INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Globalization has increased the demand for effective international communication, making English the primary global language and a compulsory subject in schools worldwide In Vietnam, English is extensively taught across educational levels, from primary schools to universities, in both private and public sectors, due to its importance in exams and professional settings According to Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), students should develop not only grammatical competence but also key language skills, especially speaking Enhancing speaking ability is essential for academic success, future employment opportunities, and successful communication with foreigners Improving English speaking skills is crucial for students to achieve their educational and professional goals in a globalized world.
Teaching and learning English, especially speaking skills, often fall short of their intended goals Despite teachers' efforts in high schools to create opportunities for students to develop communicative abilities, many learners struggle with fluency and accuracy In Vietnam, students frequently lack confidence in their speaking skills, hindering their active participation in oral interactions and overall language proficiency.
After five years of teaching, I have observed that most students struggle to speak English fluently and accurately in meaningful contexts They face numerous challenges during speaking sessions and oral assessments, often feeling afraid to speak or hesitant to express their ideas Additionally, many students prefer to remain silent and listen quietly while others participate, indicating a lack of confidence and communicative competence in English.
Teachers often find it challenging to motivate students and improve their speaking skills, which are essential for effective communication Developing strong speaking abilities allows students to express their ideas more easily and communicate naturally in English To address this issue, the study titled "Using Minimal Responses to Improve EFL High School Students' Speaking Ability" aims to help teachers find effective strategies to encourage learners to break the silence in class and enhance their oral communication skills.
Aims of the study
The study was conducted with the aims to investigate the effect of minimal responses.
Research questions
This research was set out to seek the following questions:
1 How does the use of minimal responses affect EFL high school students’ speaking accuracy?
2 How does the use of minimal responses affect EFL high school students’ speaking fluency?
Scope of study
This study limits itself to investigating the use of minimal responses in improving EFL students’ speaking ability at a moutainous high school in Ha Tinh
It dealt with the use of minimal responses to improve EFL high school students’ speaking accuracy and fluency.
Organization of the thesis
The thesis is consisted of five chapters
Chapter 1: The Introduction is a brief overview of the study with more details of rationale, aims, research questions, scope of study as well as design of the study Chapter 2: Literature review This chapter presents the theoretical background of the research which contains four main issues: speaking ability, assessing speaking ability, teaching speaking to EFL learners and minimal responses in
Chapter 3: Methodology provides an overview of the research background, detailing the context of the study, the instruments employed for data collection, and the step-by-step procedures followed to gather and analyze data for language teaching research.
Chapter 4: Findings and discussion This chapter presents a description of data analysis and discussions
Chapter 5: Conclusion The focus is devoted to the summary of the findings and some suggested pedagogical recommendations to help teachers and students in upper secondary schools to overcome difficulties in learning and teaching English pronunciation This chapter also provides the limitations of the study as well as some recommendations for further study.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Speaking ability
It discusses the definition of speaking, the nature of speaking, the function of speaking, the aspect of speaking ability, and macro and micro skill of speaking ability
Speaking skills are essential in language learning because real-life communication relies heavily on speaking ability Demonstrating proficiency in a second or foreign language often involves practical speaking practice Finochiaro (as cited in Sukrianto, 1974, p 22) emphasizes that speaking reflects the true essence of language, as it showcases one’s ability to communicate effectively Speaking involves students expressing their thoughts and feelings orally, serving primarily to convey ideas to listeners who are attentive to spoken words, gestures, and facial expressions In essence, speaking is the key skill for delivering messages directly and facilitating effective interpersonal communication.
Speaking is a fundamental act of communication aimed at influencing others, whether to change their knowledge, gather information, or prompt actions (Clark & Clark, 2004) It is an interactive process of constructing meaning through producing, receiving, and processing information, which depends heavily on the context, including participants, their experiences, the physical environment, and the speaking purpose (Burn & Joyce, 1997).
Widdowson (1985, p 58) states that an act of communication through
Speaking is commonly performed in face-to-face interactions and is an essential component of effective communication It involves verbal expression and active participation in conversations, enabling individuals to share ideas clearly Developing strong speaking skills is vital for personal and professional success, especially in real-time communication settings Engaging in face-to-face speaking activities helps improve fluency, confidence, and interpersonal understanding.
