Using games in pre reading activities to enhance tenth grade students’ comprehension

ĐÀO KIÊN TRUNG USING GAMES IN PRE-READING ACTIVITIES TO ENHANCE TENTH GRADE STUDENTS' COMPREHENSION Major: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages TESOL Code: 60140111 MAS

ĐÀO KIÊN TRUNG

USING GAMES IN PRE-READING ACTIVITIES TO ENHANCE

TENTH GRADE STUDENTS' COMPREHENSION

MASTER’S THESIS IN EDUCATION

Nghệ An, 2017

ĐÀO KIÊN TRUNG

USING GAMES IN PRE-READING ACTIVITIES TO ENHANCE

TENTH GRADE STUDENTS' COMPREHENSION

Major: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)

Code: 60140111

MASTER’S THESIS IN EDUCATION

SUPERVISOR:

Ngô Đình Phương, Assoc Prof., Ph.D

Nghệ An, 2017

I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and effort and that it has not been submitted anywhere for any award Where other sources of information have been used, they have been acknowledged

this M.A thesis today I would like to acknowledge the supports I received from a number of people in the course of carrying out the research paper

First of all, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my lecture Prof Dr Ngo Dinh Phuong With his patient guidance, useful comments as well as sincere encouragements, he helped me do my graduation paper easier and more interesting Without his help, the thesis would not have been possible

Secondly, I do wish to take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to all Post -Graduate lecturers, who taught and recommended thoughtfully as well as gave me advice during various stages of learning and writing my master thesis

Thirdly, I want to convey my special thanks to the students from class 10.4 in Bac Son secondary school for their help and cooperation during my research at their class

In closing, I also thank my family and friends for their enthusiastic encouragement and support me not only finance but also spirit during the time I do my thesis

One more time, thank all these for helping me complete this thesis

This thesis focused on the use of game activities to enhance students’ comprehension in reading lesson at Bac Son Secondary School

The study was conducted in class 10.4 at Bac Son Secondary School in the second semester of the school year 2016 – 2017 The study was implemented on 40 students by using games The writer used questionnaire, classroom observations and interviews to get students’ answers

Through the study, we can see that the students can enhance their reading comprehension in learning reading Game activities made students relax and motivated to read and their comprehension is improved Based on the findings, the writer can realize how students felt about activities used in the class as well as their effectiveness for students Most of students said that they thought that games helped student develop their comprehension in reading lesson

DECLARATION i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES, CHARTS AND ABBREVIATIONS vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Aims of the study 3

1.3 Research Questions 3

1.4 Scope of study 3

1.5 Methods 4

1.6 Thesis design 4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Reading comprehension 6

2.1.1 Definition 6

2.1.2 Reading skills 8

2.1.3 Reading comprehension difficulties 10

2.2 Pre-reading stage 11

2.2.1 What is Pre-reading? 11

2.2.2 Purpose of Pre-reading 12

2.2.3 Importance of Pre-reading activities 15

2.3 A review of the literature of Games 17

2.3.1 Definition of games 17

2.3.2 Games as a teaching method 19

2.3.3 Roles of games 20

2.3.4 How to use games 22

2.3.5 Choosing the Game 24

2.3.6 Factors affecting the choice of games 24

2.3.7 Adapting the Game 26

2.3.8 When to Use Language Games 28

2.3.9 Types of Language Games 29

2.3.10 Benefits of games in learning language 29

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 33

3.1 Research questions 33

3.2 Participants 33

3.3 Materials 34

3.4 Research instruments 35

3.4.1 Classroom observation 35

3.4.2 Questionnaire 36

3.4.3 Interview 36

3.5 Data collection procedures 36

3.5.1 Game activities 36

3.5.2 Classroom observations through teaching process 37

3.5.3 Post-survey questionnaire for students 37

3.5.4 Post-observation interviews 37

3.5.5 Technique for analyzing data 38

3.5.6 Summary 38

CHAPTER 4: FINDING AND DISCUSSION 39

4.1 Data analysis 39

4.1.1 Analyzing result of post-survey questionnaire 39

4.1.2 Analyzing results of classroom observations 43

4.1.3 Results of interviews 46

4.2 Discussion 52

4.2.1 The use of game technique to stimulate students’ comprehension skill in reading activities 52

4.2.2 The effectiveness of games used in class 52

4.2.3 The students’ attitude and response on the use of game activities 53

4.3 Suggestions of using language games in pre-reading activities in reading lessons 54

4.4 Summary 55

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 56

5.1 Summary 56

5.2 Implications 57

5.2.1 Implications for the student 57

5.2.2 Implications for the teacher 58

5.2.3 Implications for administrator 59

5.3 Suggestions 60

REFERENCES 61

APPENDICES 66

LIST OF TABLES, CHARTS AND ABBREVIATIONS

TABLES

Table 1: Question 1: How do you feel about reading skill?

Table 2: Question 2: How often do you play language games in pre-reading?

Table 3: Question 3: How the game activities help you in reading comprehension class?

Table 4: Question 4: What benefits you can get from game activities in pre-reading activities?

Table 5: Question 5: Do the games help you to enhance your comprehension skill when learning English?

Table 6: Question 6: Do games in pre-reading activities help you comprehend a text better?

