INTRODUCTION
Introduction
The ecological value of streams and rivers worldwide is increasingly threatened by human land use, including the expansion of golf courses (Allan, 2004) Globally, there are over 31,500 golf courses, highlighting the significant land footprint of this sport (Tanner and Gange, 2005) In Vietnam, golf has transitioned from being a luxury sport reserved for the upper class to experiencing rapid growth nationwide Currently, there are 144 golf course projects across 39 provinces, with an additional 35 courses already in operation These golf courses encompass approximately 49,000 hectares, representing a substantial allocation of land and raising concerns about environmental impact and sustainable land use in Vietnam.
Golf courses are often perceived as harmless recreational spaces that generate substantial profits and serve as vital land-use projects connecting natural landscapes, rivers, oceans, mountains, and local communities However, their construction and maintenance can negatively impact the environment by damaging natural vegetation, increasing the risk of forest fires, depleting natural resources, and altering topography A significant environmental concern associated with golf courses is their effect on water quality, particularly related to chemical toxins and pollution (Wheeler & Nauright, 2006), highlighting the ecological challenges these developments pose.
Golf courses heavily rely on agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers to manage pests, maintain healthy turfgrass, and ensure aesthetic appeal Proper turf care requires staff to apply significant amounts of pesticides carefully to keep the landscape in pristine condition Regular use of pesticides and fertilizers containing organic compounds like nitrogen and phosphorus supports turf growth but also poses environmental risks According to Professor Charles Melton from the University of California, Davis, these chemicals can have negative impacts on surrounding ecosystems, highlighting the need for sustainable turf management practices.
Building golf courses near water bodies can negatively impact water quality and stream ecology, especially when rain or irrigation after fertilizing causes nutrients and chemicals to runoff into streams Nutrients like nitrogen from fertilizers promote rapid phytoplankton growth, which increases organic waste and leads to bacterial proliferation As bacteria multiply and decompose this waste, oxygen levels in the water decline, potentially creating dead zones unsuitable for aquatic life To address these environmental concerns, my research focuses on the impact of golf courses on the water quality of Bui River in its headwater catchment area.
Literature review
Freshwater is essential for human health and wellbeing, yet water pollution caused by excreta and chemical waste remains a global challenge Agriculture, urban development, and golf courses often overuse pesticides and fertilizers, leading to declining water quality Since the late 1980s, research on the impact of golf courses on water quality has increased significantly, primarily due to local permitting processes (Cohen et al., 1999) In recent years, scientific attention has also shifted toward understanding how fertilizers contribute to water pollution, alongside ongoing concerns about pesticides (Minnesota Statutes, 2004).
Regular pesticide and fertilizer use on golf courses raises concerns about chemical runoff into surface and groundwater sources (Hindahl et al., 2009) A 1990 study on Cape Cod golf courses detected multiple pesticides and metabolites in groundwater, with toxicologically significant levels of chlordane and heptachlor, but overall found minimal impact on water quality under local conditions The study highlighted higher pesticide levels in water from greens and tees compared to fairways and recommended further research in southern climates with higher nematicide use In response, the USGA invested $3.2 million in 1991 to fund 21 research projects across the U.S., focusing on the environmental fate of fertilizers and pesticides, the effects of recycled water application, and eco-friendly pest management techniques for golf courses.
In 1990, Guam Municipal Golf, INC conducted water quality testing at Guam International Country Club, analyzing over 86,000 samples for nitrates (NO3) and pesticides, with no pesticides detected—highlighting effective water management practices (Guam EPA, 1992) Despite concerns about the potential environmental impacts of golf course development, multiple studies have shown that golf courses can possess significant conservation value, supporting diverse species such as amphibians, butterflies, pond-breeding macroinvertebrates, and birds (Boone, Semlitsch, & Mosby, 2008; Colding et al., 2009; Porter, Pennington, Bulluck, & Blair, 2004; Merola-Zwartjed & Delong, 2005; Rodewald & Santiago).
2004), and mammals (Eisenberg, Noss, Waterman & Main, 2011)
A 1999 review by Cohen et al found that widespread water quality impacts from golf courses across the United States were not evident, with no significant toxicological effects observed despite occasional exceedances of health advisory and maximum contaminant levels However, Cockerham and Leinauer (2011) criticized these conclusions, arguing they were based on risk assessments rather than direct toxicity testing and were limited by the narrow geographic and climatic scope of the study, suggesting that the findings may not be universally applicable.