Effective communication encompasses both monologue and dialogue, emphasizing the importance of interacting with others for transactional and social purposes The ability to deliver an uninterrupted oral presentation differs from engaging in dynamic conversations with one or more speakers While many native speakers can communicate interactively, not all possess the skill to extemporize on a given subject in front of an audience, a competence that typically requires deliberate learning and practice Developing strong speaking skills involves both understanding these different modes of oral communication and actively practicing to enhance fluency and confidence.
Speaking is the ability to use language effectively in everyday communication It involves not only transferring messages to others but also serves as a vital form of interaction that requires more than one person Effective speaking is essential for clear and meaningful communication between individuals.
Brown and Yule (Fauzi, 2012, p 4) distinguish between two fundamental language functions: the transactional function, focused on transferring information, and the interactional function, which aims to maintain social relationships When developing speaking skills, it is important to consider the difference between monologue and dialogue; while giving uninterrupted oral presentations demonstrates monologue ability, effective interaction with others reflects dialogue skills Although many native speakers can engage in social interactions, not all possess the skill to speak extemporaneously on a given subject to a group of listeners.
4) suggest that most language teaching is concerned with developing skills in short intersectional exchanges in which the learner is only required to make one or two utterance at a time
Based on the above statement, Bygate in Fauzi (2012, p 5) distinguishes that
“between motor-perceptive skill, which are concerned with correctly using the sound and structures of language, and interactional skill, which involves motor
Motor perceptive skills are developed in the language classroom through activities like model dialogues, pattern practice, and oral drills These skills are essential for effective communication, and it was once believed that mastering motor perceptive skills was necessary for successful interaction.
2.1.3 The nature of speaking ability
Speaking is a vital productive skill in language learning, as it can be directly observed through its accuracy and fluency (Islamiyah, 2007, p 14) It involves the creative construction of linguistic strings, with speakers actively making choices about vocabulary, sentence structure, and discourse styles Effective speaking skills are essential for clear communication and are indicative of a learner's proficiency in the language.
According to Poerdarminta (Islamiyah, 2007, p 14), the classical definition of speaking refers to the ability to talk and articulate thoughts verbally The primary purpose of speaking is to convey messages effectively, enabling communication about various topics Clear and understandable speech ensures that the listener perceives and comprehends the intended message, facilitating meaningful interaction.
According to Tarigan (Islamiyah, 2007, p 14), speaking is a vital language skill that involves expressing ideas orally to others It is an informal process of exchanging thoughts and information through spoken words, enabling effective communication and interpersonal interaction.
2.1.4 Micro and macro skill of speaking ability
Effective speaking micro skills involve clear pronunciation of distinctive sounds, including tonal, stress, rhythmic, and intonation patterns, to ensure understanding It requires using the correct word forms, such as tense, case, or gender, to convey accurate meaning Proper word order and appropriate vocabulary are essential for coherence, while selecting the correct register or language style according to the context and relationship helps enhance communication Additionally, highlighting the main ideas clearly ensures the listener comprehends the core message effectively.
Effective communication requires understanding the basic constituents of language, such as subject, verb, and object, which form the foundation of meaningful sentences To ensure clarity and coherence, it's important to highlight the main ideas distinctly from supporting details, enabling readers to easily grasp the core message Additionally, cohesive discourse is essential, as it helps maintain the flow of information and allows audiences to follow the argument effortlessly (Carol Orwig, 1999, p 23).
Effective speaking skills involve appropriately fulfilling communicative functions based on the context, participants, and objectives, while using suitable styles, registers, and pragmatic conventions It is essential to incorporate sociolinguistic features such as floorkeeping, interrupting, and conversation rules to facilitate smooth face-to-face interactions Conveying logical links between events, ideas, feelings, and distinguishing between new and given information enhances clarity and coherence Nonverbal cues like facial expressions, kinesics, and body language should complement verbal communication to convey meaning effectively Developing various speaking strategies—such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, providing context, requesting help, and assessing the listener's understanding—supports clearer and more purposeful communication Adopting these macro skills in speaking activities ensures effective and contextually appropriate interactions.