Table 7- Question 7: How the games in pre-reading activities help you in read a text

ABBREVIATIONS

R: Researcher Ss: Students St: Student EFL: English Foreign Language ESL: English as a Second Language L2: Second language

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale

Nowadays, English is an important language not only in daily communication but also in gaining knowledge Due to the need for exchanges with countries around the world in all areas of life, English has become one of the most frequently used language international communication and it is an indispensable means In Vietnam, English is becoming more and more important and is the most commonly used Previously, language teaching focused on sentence structure and grammar Successful or failed English learners depend on their ability to master grammar and sentence structure rules At that time, foreign language teaching was dominated by traditional teaching methods, in which the teacher dominated all teaching and learning activities in classroom and teacher is the center of learning

We live in the twenty-first century, the century of not only modern civilization but also the century of science technology information Our country is in the period of knowledge development based on development of education and training must be regarded as a top national policy and improve the teaching and learning quality in order to train human resources for industrialization and modernization of our country To survive and develop country, we have to catch up the developed world requires to grasp the most advanced achievements Vietnam aims to get our country becoming a civilized and prosperous country Language is the key to conquer human knowledge However, learning of English in secondary schools get particular difficulties, specially, students don’t have interest for this subject The most important thing that teacher always towards is bring more enjoyment for student as soon as the beginning of the lesson

Because of the change of society, teaching methods have also changed to response the demand for proficient use of English communication skills This demand has created high teaching qualities, as well as resources and materials for learning language process In addition, the need for appropriate teaching methods now becomes stronger than ever As a result, current foreign language teaching has

shifted from teacher to students Students are the most important people during learning foreign languages The learners can learn communication in real situation, work interpersonal or small-group environments to perform specific tasks Learners have opportunities to express their opinions or feelings and to ask questions if they

do not understand the problem

In fact, in teaching and learning foreign languages, students will learn more effectively if they learn in a fun, relaxed learning environment and have more opportunities to communicate in the context of the real world The use of language games in foreign language teaching is one of the most effective methods that can increase students’ learning motivation At the same time, it helps and motivates students to maintain their learning and make them interested in learning Furthermore, it helps teachers create contexts in which practical language is useful and understandable to learners Learners who want to participate in the game must understand what other people are saying or writing, and they must speak or write to express their own views or present information to others Language games can be used to develop all four skills for students: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing There are many games that develop vocabulary, and improve pronunciation Games are also available to different students at different levels

In school, it is a compulsory subject as well as a communicative tool which help student to get scientific technological knowledge, find in multiculturalism in the world, and draw closer to international integration Therefore, learning English

is more and more social concern, especially for the young generation Because of its special features, English teaching language method is the most significant problem which is concerned To have a good lesson in English and create students’ inspiration give, teachers have to give a pre reading part attractive for reading lesson If teacher gives an interesting start, student can absorb the reading lesson with an interesting atmosphere As an English teacher in Bac Son Lower and Upper Secondary School, I understand difficulties which many students get in learning and

using in reading process Especially, I concentrate the way that help students to be interested in reading lesson

With my experience, using games in teaching and learning is really effective, especially in pre- reading Students feel the excitement when they start a new lesson

by games Moreover, I realize that language games will bring enjoyment for student and gain lots of improvement as well as change class atmosphere as reducing stress, boring and making understandable reading lesson Therefore, learner can study more effective and deep in the lesson so I decide to research the importance of pre-

reading in reading skill in my thesis with title: “Using games in pre-reading

activities to enhance tenth grade students’ comprehension”

In this article, I am thinking and giving some language games in English

learning, and the effectiveness can get through research and seeking documents and some experience of ourselves I hope that my thesis can be used in teaching to help student study English better, especially reading skill

1.2 Aims of the study

The study will emphasize on the main following purposes:

- Investigating the effectiveness of using language games in pre-reading activities in reading lessons of grade 10 in Bac Son Secondary school

- To identify effects of applying game to develop students’ reading skill in learning English

1.3 Research Questions

The study intends to find out the answers to the following questions:

1 How game in pre-reading activities affect students’ comprehension?

2 Do using games help students to read faster?

1.4 Scope of study

The study focuses specifically on using language games in pre-reading activities to teach reading in Bac Son high school So the study limits itself to the teaching and learning reading only, and the subjects of the study are students from class 10.4 who study Textbook 10 at Bac Son high school

- Personal observations

1.6 Thesis design

The thesis consists of the following parts:

Chapter 1: Introduction

Some brief information about the background of the study, the aims, the scope,

research questions as well as method of the study

Chapter 2: Literature review

This chapter provides theoretical background relevant to the topic such as the definition of pre reading and purpose of pre-reading, definition of games,

significance of games in reading comprehension

Chapter 3: Research methodology

This part presents the study and these include, research questions, participants, material, procedures and summary

Chapter 4: Data analysis and discussion

This chapter mentions their analysis and discussion based on data collected by

means of classroom observations, post-survey questionnaires and interviews

Chapter 5: Conclusion

Main points and contents of the study are summarized based on the results

of the study The implication of the study and the recommendation for further research will be presented

Appendices consist of the questionnaires for students, interview questions, observation of Unit 13 and 14

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Reading comprehension

2.1.1 Definition

Reading comprehension is the ability to understand, explain, and answer questions pertaining to a reading piece Reading is not a single skill but as a combination of specific information processing components working together to derive meaning from print (Frederiksen, 19 82) Reading comprehension is the process of making meaning from text The goal, therefore, is to gain an overall understanding of what

is described in the text rather than to obtain meaning from isolated words or sentences In understanding read text information children developmental models,

or representations of meaning of the text ideas during the reading process There are two classes of mental models: a text-based model, which is a mental representation

of the propositions of the text and a situation model consisting of what the text is perceived to be about (Kintsch 1998; van Dijk and Kintsch 1983) It includes all of the processes related to deriving meaning from written language (including books and other forms of written language) and constructing meaning from written language “Deriving meaning” indicates that there is meaning in texts and that meaning needs to be understood “Constructing meaning” indicates that often readers go beyond the meaning explicitly contained in the text and add to that meaning based on their own experience and their ability to infer additional or deeper meaning Thus reading comprehension is much more than the ability to read individual words and know what those words mean To comprehend what one reads

is to understand the meaningful message sent by the author

Reading comprehension is a very complex cognitive activity Comprehenders are not viewed as merely passive recipients of information but as active constructors of meaning Skilled comprehenders use a wide repertoire of language skills to gain meaning from text by constructing a text-based model while at the same time they draw upon and use their own background knowledge to construct a situation model

of the understandings related to the text passage To be effective, readers need to be

actively engaged in the reading process by using their metacognitive skills to monitor and regulate their own meaning making processes

