard Mean Difference (SMD) is 1.19, indicating that the deviation is both practically and statistically significant according to Cohen's criterion This highlights a substantial difference in average values between the treatment and control groups Consequently, the impact of teaching inferential reading skills on the reading comprehension of EFL high school students is notably significant.

4.2.2 The effects of inferential reading skills on EFL high school students' motivation to read

Students expressed mixed opinions on the impact of inferential reading skills instruction on their attitudes toward reading comprehension The questionnaire results revealed that while six out of the first six questions, which emphasized the importance of teaching inferential reading skills, received responses of "Strongly Agree" or "Agree," question seven, which assessed the lesser value of such instruction, was met with "Not Sure" and "Disagree." This indicates that teaching inferential reading skills positively influenced students' motivation, as it helped them tackle inference questions that they previously found challenging.

Table 4: The results of the opinions on the students‘ attitudes towards the inferential reading skills instruction by means of the questionnaire

SA A N D SD num % num % num % num % num %

Chart 6: The results of the opinions on the students‘ attitudes toward the inferential reading skills instruction by means of the questionnaire

Table 5: The responses to three open-ended questions about teaching inferential reading skills to the students

1 One thing I like about teaching inferential reading skills (TIRS) is

2 One thing I dislike about TIRS is

3 One thing I suggest to make TIRS even more effective is num % num % num %

- (I like TIRS because) I can deal with the most difficult reading items

- (I like TIRS because) I can increase reading

- (I like TIRS because) I can increase my intelligence

- (Others) (because it is interesting/ )

TIRS because) it is difficult/ complex/ I can’t infer/

TIRS because) it is boring

TIRS even more effective) I suggest teaching it more

(TIRS even more effective) I suggest teacching it repeatedly

TIRS even more effective) I suggest teaching it earlier

TIRS even more effective) I suggest supplying more strategies

CONCLUSION

Pedagogical implications

Consultation sessions focused on inferential reading skills significantly enhance students' reading comprehension To achieve optimal results, it is essential to engage in targeted questioning between teachers and students during the instruction of these skills.

Effective pedagogical strategies emphasize the importance of both teacher and student questioning Teachers should consistently ask probing questions, such as "How do you know?" to encourage critical thinking during text discussions They should also explore character relationships, goals, and motivations, while promoting comprehension monitoring with questions like, "Is there information that contradicts my prior knowledge?" Additionally, teachers must allow uninterrupted reading time, avoiding premature questioning Conversely, students should be trained to formulate Why-questions as they read, fostering deeper engagement and understanding.

Besides, it is equally important to teach the meaning of the question words

Encourage students to create their own questions using key interrogative words like 'who', 'when', 'why', and 'how' based on a given text To enhance their inferential skills, incorporate engaging teaching activities such as inferring from context clues, guided inferential reading questions, inference activity sheets, and detective stories.

Teaching inferential reading skills to EFL students presents several challenges Key difficulties include dyslexia, visual impairments, and a lack of propositional sense, all of which can hinder the effective demonstration of these skills Addressing these issues is crucial for improving students' reading comprehension and overall learning experience.

Dyslexia can manifest as a specific learning difficulty that hinders students from decoding reading inferences, often due to physical impairments affecting their ability to see letters or hear sounds This condition can lead to literacy skill gaps compared to peers A prevalent issue among educators is phonological dyslexia, where individuals struggle to recognize how sounds combine to form words, impacting their ability to read and spell accurately Both children and adults with dyslexia can improve through strategy instruction and multi-sensory "over-learning" techniques.

It is advised to consider a programme that helps students build confidence and enhance reading by learning a secondary skill, such as typing

Students with visual impairment often experience delayed reading development compared to their peers with normal vision, primarily due to factors like prematurity and birth asphyxia that can impact the visual system Effective low vision interventions can significantly influence reading progress, as evidenced by improvements in reading speed, accuracy, and fluency.

Especially in both cases, the situation will be deteriorating when faced up with inferential reading

A significant challenge for inference readers is the lack of propositional sense, which hinders students from accessing their prior knowledge to make inferences from reading texts This deficiency affects their ability to answer questions correctly on reading tests Therefore, it is essential for teachers to dedicate more time to helping students understand the concept of propositions and how to activate their previous knowledge to facilitate propositional inferences.

Limitations of the study

The current research has limitations, primarily due to the small sample size, as it focused on the inferential reading skills of only 40 EFL high school students A larger participant group could yield more persuasive and convincing results.

To minimize pressure on participants, instructions were incorporated into regular courses using English textbooks However, many reading texts lacked adequate knowledge and contextual cues, as the paragraphs were often short and simplistic Consequently, the researcher supplemented these materials with articles from KET, PET, and IELTS books, which could impose a significant burden on both teachers and students.

While most participants provided positive feedback on the explicit inferential reading skills questionnaire, interviews revealed that some control group members resorted to wild guessing during the task, potentially skewing the results of their questionnaires.

Based on the design and the results of the research, some suggestions for further research are proposed as follows

While significant research has focused on teaching inferential reading skills to improve reading comprehension, further exploration of these skills in pragmatic contexts is needed Current reading comprehension materials from KET, PET, and IELTS are primarily designed for proficiency tests, emphasizing logical reasoning over pragmatic understanding Future studies should incorporate pragmatic questions and contexts to enhance students' inferential reading skills, leading to more effective and comprehensive reading experiences.