2.1.5 The aspects of speaking ability
According to Darmodihardjo in Fauzi (2012, p 7), effective speaking requires proper intonation, phonetic transcription, and appropriate environmental expression He emphasizes that successful communication depends on considering sound situation, pronunciation, and physical context Additionally, Valetto in Fauzi (2012, p 7) highlights that essential elements of speaking include phonetic transcription, grammar, vocabulary, and the ability to speak effectively These components are crucial for achieving clear and impactful oral communication.
Haris Fauzi (2012, p 7) emphasizes that speaking is a complex skill involving the simultaneous use of multiple abilities, which often develop at different rates He highlights that the speaking process generally involves four or five key components, including pronunciation, that are essential for effective spoken communication.
Assessing speaking ability
Testing oral proficiency has gained significant importance in language testing due to the increasing emphasis on speaking ability in language education (Hartley & Sporing, 1999) Performance assessments are characterized by their focus on content, making them distinct from other testing methods However, assessing speaking skills presents unique challenges because it is difficult to evaluate accurately and requires substantial time, effort, and training (Hughes, 2003) Despite these difficulties, it is essential to design and implement speaking tests regardless of their high costs, given their crucial role in measuring communicative competence.
Fluency, as discussed by Freed (1995) and Fulcher (1996), can be understood in various senses, ranging from narrow features like pausing, hesitations, and speech rate to broader concepts of speaking proficiency Clear definitions are essential, as without them, the meaning of fluency remains ambiguous for both speakers and writers Common aspects of fluency include speech flow, smoothness, rate, minimal unnecessary pauses, lack of hesitation, utterance length, and connectedness (Koponen, 1995) However, these characteristics are complex because they not only describe the speaker’s speech but also how listeners perceive and interpret it, highlighting the subjective nature of fluency assessment.
Fluency in speech is closely related to temporal aspects such as speaking rate, speech-pause patterns, and speech frequency Research shows that as speakers become more fluent, their speech rate tends to increase, leading to more natural and smooth communication Enhancing these temporal features is essential for improving overall speech fluency.
Fluent speech is characterized by fewer pauses and hesitations, reflecting smoother delivery (Lennon, 1990; Freed, 1995) Speakers tend to pause at semantically meaningful points, signaling to listeners that they are actively planning their message rather than searching for words Additionally, more fluent speakers typically speak at a faster pace, with longer phrases that contribute to the overall coherence of their speech.
Fluency involves both timing and the manner in which speakers utilize words, particularly small words like really, I mean, and oh, which play a crucial role in coherent communication (Hasselgren, 1998) Hasselgren (1998) defines linguistic fluency as the ability to produce speech that is perceived as coherent, understandable without undue effort, and delivered at a comfortable pace without disjointedness or excessive hesitation Small words are significant in facilitating relevant turns and understanding others’ contributions, as they express the speaker's communicative intentions and contribute to the interactional dynamics These words indicate the relevance of utterances within textual context, reflect the cognitive effects of prior statements, and enrich the meaning of communication by signaling commitment levels, vagueness, or the success of the interaction Ultimately, small words help speakers manage the flow of conversation, acknowledge communication effectiveness, and foster mutual understanding.
According to Brown (2004, pp 141-142), speaking competence is demonstrated when an individual can imitate words, phrases, or even complete sentences (imitative) This includes producing short bursts of oral language that showcase abilities within specific grammatical, phrasal, lexical, or phonological aspects, such as prosodic elements like intonation, stress, rhythm, and juncture Developing speaking competence also involves intensive skills, enabling the speaker to respond appropriately in brief conversations with standard language use.
Effective communication involves both transactional language for exchanging specific information and interpersonal exchanges to maintain social relationships Simple greetings, small talk, and polite comments are essential for responsive interactions, whether in professional or casual contexts Interpersonal communication focuses on transmitting facts and fostering social bonds, while transactional language aims to facilitate the exchange of targeted information seamlessly Both forms are crucial for successful interpersonal interactions and maintaining positive relationships.