Comprehension is highly interactive, such that readers use a variety of skills and processes when encountering text These processes are complex and consist of multiple components A variety of cognitive models have been developed to lend support to the various skills and processes thought to impact comprehension (Broek, Young, Tzeng, & Linderholm, 1999; Cromley and Azevedo, 2007; Graesser, Singer, & Trabasso, 1994; Kintsch & Van Dijk, 1978; Kintsch & Rawson, 2005) The importance of reading in learning a foreign language has always been emphasized and reading has been a rich subject matter for many researchers Since the act of reading is not completely understood or easily described (Aebersold & Field), with the help of new studies and viewpoints, researchers have tried to develop the definition of reading Widdowson (1984)states that reading is a process

of getting information by means of print (p 213) However, for some researchers, this definition seems too simple since they believe that reading is a more complicated process From this perspective, reading has been described as a cognitive, social and interactive process in which the reader, who has specific purposes and aims in mind, understands, comprehends and interprets a written linguistic message given by the writer (Aebersold & Field, 2003; Anderson, 1999; Bernhardt, 1998; Grabe & Stoller, 2002; Grellet, 2006) The ability to obtain meaningfrom written text through interaction and involvement with the written language for some purpose is called reading comprehension Comprehension of a text can be different depending on the purpose of reading People generally read for two main reasons, that is, for pleasure and for information (Grellet, 2006, p 4) When people read, they read for a purpose This purpose determines how people read a text (Aebersold & Field, 2003) and different kinds of texts require different purposes Grabe and Stoller (2002) classify these reading purposes under seven main headings: reading to search for simple information, reading to skim quickly, reading to learn from texts, reading to integrate information, reading to write (or

search for information needed for writing), reading to critique texts, and reading for general comprehension (p 13)

2.1.2 Reading skills

Reading as a major skill was ignored by pedagogues and researchers for a long period of time Most of focus was placed on oral skills (listening and speaking) For example, the Audio lingual method which was developed in the United States during world war II when there was a need for people to learn foreign language rapidly for military purposes emphasized the oral skills, ignoring reading and considering it a passive skill which was given no emphasis at all

In the pre-reading stage, the aim of the teacher is to prepare the students for the text that they are going to read It is important for teachers to design and use activities that can activate the background knowledge of students These activities may include brainstorming, semantic mapping, asking questions based on the title, writing your way into reading (writing about the reader’s own experiences related to the topic), making predictions based on previewing, identifying the text structure, skimming for the general idea, writing a summary of the article based on previewing (Auberbach & Paxton, 1997, p 259), and vocabulary pre-teaching, which will be discussed in detail later in the literature review

Reading skills are a receptive skill in which meaning is extracted from the discourse (Harmer, 2007) Thus, translating written symbols into corresponding sounds is not reading; rather, it is decoding (Ur, 2007) Exposure to easily understood language through reading texts or listening tracks is considered to be a condition for learning a foreign language Consequently, the selection of reading passages in EFL textbooks is mainly directed toward the choice of what is comprehensible in addition to what is a step further than that level, as hypothesized

by Krashen (Lightbown & Spada, 2006)

The general agreement is that neither too difficult textbooks nor too easy ones help

in second language acquisition In fact, proficient reading is “an active process in which learners are capable of comprehending the text, produce hypotheses about the

message of the text and then sample textual cues to confirm or reject those hypotheses” (Goodman, 1970, as cited in Clarke, 2000, p 115)

Ur (2007) added the following characteristics of efficient reading:

details

task

Reading activities refer to any activity classroom instructors use to help the learner bring their background knowledge to connect with the new information they encounter in the reading in order to get the most understanding of the message in the reading material

Reading activities in the present study refer to guessing reading content from pictures, and pre-reading questioning activities the researcher used to stimulate the learners’ use of their schema

Reading comprehension refers to the learners’ level of reading comprehension ability which was measured by the scores sought from the tests taken before the implementation of the 2 pre-reading activities

Satisfaction refers to the learners’ like and dislike towards the use of games in reading activities (guessing reading content from pictures, and pre-reading questioning activities) in learning reading comprehension The learners’ satisfaction level in the present study was measured by the scores obtained from the questionnaire administered after the experiment

pre-2.1.3 Reading comprehension difficulties

There may be a multiplicity of factors that contribute to reading difficulties for many students with special needs and the underlying causes of their reading problems may be largely unknown (Lewis and Doorlag 1999) It has been found that the prevalence of children with reading difficulties is often linked with the economic and social circumstances of the home For example, many children identified as having reading difficulties experience significant language and cultural differences between home and school (Elkins 2002a, b; McNaughton et al 2004; Rohl and Rivalland 2002) This finding is supported by studies conducted in the mid-1970s where variables, such as social class, educational background of the parents, family income and the number of books in the home were consistently related to school reading achievement (Romeo 2002) The claim is that the respect for education, community standards and the value placed on education also influenced whether or not students have mastered basic literacy skills (Samuels 1978)

There are some difficulties that students can get as follow:

etc.)