In 1990, Klein highlighted that fertilizer use on golf course turfgrass is comparable to that on cropfields, necessitating regular applications of fertilizers and pesticides to maintain the landscape Consequently, up to 84% of nitrogen fertilizers may leach into groundwater, with average leaching rates between 5% and 10% (Petrovic, 1990) Elevated nitrate levels in drinking water—exceeding 10 mg/l as N—pose health risks, especially to infants Studies show that 14% reported nitrate concentrations of 10 mg/l N or greater in leachate, with some research suggesting that post-application irrigation can significantly reduce chemical losses, lowering fertilizer runoff to about 1.6–1.7% of the amount applied (Kelling and Peterson, 1975; Mugass, Agnew, and Christians, 1991) Factors influencing nitrogen leaching include irrigation practices, grass species, nitrogen type, timing of application, and rates, with irrigation notably increasing the potential for fertilizer and pesticide leaching A typical 18-hole golf course may require between 100,000 and 150,000 gallons of water daily for irrigation, further impacting groundwater quality (Hammond and McKinney, 1990).
Research indicates that golf courses contribute to increased nutrient and nitrate levels in nearby water bodies Studies in the United States have shown that nitrate concentrations in creeks rise as they pass through golf courses (Mallin and Wheeler, 2000), and nutrient levels in golf course ponds and adjacent coastal areas are higher than in reference sites (Lewis et al., 2002) Similarly, a 1999 Japanese study found elevated conductivity, total nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sodium concentrations at stream outflows near golf courses compared to inflows (Kunimatsu et al., 1999) These findings highlight the environmental impact of golf courses on water quality through nutrient runoff and pollution.
K, TN and NO 3 were higher in all of the golf course streams than in the forested reference streams in both hydrologic years (Winter and Dillon 2006)
Besides making negative impact on ground and surface water, when fertilizers or excess nutrients enter aquatic ecosystem, it leads to a phenomenon known as eutrophication
Research by Wong et al (1988) concluded that current fertilizer application rates on golf courses lead to environmental impacts such as eutrophication and pollution of surface and ground water Similarly, a 2015 study from Colorado University highlighted that runoff from golf courses can trigger eutrophication, with fertilizers applied on maintenance days being washed into lakes and streams by rain, providing excess nutrients that promote eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems.
Vietnam's first golf course, Dalat Palace Golf Course, was designed by a French architect and developed under Emperor Bao Dai in the 1920s Currently, the country has 54 golf courses in operation, with an additional 144 projects underway, highlighting Vietnam's burgeoning golf industry However, this rapid development has led to environmental challenges; for example, Tam Dao Golf Course established in 1994 in Vinh Phuc Province has caused significant pollution, particularly affecting local water sources due to untreated discharges Despite a 2010 fine of 114 million VND, the environmental issues at Tam Dao Golf Course persist, adversely impacting local communities.
Research on the environmental impacts of golf courses in Vietnam is limited, with the Phoenix Golf Course serving as a rare case study on water quality effects In 2009, Hua Thi Yen, Nguyen Thuy Duong, and Tran Van Hung investigated the impact of the golf course on surface water in Bui River, finding that nitrate and phosphorus concentrations upstream were lower than downstream levels A follow-up study in 2015 by Dinh Thi Quynh Oanht observed increasing trends of TSS, COD, BOD, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus from upstream to downstream due to Phoenix Golf Course's influence However, there remains a significant lack of scientific research and reports on chemical impacts of golf courses in Lam Son Province, highlighting the need for further studies to provide essential data and guidance for sustainable management.
OBJECTIVES
Goal
This study aims to evaluate water quality of Bui River under the impact of Phoenix Golf Course.
Objectives
The study has three main objectives:
(1) Evaluating the effect of Phoenix Golf Course to invertebrate composition and diversity of Bui River
(2) Using physical and chemical parameters to evaluate the effect of Phoenix Golf Course to water quality of Bui River
(3) From (1) and (2), providing some solutions to conserve and improve water quality of Bui River in Lam Son.