Develop (monologue) oral production including speeches, oral presentations, and story-telling, during which the opportunity for oral interaction from listener is either highly limited or ruled out together (extensive)
According to Ur (1999, p 120), successful speaking activities are characterized by learners talking as much as possible during the designated time, minimizing teacher talk or pauses Classroom discussions should be evenly participatory, giving all learners equal opportunities to speak and contribute High motivation is essential, with learners eager to speak because they are interested in the topic, have new ideas, or aim to achieve specific task objectives Additionally, the language used should be appropriate, with learners expressing themselves in relevant, easily understandable utterances that demonstrate an acceptable level of accuracy.
Fluency in speaking goes beyond just grammatical accuracy; it also involves the ability to use the language communicatively and naturally Effective communication requires smooth, confident speech without unnecessary hesitation, emphasizing the importance of practical language use alongside grammatical mastery.
Richard and Rodgers (2001, p 90) describe fluency as the ability to produce spoken or written language effortlessly, emphasizing that spoken language should flow naturally despite potential hurdles They further explain that fluency involves speaking with a good, though not necessarily perfect, command of intonation, vocabulary, and grammar Similarly, Simon and Schuster, as cited in Amin (2006, p 22), define fluency as the capacity to speak or write smoothly and efficiently, highlighting its importance in effective language communication.
To achieve high-quality speech or writing, it is essential to focus on the flow, smoothness, and freedom from harshness The ability to communicate effortlessly—whether in speaking or writing—ensures clarity and expressiveness Smooth, fluent expression enhances understanding and demonstrates proficiency in language skills, making communication more effective and engaging.
Fluency is the ability to produce continuous, smooth, and communicative language, even if the utterances are not perfect It involves speaking naturally and understandably, allowing students to communicate effectively As an important aspect of language proficiency, fluency can be assessed by researchers to gauge a student's speaking ability Overall, fluency reflects the ease and flow of speech, serving as a key indicator of oral language competence.
Accuracy in speaking encompasses correct pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary to ensure clarity and understanding Pronunciation, as defined by Alexander et al (1998), refers to how words and sounds are properly articulated, which is essential for intelligible speech Teaching pronunciation involves helping students recognize speech patterns and produce clear, understandable speech, ensuring their utterances are comprehensible in real-life contexts Effective pronunciation instruction also emphasizes the importance of intonation and stress, which are largely learned through imitation and repetition Teachers must model accurate pronunciation to facilitate students' ability to emulate correct speech patterns, making their spoken communication clear and effective for effective message delivery.
Language used by humans thereby must present some characteristics that make it so unique and different from the way animals communicate Yule’s work
(2006, p 9 - 12) outlines the six crucial attributes of human language The first feature presented by the author is displacement This trait allows users of a
Human language possesses several key features that distinguish it from animal communication Firstly, it is highly productive, enabling humans to generate an infinite number of new sentences and describe novel situations, a ability that animals lack Secondly, language is arbitrary; there is no inherent connection between a word's form and its meaning, making interpretation challenging for language learners Thirdly, language allows for displacement, which means discussing events, people, or things not present in the immediate environment Fourth, discreteness refers to the significance of small sound differences, such as between /p/ and /b/ in words like "pig" and "big," emphasizing that these distinctions alter meaning Fifth, duality indicates that language operates on two levels: individual sounds (like /i/ or /p/) and their organized combination into meaningful units These properties collectively underpin the complexity and uniqueness of human linguistic ability.
While physical features like face shape and eye color are inherited, language is acquired through cultural transmission rather than genetics Children are born with an innate ability to learn language, but they do not have a genetic predisposition to learn a specific language This highlights the distinction between inherited physical traits and the non-genetic nature of language acquisition.
Teaching speaking to EFL learners
Teaching is the process of guiding students to learn by providing instructions, knowledge, and support to help them understand new concepts It is a fundamental means of achieving education, with the common goal of fostering learning and personal development An effective teacher actively implements proven strategies to facilitate student learning and engagement A teacher is a professional responsible for transmitting knowledge, attitudes, and skills through a formal curriculum to students enrolled in educational programs.
Teaching and learning are intrinsically connected, as teaching cannot be defined without referencing the learning process Effective teaching involves guiding and facilitating learners, creating optimal conditions for their understanding and growth Understanding how students learn shapes an educator’s philosophy and influences their teaching style, ensuring a more engaging and effective educational experience.