2.2 Pre-reading stage

2.2.1 What is Pre-reading?

Sookchotirat (2005) suggested that pre-reading is the most stage in reading as it is the basis of all the success in one’s life Good readers can gain more knowledge of any kind from reading Pre-reading makes the reader more knowledgeable, have wider perspectives and vision Pre-reading helps the reader get new ideas leading to cognitive development When the readers transfer what they read to apply with their own idea a new perspective or idea is created The pre-reading stage is a lesson that occurs before the learners are confronted with a reading text Students are prepared mentally before reading the text as “effective comprehension depends largely on the readers’ “readiness’: entering the page with an appropriate mental set, orientation” (Manzo et al., 2001)

Reading the process of teaching reading, the teacher should have suitable steps of teaching reading There should be a pre-reading step to prepare the reader before they read the whole material The instructor should provide them with the pre-reading the learners did not have any background knowledge it would be the teachers’ responsibility to provide the background knowledge to the learners in order that they could achieve the most comprehension from the reading The teachers should provide the learners with various pre-reading activities that help them have certain amount of background knowledge about the reading text because the schema would help the reader get better comprehension (Graves, Watts and Graves,1994), as shown in the following studies Yeeding (2007) investigated the effects of pre-reading activities on learners’ motivation and reading comprehension ability Results showed that the activities subjects were highly motivated, enthusiastic to read After the experiment, they scored significantly higher Pre-reading activities are activities that are used with the students before teaching

of the actual reading materials Pre-reading activities, prepare students for better comprehension by making them familiar with the topic, vocabulary, or structures that they may come across in the text (Bilokcuoglu, 2011) For

Tudor (1990) pre-reading activities refer to “the range of pedagogical techniques whereby learners are engaged, prior to their main processing of a target text, in text-related conceptual activities designed to help them to process their text in a more meaningful manner" (P 96)

Haque (2010) sees pre-reading activities as warm-up activities which prepare students for reading tasks The activities do not have a set format and may differ in their length They may also differ in terms of the amount of input that is needed for students to complete them Ausubel (1963) views pre-reading activities as ‘advance-organizers’ Advance organizers, provide the necessary information for the learners and activate their existing knowledge

to assist in processing and retaining of the text

In another experimental study Taglieber, Johnson, & Yarbrough (1988) provided the experiment subjects with 3 pre-reading activities: guessing reading content from pictures, learning vocabulary before reading, and pre-reading question The control group did not receive any of the 3 pre-reading activities A pre-test and post-test were administered to both groups It was found that the experimental subject performed better than the control group In addition, the reading scores from the reading with guessing reading content from pictures, and pre-reading questioning were better than the reading with learning vocabulary before reading

2.2.2 Purpose of Pre-reading

Several reading researchers like Langer 1984, Adams and Collins 1979, have highlighted the point that reader's participation of bringing their knowledge and experience while reading a text is of great importance in reading comprehension In order to bring learners knowledge and experience while reading, pre-reading activities are of great necessity

Ringler and Weber (1984) cited in Parviz Ajideh (2003:6) call pre-reading activities

as enabling activities because they provide a reader with necessary background to organize activity and to comprehend the material According to the writers these activities can elicit prior knowledge, build background and also get learners’

attention As stated by Vacca and Vacca (2002;12) “pre-reading activities get students ready to read” Pre-reading activities are any types of activities that students engage in as preparation for a reading task At the pre-reading stage, teachers could prepare the students for the tasks and to familiarize them with the given topic The teacher can carry out pre-reading activities that could assist the students in preparing them to read the texts As stated by Vacca and Vacca (2002:127) “a key factor related to motivation is activating students’ interest in the text reading” The pre-reading stage serves as a way to introduce new vocabulary that is connected to the topic As pointed out by Nessamalar et al (1995:128) pre-reading stage is also used “to introduce language or concepts which occur in the text but which learners may not know” Students who are poor in proficiency would find

it difficult to make sense of the text they read They cannot make up the words from the text that they are relate the words to the background knowledge to make meaning This would prevent the students from making any use of the background knowledge in interpretation of the text Teacher can help their students by carrying out activities that could help build student background as building and activating prior knowledge for a lesson and presenting key vocabulary and concepts are also essential to pre-reading preparation When students interact with texts, they would relate the information to their background knowledge and would try to understand what the texts are about

There are various pre-reading activities The type of the activities depends on the teacher and the type of the text that learners will read A teacher must provide pre-reading activities that would match with the text to be read According to Tierney and Cunningham (1984) pre-reading activities acts as a way to access the reader's former knowledge and "provide a bridge between his knowledge and the text" (p.610).Tierney and Cunningham break up pre-reading activities in two parts teacher-centered and student-teacher or peer interaction Teacher-centered is one-way question or answer activity Student-centered activities are more apt to develop

an independent behavior from the beginning Pre-reading activities can also be

defined as warm-up activities which engage students in the preparation for a reading task The activities may differ largely in their length and the amount of input required to complete it by the student The activities may even require low-level of student interaction (e.g showing a picture to help understanding the context) or involving them to use other skills as well (e.g asking students to complete a class survey about a relevant topic) The choice of the type of pre-reading activities will depend greatly on the kind of the text to follow and the types of the learners who will be doing the task and the aim of the pre-reading task Stoller (1994: 2-7) shows some of the pre-reading activities along with its definition and benefits

Pre-reading is the process of skimming a text to locate key ideas before carefully reading a text (or a chapter of a text) from start to finish Also called previewing or surveying Pre-reading provides an overview that can increase reading speed and efficiency Pre-reading typically involves looking at (and thinking about) titles, chapter introductions, summaries, headings, subheadings, study questions, and conclusions