STUDY SITE AND METHODOLOGY
Study site
Lam Son commune, located in the northwest of Luong Son district, Hoa Binh province, is approximately 46 km north of Hanoi city center Situated along Highway 6 from Km44 + 500 to Km52 + 500, it serves as a crucial route connecting Hanoi to the northwest region The area's geology is predominantly limestone bedrock interspersed with mountainous terrain, with an average elevation of 252 meters above sea level and a relative elevation of 126 meters Geographically, Lam Son spans coordinates from 20°45’ to 21°01’ North and 105°24’ East, highlighting its strategic location in northern Vietnam.
105 0 39’ in the East (Source: Lam Son’s report)
Figure 3.1 Location of study site in Lam Son commune
Lam Son, like many communes in northwest Vietnam, features a humid subtropical climate characterized by abundant rainfall and distinct seasons The region experiences a rainy season from April to October, bringing heavy showers and lush greenery, while the dry season spans from November to March, offering clearer skies and cooler temperatures This seasonal pattern plays a vital role in shaping the local agriculture and daily life.
Table 3.1 Climate - Hydrology indicators at Lam Son commune Luong Son district,
The annual mean temperature in the area is 23.1°C, with the highest temperatures reaching 28.1°C in June and the lowest average temperatures of 16°C occurring in January In terms of precipitation, the region receives an average of 1,913 mm of rainfall each year, with September experiencing the highest monthly rainfall at 343 mm, while December records the lowest with only 12 mm.
146 rainy days per year Moreover, Lam Son commune has many streams, ponds, lakes, which is the upstream of Bui River, which is the main water source for local people
Figure 3.2 Map of Phoenix Golf Course (Source: Phoenix Golf Course)
Designed by renowned American golf course architect Mr Ronald Fream, the Phoenix Golf Course was established in 2005 with government permission number 2417/GP Covering a total area of 311.7 hectares, the development includes a 17-hectare golf club and hotel, offering a premier golfing and hospitality experience.
Spanning 250 hectares, this golf course features stunning turf grass systems set within a scenic valley surrounded by hills and mountains, offering a breathtaking landscape Often compared to Ha Long Bay on land, it has earned the title of “The biggest and the most beautiful Golf resort in Southeast Asia,” recognized by the Vietnam Guinness Book of World Records Covering a total area of 311.7 hectares, the golf course includes 25 hectares of lush green space, over 150 hectares of fairway, and 17 hectares dedicated to various facilities, making it a premier destination for golf enthusiasts.
Table 3.2 Parts of the Phoenix golf course
Parts of the Phoenix Golf course
1 Tees This is the starting point of each hole and has a small device for setting the ball up above the ground Average
1180 m 2 per holes, normally mowed short and often, fertilized as needed, over seeded and top-dressed to replace divots and maintain smoothness
2 Greens This is the most closely mown and smooth area on the course where the holes are located Grasses are achieved generally by daily mowing, seasonal coring, light frequent topdressing, regular fertilization, consistent frequent irrigation, and insect and disease control as needed to maintain near perfect turf
3 Fairway They are the closely mown area between the tee and green, normally annual insecticide sprays, and repeated fungicide treatments during the growing season
4 Roughs Roughs are longer grass, thicker grass or naturally growing adjacent to fairways, greens and perhaps tees, normally maintained at a low level of intensity Fertilization is minimal, often being limited to overthrow from fairway fertilizer applications
5 Practice greens Practice green is separate from the golf course; designated for practicing putting only
6 Driving range This is an area, separate from the golf course, designated for hitting practice balls
7 Water hazard This is a pond, lake, river which is designed to add both beauty and difficulty to a golf course The area about 15 ha
Table 4.1 provides detailed information about the different parts of a golf course To maintain the greens, tees, and fairways, golf course managers must use high-quality turfgrass, which is specially selected for golf course conditions There are over a thousand species of turfgrass, and at Phoenix Golf Course, hybrid grasses like Tifeagle for greens and wintergreen Bermuda for fairways are utilized However, in Vietnam's tropical climate, these grasses require extensive watering, fertilization, and the application of pesticides and herbicides to ensure healthy growth and optimal golf course performance.
Figure 3.3 Operations of the Phoenix Golf course that affect amount of chemicals and water applications
Based on Figure 6, the water quality of Bui River is influenced by at least three sources from Phoenix Golf Course One significant source is the use of chemical treatments, including fertilizers and pesticides, applied to maintain and grow the turf grasses, which can lead to runoff and water contamination.