Effective language teaching relies on understanding students' learning processes; using operant conditioning and reinforcement helps shape desired behaviors Presenting language rules explicitly is effective if you view second language acquisition as deductive, emphasizing the importance of providing clear paradigms rather than relying solely on inductive discovery Many learners prioritize speaking skills, viewing fluency as the ability to communicate verbally rather than just reading or writing, and they measure their progress through spoken interaction Ensuring students have ample opportunities to speak in class is crucial to maintain motivation and prevent disengagement When appropriate activities are incorporated effectively, speaking practice can become enjoyable, boosting learner motivation and creating a lively, engaging English classroom environment.
2.3.1 EFL learners’ difficulties in learning to speak English
Burn and Joyce (1997) identify three key factors influencing students' reluctance to participate in classroom speaking tasks: cultural, linguistic, and psychological factors Cultural barriers arise from prior learning experiences and social knowledge gaps, making students unfamiliar with the cultural norms necessary for effective communication in the target language Linguistic challenges include difficulties in transitioning from their first language to English, such as differences in sounds, rhythms, stress patterns, and grammatical structures Psychological factors also play a significant role, affecting students' confidence and motivation to speak due to anxiety or fear of making mistakes in a new linguistic environment Addressing these factors is crucial for fostering student participation in speaking activities.
Students who have experienced previous negative social or political situations may face challenges such as lack of motivation, anxiety, or shyness in class These emotional barriers can hinder their learning process, especially if their past experiences in education have been discouraging or unsuccessful Addressing these issues is essential to help students overcome their fears and foster a positive learning environment.
Motivation is a crucial factor in language learning, influencing learners' preparedness for communication and fostering positive attitudes towards acquiring a new language It refers to the extent to which individuals are willing to put effort into learning a second language due to their desires and the satisfaction they derive from the activity Enhancing motivation within the classroom is essential, yet many learners remain unmotivated due to reasons such as lack of perceived progress, irrelevant materials, unclear goals, inappropriate feedback, boredom, or uninspired teaching methods According to Tsui (1996), students' reluctance to speak in class often stems from low self-confidence, fear of mistakes, teacher intolerance, unequal participation, and difficulty understanding instruction In non-English speaking environments like Vietnam, learners often lack opportunities to practice English outside the classroom, speaking only during lessons and reverting to Vietnamese in real-life interactions, which hampers their fluency and confidence in using English in authentic contexts.
It is important to avoid assuming that individuals believe they are self-important, as this can lead to misunderstandings and misjudgments Clear communication and respectful interactions are essential to foster positive relationships and prevent unnecessary conflicts Ensuring professionalism and humility in our perceptions can significantly improve personal and professional connections.
To improve their second language proficiency, students must actively overcome challenges in learning English, particularly in speaking skills Practicing English extensively is essential, including engaging in diverse communication situations such as watching English films and conversing with foreigners Building friendships with native speakers and learning from peers can also enhance speaking fluency and confidence Consistent practice in real-life contexts is key to mastering English as a means of effective communication.
2.3.2 Factors affecting EFL learners’ speaking ability
Many learners struggle with expressing ideas orally in English due to various factors that negatively impact their learning process and hinder their speaking development, even if they understand the language system Being knowledgeable about a foreign language does not automatically translate to speaking proficiency, as knowing how to do something is different from actually doing it Numerous scholars have examined affective factors influencing second language speaking skills, which can be summarized into several key elements that affect learners' ability to practice and improve their speaking.
Research indicates that early childhood exposure to a second language leads to higher proficiency levels compared to adult learners, despite similar developmental stages Children benefit from being immersed in a natural, real-time speaking environment and are less aware of social distances and cultural norms Additionally, a child's highly flexible brain enhances language acquisition, a capacity that diminishes over time due to fossilization processes These points are supported by four main arguments outlined in the Encyclopedia, emphasizing the advantages of early language learning for long-term fluency.
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Research by Johnson (1999) highlights that age significantly influences adult language learning capabilities, with various factors impacting fluency and native-like proficiency Affective factors such as threatened self-esteem and perceived social distance act as barriers to second language acquisition in older learners (Krashen, 1982) Additionally, input received by adults tends to be less effectively tuned compared to children, limiting their exposure to essential language data Cognitive development and the natural decline in brain plasticity with age further inhibit language learning ability, supporting the Critical Period Hypothesis Overall, these insights suggest that age-related changes can hinder adult learners' ability to achieve full fluency and native-like mastery in a target language.