Pre-reading activities help students prepare for the reading activity by activating the relevant schemata, and motivating them to read Pre-reading activities can also help learners anticipate the topic, vocabulary and possibly important grammar structures

in the texts Here are some activities for you to think about

According to the National Capital Language Resource Center, pre-reading is an activity used by teachers to ensure their students are prepared to read a specific text

and understand the reasons they are reading the text Pre-reading is an activity used prior to reading a passage or specific text Pre-reading is completed within a series

of reading activities that also include while-reading and post-reading activities; the activities involved in pre-reading are completed for a number of reasons, such as the assessment by a teacher of the linguistic skills of a student to ensure she is able to read and comprehend the text about to be read Pre-reading activities are completed

by teachers to ensure each student understands the reasons for which she is reading

a text A successful series of pre-reading activities allows a group of students to understand the reasons for reading a text, such as to build knowledge and to elicit an emotional response to the text from the student Pre-reading can also allow a student

to make decisions about whether to read more of the text or find other works by the same author

2.2.3 Importance of Pre-reading activities

Reading has its own importance to the language learning Many researchers presented that pre-reading activities aids learners comprehending a text better The finding theory researcher showed greater importance of background knowledge for better understanding of the text There are many readers who face problems in comprehending a text because of insufficient background knowledge Question may arise that "Can we improve students' reading by activating their background knowledge of the reading topic through appropriate reading activities?" Many researches possess positive answer to this question Carrel and Eisterhold showed the importance as they discuss "the importance of text previewing activities for ESL readers because of the potential of cultural specificity of the text content." For the lower level of English proficiency learners meaning tend to break at the word level just because they cannot associate meaning of the word with the context Pearson and Johnson (1983) suggested to use word association task as it "yield a diagnosis

of what students already know and what they need to know about a key concept." Furthermore, an experiment by Hudson (1982) showed that learners given with pre-

reading activities of pictures and discussion were able to predict what they would find in the reading text

Pre-reading activities can be defined as the activities that are used with the students prior to the actual reading material These activities aim to provide students with required background knowledge that will be needed to have a better comprehension when they interact with a text Pre-reading activities are also useful tools for setting

up a purpose for reading That is why, they can be considered as vital activities that should be done as the learners’ schema should be activated to prevent any failure in comprehending a piece of written text Through the use of pre-reading activities, students get familiar with the topic, vocabulary, or complex structures in the passage

The effectiveness of pre-reading activities can especially be seen on providing the motivation for reading, as well as on teaching key cultural concepts Chastain (1988) points out that pre-reading activities are important factors in motivating the readers to read the text, and when they have motivation, then they are prepared for the reading activity Moreover, they can finish the activity better without spending too much effort and are more willing to take part in the activity as they have gained confidence In addition, Ur’s study (1996) reveals that pre-reading tasks make the activity more interesting, let the students have a purpose in reading, and give the teacher a chance to see how well the text can be understood with the help of the tasks given before/after reading

Wallence (1992) concludes after his study that in order to reach satisfactory interpretation of the text, second language readers need to operate on appropriate schematic knowledge

Carrel and Floyd point out the importance of pre-reading activities mentioning that the ESL teacher must arouse and/or provide the students’ background knowledge s/he lacks, and also needs to teach the students how to make a link between existing knowledge and new knowledge, which is required for text comprehension Abraham (2002) emphasizes that teachers need to give importance to pre - reading

activities to activate the students’ “schema” by helping them recognize the knowledge that they already have about the topic of the text

2.3 A review of the literature of Games

2.3.1 Definition of games

Games are often used as short warm-up activities or when there is some time at the start or at the end of a lesson However, as Lee (1979, p.3) observes, a game should not be regarded as a marginal activity filling in odd moments when the teacher and class have nothing better to do Games ought to be at the heart of teaching foreign languages Rixon (1981), “A game is an activity carried out by co-operating or competing decisions makers seeking to achieve, with a set of rules,

their objectives.” Salen & Zimmerman said that: “A game is a system in which

players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome.” Besides, Hadfield (1984), the writer of the book “

Communicative Games” states that, “A game is an activity with rules, a goal and an element of fun” Games also help learners recall material in a pleasant, entertaining way All authors referred to in this article agree that even if games resulted only in noise and entertained students They are still worth paying attention to and implementing in the classroom since they motivate learners, promote communicative observation and interview and reported the result in a case description

Games are one of the useful activities to motivate students in reading According to Carrier (1980:6) “Games stimulate students’ participation and give them confidence” Hadfield (1987) also classifies language games into many more categories as follows: Sorting, ordering or arranging games; Information gap game; Guessing games; Matching games; Labeling games; Puzzle-solving games

As far as definition of a game is concerned, Okoń (1992: 64) perceives it as a variant of a play that depends on sticking to strict rules and achieving a determined outcome Byrne (1986: 100), in turn, defines games as a form of play governed by

certain rules or conventions Moreover, Toth (1995: 5) provides a more expansive definition explaining game as follows:

A game is an activity with rules, a goal and an element of fun There are two kinds of games: Competitive games, in which players or teams race to be the first to reach the goal, and co-operative games, in which players or teams work together towards a common goal The emphasis in the games is on successful communication rather than on correctness of language (Toth 1995: 5)

El Shamy (2001, p.15) defines a game as a “competitive activity played according

to rules within a given context, where players meet a challenge to achieve an objective and win” Language games comprise many factors such as rules, competition, relaxation and learning in particular Rules have to be clear, few and well-explained so as no difficulty is faced They are designed in different levels as well as topics that suit different students‟ levels what make them enjoy all together and gain the best results

In addition to the definition a greater insight into the nature of games can be provided by looking at an array of basic features they have Following Juul 2002 in Whitehead, games reflect the following characteristics:

- Games are based on rules

- Games have variable, quantifiable outcomes

- The outcomes of games might have a positive or a negative value

- Games provide a degree of challenge which means that learners need to make effort in order to achieve a given objective