This research assessed the impact of inferential reading skills instruction on students' reading comprehension through a post-test, lacking a follow-up measure to evaluate retention of these skills Alvermann & Eakle (2003) highlight that while explicit instruction may lead to immediate strategy application, it does not ensure long-term usage or adaptability in new contexts.

Future research should focus on the long-term effects of inferential reading skills instruction on EFL students' reading comprehension By conducting studies over an extended period and utilizing multiple follow-up tests, researchers can better understand how these skills influence comprehension and the sustained use of reading strategies This approach will provide valuable insights into the relationship between inferential reading skills and overall reading proficiency.

The study's sample size consists of just 80 EFL high school students from CGHS in Tien Giang, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to the broader population of EFL high school students across Vietnam.

This study limits the assessment of students' reading skills to multiple-choice and matching questions, suggesting that future research should incorporate a variety of question types to evaluate overall reading proficiency Additionally, it examines the impact of inferential reading skills instruction on students' comprehension of main ideas, inferences, and word-guessing questions Future studies could further investigate students' reading comprehension across a broader range of question types.

Conclusion

This chapter aims to explore the various skills involved in inferential reading Existing literature offers significant insights into the cognitive processes that occur during inference-making and highlights the conditions that encourage readers to engage in this skill While having a strong working memory is essential, identifying the specific practical skills or abilities necessary for readers to enhance their inferencing proficiency remains a challenge.

This research explores the impact of inferential reading skill instruction on the inferential reading comprehension of EFL high school students It examines how this instruction affects various types of reading comprehension questions and discusses students' application of inferential reading strategies along with their responses to the instruction The major findings of the study are summarized in detail in chapter four.

Inferential reading skills instruction significantly enhances students' reading comprehension Initially, there was no notable difference in reading comprehension test scores between the control and experimental groups, indicating similar proficiency levels Both groups reported infrequent use of inferential reading skills, primarily due to a lack of knowledge in this area However, following the instruction, the experimental group demonstrated a marked improvement, achieving significantly higher mean scores in the post-test compared to the control group This evidence underscores the positive impact of inferential reading skills instruction on reading comprehension.

The research indicated that instruction in inferential reading skills significantly improved students' abilities to understand main ideas, make inferences, and deduce word meanings from context Consequently, students' performance on questions related to main ideas, inferences, and word-guessing was positively influenced by this targeted instruction.

The investigation into students' use of inferential reading skills revealed that most participants in both groups lacked a clear understanding of these skills, which include making predictions, skimming for the main idea, making inferences, guessing unfamiliar words from context, and self-monitoring, prior to instruction However, following the inferential reading skills instruction, a majority of participants in the experimental group demonstrated improved proficiency and expressed a preference for utilizing these skills.

Explicit instruction in inferential reading skills significantly enhances EFL students' understanding and application of these skills This approach teaches students not only the definition of inferential reading skills but also the appropriate contexts and reasons for their use.

EFL high school students should enhance their inferential reading skills, and explicit instruction in these skills has been shown to be an effective method for achieving this improvement.

The research revealed that most participants responded positively to inferential reading skills instruction, reporting improvements in skimming for main ideas, making predictions, inferring meanings, and understanding unfamiliar words through context However, many struggled with self-monitoring while reading, finding it challenging to reflect on their thought processes Despite this, participants effectively applied the instructed skills during reading comprehension tests and recognized the positive impact of learning these skills on their reading abilities, interest in English, and test performance They expressed enjoyment in learning these skills and appreciated the teaching methods, with a desire for more instruction on inferential reading skills in the future.

Most participants acknowledged that inferential reading skills training significantly improved their ability to answer both average and difficult reading questions, particularly those requiring inferences, which pose the greatest challenges for students Test-takers who excel at "reading between the lines" are more likely to tackle the most challenging questions and achieve higher scores Additionally, many subjects expressed positive feedback, highlighting the benefits they gained from the inferential reading skills instruction.

In summary, the inferential reading skills instruction helped enhance EFL high school students’ reading ability Besides, the inferential reading skills instruction helped improve students’ comprehension of inference questions

After receiving instruction in inferential reading skills, the majority of students demonstrated a heightened interest in English reading and gained increased confidence in applying these skills for effective comprehension.

The instruction of inferential reading skills has proven effective, eliciting positive responses from students Therefore, it is a valuable program that deserves attention in English learning classrooms at EFL high schools.

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Essay by Jessica Bourne, aged 14

As a devoted fan of James Bond films, I own most of them on DVD, including the recently purchased "Quantum of Solace," featuring Daniel Craig as Bond While the title's meaning eludes me, I still find it to be an excellent movie.

Daniel Craig stands out among the great actors who have portrayed James Bond, delivering a performance that surpasses all others Despite his limited dialogue, he embodies the role perfectly and even performs some of the more dangerous stunts himself While I occasionally questioned his cleverness in outsmarting the villains, I won't reveal the ending Additionally, the actress alongside Craig delivers a remarkable performance, and I was particularly impressed by her glamorous wardrobe.

The director faced a challenging task in creating an action-packed Bond film reminiscent of earlier installments The excitement kicks off with a thrilling car chase along a mountain road, complemented by Bond's daring leaps from tall buildings However, the storyline can be hard to follow at times, and the film feels brief, running for under two hours Additionally, it lacks the humor that characterized the classic Bond films.