Effective listening is crucial for developing speaking skills, as misunderstanding spoken language leads to incorrect responses Listening provides vital feedback that supports speaking development because listening precedes and informs speech production According to Shumin (1997), the spontaneous nature of spoken English—with its loosely organized syntax, incomplete forms, false starts, and fillers—poses significant challenges for EFL learners, hindering their comprehension and negatively impacting their speaking proficiency.
Communication breakdowns often occur when language learners struggle to choose appropriate expressions or terms for specific situations in a foreign or second language This challenge is frequently caused by interference from their own cultural norms, which can hinder effective communication Additionally, a lack of mastery over the nonverbal communication system of the target language further complicates understanding and interaction between speakers.
Understanding nonverbal communication is crucial, as misinterpretations can occur when these messages differ across cultures (Shumin, 1997, p 8) Therefore, mastering a foreign language involves not only linguistic and paralinguistic skills but also an in-depth knowledge of the target culture, particularly within specific social contexts.
The most important influences on language learning success or failure is the affective side of the learner (Oxford, 1990, p 140), because ‘affective’ means
Affective factors related to feelings, such as emotions, self-esteem, empathy, anxiety, attitude, and motivation, significantly influence language learning (Shumin, 1997) The complexity of acquiring a foreign or second language can induce considerable anxiety, impacting learners' performance (Brown, 1994) Learners often experience inhibition or anxiety related to various aspects of the learning process, including speaking in front of peers, classroom behavior, competition with fellow students, test situations, and perceptions of native speakers’ attitudes toward the language (Johnson & Johnson, 1999) These affective factors are interconnected and play a crucial role in shaping the language learning experience.
Minimal responses in language teaching
Many students mistakenly believe that speaking a language simply results from language learning, but speaking is actually a vital component of the learning process itself Effective teachers focus on teaching speaking strategies, including minimal responses that empower students to expand their language knowledge and build confidence By guiding students to speak deliberately, instructors enable learners to use speaking as a tool for overall language development, fostering both proficiency and self-assurance.
In conversations, listeners respond in two primary ways: by making responses while the speaker is talking or after the speaker has finished These responses are essential for effective communication, as they help clarify understanding and demonstrate engagement Minimal responses, a key aspect of conversational interaction, play a crucial role in maintaining flow and encouraging the speaker to continue Research on minimal responses highlights their significance in creating natural, interactive dialogues, emphasizing their importance in both social and linguistic contexts.
Zimmerman and West (1975) identified minimal responses such as "um hmm," "uh huh," and "yeah," highlighting their role in conversation Kendon (1975) expanded this list to include responses like "yes," "quite," "surely," "I see," and "that’s true," emphasizing their significance in communicative exchanges Reid (2005) further explores gender differences in minimal responses, suggesting that these verbal acknowledgments vary between men and women, influencing conversational dynamics.
Fishman (1978, p 402) cites minimal responses as ‘yeah’, ‘umm’, ‘huh’
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Woods (1988, p 143) highlights that backchannels include simple affirmations like “yes” and “right,” which play a crucial role in conversations According to Tao and Thompson (1991, p 210), backchannels are defined as “short, non-lexical utterances produced by an interlocutor who is playing primarily a listener’s role during the other interlocutor’s speakership,” emphasizing their function in facilitating effective communication and listener engagement.
Reppen (2002) expands on Duncan’s (1974) typology of backchannel responses, highlighting various forms such as non-lexical vocalizations, "yeah," "right," "I see," as well as sentence completions, clarification requests, brief restatements, and head nodding or shaking Generally, listener responses can occur in two ways: simultaneously with the speaker’s talk or after the speaker has finished For example, Yule (1996, p 75) illustrates this with instances where listeners respond in real-time or post-utterance, emphasizing the interactive nature of backchannel signals in conversation Incorporating these backchannel responses enhances listener engagement and facilitates smoother communication flow From an SEO perspective, understanding varied backchannel responses is essential for effective communication and conversational analysis.