- Students taking part in a game attach a significant importance to its outcomes they know that a player will be the winner and happy if a positive outcome happens, and loser and unhappy if a negative outcome happens

- Negotiable consequences: the same game can be played with or without life consequences

real-2.3.2 Games as a teaching method

Teaching today has changed a lot over the past years Once it was all about learners being passive and reading in the classroom, but today learners are usually much more active in the classroom, and what better way to be active than by playing games (Steve Sugar.1998.p 3) Using language games, which have long been advocated for assisting language learning, in reading classes seems to be a good choice for the following reasons:

- Games add interest to what students might not find very interesting Language learning is hard work Effort is required at every moment and must be maintained over a long period of time Games help and encourage many students to sustain their interest and work Sustaining interest can mean sustaining effort After all, learning language involves long term effort

- The variety and intensity that games offer may lower anxiety and encourage shyer students to take part in reading classes positively, especially when games are played in small groups

- Games also help the teachers to create contexts in which the language is meaningful and useful The students want to take part in and in order to

do so they must understand what others are saying and they must do in order to express their own point of view or give information

- Games are student-centered in that students are active in playing the games and games can often be organized such that students have the leading roles, with teachers as facilitators

The national curriculum in foreign languages talks about the importance of keeping teaching methods diverse in order to light and sustain interest amongst students Teachers can help sustain diversity in a variety of ways, for example by using activities that require students to be creative in thinking and by emphasizing individual learning and cooperative learning equally A more specific way that teachers can use in order to keep diversity within the classroom is to not be afraid of

using games as a teaching method along with other methods According to the national curriculum games can be a good teaching method and games, such as role playing games, imitation games, theatrical expression and problem solving activities are especially fitting for all stages of language learning Howard Gardner, who theories that humans have eight intelligences, claims that when exploring a certain topic in school it can, and should, be approached in 6 different ways in order to maximize the chances of reaching all students in the classroom One of these ways

is “the personal way”, where the ultimate goal is to see if it is possible to approach a specific topic by using, for example, role play, or other interactions (Gardner.2006.p 142) In addition, Armstrong (2000) suggests board games as a teaching strategy that might suit students with interpersonal intelligence because they provide an excellent setting for interaction between students

2.3.3 Roles of games

Games are often wrongly regarded as an end of term activity or something to fill in last five minutes of a lesson In fact, they are becoming an indispensable activity in language syllabus because they play vitally important roles in language teaching and learning

According to Andrew Wright, David Betteridge and Michael Bucky, games can help the teacher to create context in which the language is useful and meaningful The learners want to participate and in order to do so must understand what others are saying or have written, and they must speak or write in order to express their own point of view or give information The contribution of drilling lies

in the concentration on a language form and its frequent use during a limited period

of time Many games provide this repeated use of a language form By making their language convey information and opinion, games provide the key feature of “drill” with the opportunity to sense the working of language as living communication The need for meaningfulness in language learning has been accepted for some years A useful interpretation of “meaningfulness” is that the learners respond to the content

in a definite way If they are amused, angered, challenged, intrigued or surprised the

content is clearly meaningful to them Thus the meaning of the language they listen

to, read, speak and write will be more vividly experienced and, therefore, better remembered Games can be found to give practice in all skills (reading, listening, writing, speaking), and in all stages of teaching/ learning sequence (presentation, repetition, recombination and free use of language) and for many types of communication (encouraging, criticizing, agreeing, explaining)

In addition, Simon Greenall (1984: 6) also shared the ideas that games should be used in ELT because of their significant roles According to him, they can help teacher to achieve their aim Students can produce meaningful and authentic utterances without the teacher or course book’s control; and they can listen to language under simulated real-life conditions, at the same time Another role is that it’s helpful for the learning process It is necessary to maintain a careful balance between more relaxed work and intensive practice He also strengthened the roles of language games in ELT He claims that “language games and activities provide an opportunity for learners to try out their newly acquired competence in a context where they feel psychologically secure.” Greenall (1984: 7) Moreover, language games are considered to be less likely troubled by the fear of making mistakes because the consequences of inaccuracies and misunderstandings are fictitious and have no real significance And therefore, students can build up their confidence by learning from their mistakes He summed up that the language games and activities can “provide free and spontaneous practice of the language learnt in conditions lying half way between the controlled context of the formal lesson and the real life situations outside the classroom

While Wright, Betteridge, and Buckby (1984: 1) point out that, “Games help and encourage many learners to sustain their interest and work.” Games also can provide intense and meaningful practice of language, and then they must be regarded as central to a teacher’s repertoire Moreover, games can be found to give practice in all skills (reading, listening, writing, and speaking), in all stages of the teaching and learning and for many types of communication

Besides, Carrier (1980) draws out some advantages of language games:

- Games add variety to the range of learning situations

- Games can be used to change the pace of a lesson and so maintain motivation

- Games can be used to punctuate long formal teaching units and renew student’s energy before returning to more formal learning

- Games can give ‘hidden’ practice of specific language points without students being aware of this

- Games encourage student participation and can remove the inhibitions of those who feel intimidated by formal classroom situations

- Games can change role of the teacher from that of formal instructor to that of manager or organizer of activities that students enjoy participating in this can be useful in reducing teacher-student distance or conflict

- Games can increase student-student communication, and so reduce the domination of the classroom by the teacher

- Games can act as a testing mechanism, in the sense that they will expose areas of weakness and the need for remedial work