(1) Caller: if you use your long distance service a lot then you’ll Mary: uh-uh
Caller: be interested in the discount I’m talking about because Mary: yeah
Caller: it can only save you money to switch to a cheap service Mary: mm
Mary responds appropriately with cues like "uh-uh," "yeah," and "mm" at the end of each tone unit when the caller pauses, demonstrating her agreement and active listening These verbal responses enhance conversational coherence and show her engagement in the dialogue Using such pragmatic markers is essential for effective communication, indicating understanding and encouraging the speaker to continue Incorporating these responses can improve conversational flow and showcase attentive participation in dialogue.
Minimal responses, such as uh-uh, yeah, and mmm, serve as direct feedback to speakers, indicating that their messages are being received These cues, also referred to as response tokens or response cues, are verbal and non-verbal indicators of a person's active participation in a conversation According to Reid (2005), minimal responses play a crucial role in demonstrating co-participation and maintaining fluid communication.
The examples listed above indicate that the minimal responses show the listeners’ support to the current speaker and give him a sign that he/she can
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(2) Ben: Male subject threatens death after first clip
Jason: Yeah, but what about your math project?
"Yeah" is often used as a simple, minimal response in everyday conversations However, in this context, Jason uses "Yeah" to signal a new turn or shift in the discussion, indicating that it should not be perceived merely as a minimal response but as a purposeful conversational cue This highlights how "Yeah" can serve different functions depending on context, emphasizing its versatility in communication.
Firstly, Nonverbal responses such as nods and shakes of the head Here is an example from Growing Pains:
(3) Jason: Do I look like a Gene Dickson Mike? Your mother's a working adult And when she’s finished working, she will come home
A head shake serves as a non-verbal minimal response, providing direct feedback similar to spoken communication This non-verbal cue effectively conveys disagreement or affirmation, functioning as an alternative to verbal responses Recognizing head shakes as a form of minimal response highlights their role in non-verbal communication, emphasizing their importance in conveying feedback without words Incorporating understanding of such cues can enhance interpersonal interactions and improve communication effectiveness.
Responses often include single words like “yes” or “no” to quickly affirm or deny Phrasal expressions such as “oh, really” or “oh, my god” are commonly used to convey surprise or emotional reactions Short clauses like “that’s right” or “I agree” serve to confirm understanding or agreement succinctly Longer utterances, including clarification requests, help ensure mutual understanding during conversations For example, in Growing Pains, characters use these varied speech patterns to express their feelings and manage dialogue effectively Incorporating these types of responses enhances natural dialogue and improves communication clarity.
(4) Maggie: Go talk to him You won't sleep if you don't Don't worry I'll continue the search for the pajamas
When the current speaker stops, the listener often uses clarification requests or minimal responses to indicate understanding, such as "yeah" or head nods, which signal attentiveness and participation in the conversation According to Knapp and Hall (1997), Brunner (1979) identified that simile signals like "yeah" and head nods serve as cues of engagement rather than expressions of happiness Additionally, smiles and laughter play a crucial role in facilitating ongoing communication by encouraging the speaker and creating a positive conversational environment.
Minimal responses serve as spontaneous feedback in conversations, fulfilling the same communicative function as other responses They are a form of brief acknowledgment that facilitates smooth interactions Incorporating minimal responses effectively enhances conversational flow and engagement For example, simple affirmations like "I see" or "Okay" confirm understanding without needing lengthy replies Understanding the role of minimal responses is essential for improving communication skills across various contexts.
2.4.3 Minimal responses in teaching speaking to EFL learners
Language learners who lack confidence in participating in oral discussions often remain silent while others speak To encourage these learners to engage, it is helpful to equip them with a set of minimal responses that they can use in various exchange situations These simple, ready-made responses are particularly beneficial for beginners, as they provide a foundation for active participation and boost speaking confidence.
Minimal responses, such as idiomatic phrases, are used to indicate understanding, agreement, or doubt, helping learners focus on the conversation without planning responses Many communication scenarios follow predictable scripts, including greetings, apologies, compliments, and invitations, which are influenced by social and cultural norms These scripted exchanges often involve transactional activities like requesting information or making purchases, where the flow between speaker turns can usually be anticipated.