2.3.4 How to use games

Even though games are usually started with the aim of having fun, they can sometimes end badly, for example if someone gets carried away with all the fun and says or does something that hurts someone else or his feelings When games are used in the classroom the teacher must keep this in mind and control the game in the right way Also he or she must make sure that every participant has a positive experience because the classroom must not become a place where students feel vulnerable or picked on in Another thing that is important to acknowledge is the fact that not all games fit the classroom environment, or all groups of students, and that it can be hard finding the right game In fact, it is good to keep in mind when selecting a game that a recipe for a good educational game is one that balances both fun and challenge (Steve Sugar.1998.p xvi)

Another point teachers need to keep in mind is to choose wisely when it comes to selecting a game to use in the classroom because; although one game might be perfect for one teacher or a particular group of students it can be terrible for another teacher or group of students (Ingvar Sigurgeirsson.1995.p.3) First of all, the teacher has to look at the group that will be participating in the game and he or she then has

to set out a goal for the group which the game should aim towards (Alanna Jones 1998.p 14) Selecting an appropriate game for a specific group of students who are working towards a specific goal can be tricky because, for example, they need to make sure that the game is relevant to the subject, that it fits their students‟ age and, teachers must remember not to select a game that is too complicated because that might result in a loss of interest amongst the students, or even defeat Also teachers must make sure they explain the rules of the game in detail and that all instructions are clear before starting the game During the game it is important for the teachers

to observe and be ready to help, but without unnecessarily interrupting the flow of the game because that might affect the fluency, which could result in discouraging students from participating After the game, it is a good idea to have some sort of a follow up activity planned because it gives the student’s time to reflect upon the game and how it turned out (Langran & Purcell.1994.p.15-19) It is important for teachers to know that augmenting a game is allowed and can certainly be necessary

in some cases More difficult games can be made easier so they become a challenge instead of to hard for less skilled or younger students and vice versa (Hadfield.1990.p v)

Although games can usually be modified to suit students of various ages, there are certain characteristics in games that appeal to children within specific age groups For children age 6-8 repetition is very common in games, rules are often few, and the games usually do not take a very long time When it comes to children age 9 and

up they have patience for longer games, which often include much more suspense Also when children reach this age they start to be able to augment the games themselves, for example to bend the rules to make the game more suited for their

group For children older than 12 games are often much more planned and they often emphasize teams and teamwork (Þórey Guðmundsdóttir.1987 p 6)

2.3.5 Choosing the Game

Teachers should be very careful about choosing the appropriate game that links his students‟ abilities and their prior knowledge according to their number, level and background A good language game, according to many recent researches, should:

- Be more than just fun

- Correspond the pupils‟ age, level and the material to be introduced

- Involve friendly competition

- Be suitable for their experiences

- Encourage them to focus on the use of the language rather than on the language itself

- Keep all of them involved and interested

- Include various topics to be practiced

- Give them a chance to entertain, learn and practice a specific language material

- Not be too complicated

2.3.6 Factors affecting the choice of games

It is possible to notice that these criteria (such as learners’ proficiency level for example) can be directly involved in choosing games for the lesson or the entire language course

According to Markunas (1993: 93-4), a proper choice of a game for the lesson needs

to begin with analyzing learners’ skills, predispositions and needs On the basis of such information the teacher can explore what various types of games can bring to the FL classroom In addition to these constant factors there are also more flexible variables such as the time of the lesson at which the game is used (as sometimes, the teacher can make a spontaneous decision that a given element of language could be processed with the use of a game) This determines the amount of time available to play the game

What is more, as Koluch (2003: 43-44) notes, games can be used either as a background or an introduction for other, more elaborated activity or they can constitute the main focus of the lesson providing the context for presentation and practicing of L2 input by students Depending on this basic function the choice of a specific game can be limited to a particular category of games

Following Hong (2002: 1), appropriate choice of a game for the lesson needs to be based on a variety of aspects with reference to the purpose, the language focus, the learners and technical factors This can be done by going over a list of questions such as:

- Which particular component or a language skill can be introduced or practiced on the basis of a given game?

- Is the game one is about to choose adjusted to learners in terms of their age, skills, knowledge or interests Can they benefit from the use of the game?

- Why is it useful resort to a given game at all?

- Did the use of a given game (or a type of game) bring positive results of teaching?

If yes, what were the outcomes in particular?

- Can the game be implemented in its original form or does it need to be altered in any way? If it does, can the necessary modifications be easily implemented by the teacher?

- Is there enough interaction and participation for learners that naturally stem from the game? (Hong 2002: 1)

Answering these questions may limit the change of making an inappropriate choice

of a game which, in such a situation, would be a waste of time Nevertheless, it needs to be remembered that there is also a variety of other aspects which might be considered which is why each game also needs to be evaluated after it has been implemented The evaluation of games can be useful when selecting a game next time (Hong 2002: 1-2)

Learners’ age constitutes one of the basic factors which determines the choice of a specific game for the lesson Young learners undergo a rapid cognitive development

but they are still subject to various cognitive limitations In this way the teacher should be fully aware of that as even the most interesting, dynamic and entertaining game cannot serve its purpose well if L2 content it includes is beyond the current level of L2 showed by learners Alternatively, the L2 content could also be too easy for students which is also a problem because if learners can handle it easily they do not pay sufficient attention to it As a result, their motivation and engagement in the lesson lowers considerably Other factors determining the choice of games mentioned by the author are based on technical issues such as availability of necessary tools or equipment or availability of space (for movement games for example)

According to Halliwell (1992: 13-14), a game chosen for the lesson needs to appeal

to learners’ imagination and involve their creativity Therefore, games used might contain an elements of fantasy providing a controlled level of imaginary world as this can help children understand the surrounding environment but also generate an interesting context for interaction in the classroom Just as young learners can introduce fun and play into anything they do, they also create their own view of the reality

2.3.7 Adapting the Game

Most of the games are designed to be played by a medium size class in which students can participate as individuals, pairs, groups or teams:

- Individuals: its main advantage is that every learner relies on his knowledge However, they create a missing chance of conversation Also, a most of individual games are highly competitive which may cause troubles between winners (happiness) and losers (failure)

- Pairs: the most commonly used type of grouping It helps learners to cooperate and benefit from each other Their feeling of happiness can be doubled in success as well as they can blame each other in case of failure The only disadvantage is that teachers cannot keep control and hear what pairs are saying

- Groups: Within the group: games for dividing larger group into smaller groups, there are games that can be used prior to some group activity in order

to divide the whole group into smaller groups A great game that fits into this category is the game “Group dividing by miming” and it goes like this: The teacher has prepared notes with a certain role written on them The second step is to give each student a note and remember to tell the students that they have to make sure that nobody besides them sees their note Once everybody has gotten a note then they can begin acting out their roles and while they are doing so they must watch the others in order to figure out who is acting the same role as them Once they have figured that out they will have created their groups (Ingvar Sigurgeirsson.1995.p 19) An activity like this can also

be very good because it “breaks the ice” and prepares the students for the group work

These games allow weaker students to join the game more easily since each group may include stronger and weaker students Ur (1981:7) sees the advantage of groups in “the chance for students who are shy of saying something in front of the whole class, or to the teacher.” The most common disadvantages are discipline and organization’s problems

- Teams: either dividing the class into two big equal groups or the whole class

is playing with the teacher as a monitor This gives them a chance to speak, understand their classmates, hear their mistakes and comfort different opinions

In cases of large classes, games need to be adapted to be employed Here, it is necessary to break the class into groups that play parts of individuals Some games require students to receive handouts for information purposes For larger classes, to avoid too much paper use, the information may be attached to a wall or written on the board

A contrary problem is faced with small classes The teacher should be always careful whether he does not place a high pressure on an individual For instance, the

case when a single student is asked to perform an activity which is in original assigned to a small group The anxiety here may exceed the relaxation which is a precondition for using a game In such cases, the teacher is still left with many games that can be played in small groups successfully

2.3.8 When to Use Language Games

Lee observes that a game “should not be regarded as a marginal activity filling in odd moments when the teacher and class have nothing better to do.” (1979: 3) There are many situations in which using a language game is of the advantages mentioned before:

- In cases of lack of interest, a language game can be a springboard for the serious language work

- When tiredness takes place in the student’s repertoire, it is very difficult for him to perform his best A language game can overcome the crisis and bring educational benefit

- When there is a lack of co-operation among students, a language game has a great potential bringing them together because they can relax and communicate better

- When all the planned work has been finished, a short language game may be practiced so as the time remaining is not wasted, and this way motivates students to finish their works earlier in order to have an enjoyable activity

- While revising, language games help students to recall information in an entertaining way There are, in contrast, some situations where a language game does not answer its educational aim

- If students lack the vocabulary knowledge which the game requires

- When there is not much time available because it may create an anxious feeling if it has to be done in a limited time

- If students are misbehaving, they need to calm down to reach the game’s purpose

- If there is no co-operation with the teacher

2.3.9 Types of Language Games

It is difficult to classify games into categories because such categories often overlap A good teacher has to have several games on hand at all times Hadfield (1984) explained two ways of classifying language games; linguistic games that focus on accuracy and communicative games that focus on exchanging information Further, games are classified into more detailed forms composed of both linguistic and communicative games

- Sorting, ordering or arranging games: for e.g give students a set of cards with months, and they have to arrange those cards in order

- Information gap games: the one having information have to exchange it with those who do not have it to complete a task

- Guessing games: a student with a flash card must just mime it to others who try to guess the word

- Searching games: for e.g everyone is given a clue to find out who the criminal is They ask and reply to solve the problem

- Matching games: participants need to find a match for a word, picture or card

- Labeling games: a form of matching games, the only difference is that they math labels and pictures

- Exchanging games: students barter cards, objectives or ideas

- Board games: scrabble‟ is one of the most popular games in this category

- Role playing games: students play roles that they might not play in real life They might also practice dialogues

2.3.10 Benefits of games in learning language

One useful strategy to encourage learning a foreign language is using language games When using games in the classroom, it is beneficial for teachers to have a complete understanding of the definitions of games, which usually are defined as a form of play concerning rules, competition, and an element of fun Teachers should

also consider the advantages of games: the ability to capture students' attention; lower students' stress; and give students the chance for real communication Lastly teachers need to assess how to use games appropriately in the classroom

First, games add interest to what students might not find very interesting Sustaining interest can mean sustaining effort (Thiagarajan, 1999; Wright, Betteridge, & Buckby, 2005)

Second, games are a welcome break from the usual routine of the language class and they are motivating and challenging They are both motivating and fun what can help activate students who may have been inactive before

Third, learning a language requires a great deal of effort, games help students to make and sustain the effort of learning

Fourth, games provide language practice in the various skill-speaking, writing, listening and reading

Fifth, they allow students to take on more responsibility and acquire new experiences what results an increase in their confidence level

Sixth, they create diversity in classes among students of all ages and levels, and diversity is needed for any school work to be progressive

Seventh, they give a good chance for shy and reluctant students and for those with low confidence because the atmosphere is not as serious when playing a game and it

is easy to forget shyness So they can faster whole class participation

Eighth, they emotionally involve students what has a positive effect on their learning because while exposed to the target language, they need to feel something such as happiness, excitement, amusement and surprise

Ninth, they help learners acquire vocabulary more quickly and easily by doing actions during playing the game

Tenth, the most important function of games is to create meaningful contexts for communication According to Larcabal, R S, the author of “The Roles of Games in Language Acquisition”, “We plan games; we must remember that for communication to take place, the players must find it essential to communicate.”