At Phoenix Golf Course, targeted fertilization and pesticide application strategies are based on specific turf areas, with green greens receiving Delta-Coated fertilizer at 1 kg per 100m² every 2-3 months, totaling approximately 2.5 tons per application for the 25-hectare green area Fairway grasses, being easier to maintain, are fertilized with Delta-Top at 1 kg per 100m² monthly, resulting in about 1.5 tons per application over the 150-hectare fairway area Additionally, NPK fertilizers are applied twice monthly at 2 tons per application, contributing to a yearly total of approximately 48 tons Over a year, the fertilizer usage totals around 76-81 tons, including 10-15 tons of Delta-Coated, 18 tons of Delta-Top, and 48 tons of NPK fertilizers Delta-Coated contains nutrients such as 16% nitrogen (N), 5% P2O5, 12% K2O, and 5% MgO and other components, while Delta-Top consists of 12% nitrogen, 8% P2O5, 3% MgO, among other nutrients.
The fertilizers used on golf course turf grass, which contain 12.8% nitrogen (N) and 18% potassium oxide (K2O), are primary sources of nitrogen and phosphorus (P) in the Bui River water Since these nutrients are essential for plant growth, their presence in water indicates that fertilizer runoff from golf courses significantly contributes to nutrient levels in the river This highlights the impact of turf management practices on water quality, emphasizing the need for sustainable fertilizer application to prevent nutrient pollution in local water bodies.
To maintain the vibrant green color of the grass at Phoenix Golf Course, various pesticides were applied On the Tees and Greens, Agrodream “D” was used at a dilution ratio of 1:50 (1 liter of pesticide with 50 liters of water), with applications of 20 liters per hectare every 14 days For fairway areas, Agrodream “M” was applied using the same dilution ratio, totaling approximately 1,300 liters per application across the course Additionally, Anvil 5SC was employed to introduce beneficial fungi into the grass, with a concentration of 600 liters per 2,500 m², covering a total area of 175 hectares, resulting in 420 liters per application Over one year, the course used approximately 41,280 liters of pesticides, ensuring healthy and lush turf throughout the season.
Maintaining high-quality turf grass on golf courses requires regular irrigation, fertilization, and pest control Golf courses typically irrigate at least twice a week, using approximately 15,000 cubic meters of water per session, as reported by Phoenix Golf Course However, this extensive irrigation can accelerate the leaching of fertilizers and pesticides into the ground and surface water, particularly affecting the nearby Bui River.
Methodology
From the upstream to downstream of Bui River, I collected two kinds of samples at three locations: upstream, in the section passing through the golf course, downstream:
Figure 3.2 Map of sample locations in Bui River
The upstream area of Rong Stream, located in Ao Ha hamlet at an elevation of 60 meters, is a small, shallow waterway measuring approximately 3 meters in width and 60 centimeters in depth with an discharge ranging from 8.3 to 10.56 cubic meters per second Due to its shallow nature, local residents cross the stream via a small road to access mountain fields, and the stream hosts limited aquatic life Prior to reaching Phoenix Golf Course, the stream remained largely unaffected by human activities, maintaining high water clarity, with both banks predominantly covered by shrubs and grasses.
Sample Location 2 is a small stream that flows through Phoenix Golf Course, with a width of 5-7 meters and a depth of approximately 90 centimeters The stream's banks are partially eroded, and some areas are covered with small grasses, indicating slight environmental degradation It is home to various small fishes and aquatic animals, highlighting its ecological significance within the golf course setting.
Located in Rong Dai hamlet near Highway 6, Sample Location 3 downstream features a large stream approximately 10-15 meters wide, characterized by two small streams separated by a small island The stream's depth ranges from 1.5 meters at its deepest point to 40-50 centimeters in shallow areas, with numerous small pools on the right bank resulting from human activities like gold digging The left bank is lined with crops, bamboo, shrubs, and grasses, giving the area a mix of natural and disturbed environments While the water appears clean, it is often contaminated with algae and aquatic plants such as Eichhornia crassipes, and it exhibits minimal aquatic life, with few fishes or large aquatic animals present.
To assess the impact of Phoenix Golf Course on Bui River's water quality, three sampling points were established—upstream, within the golf course, and downstream Water samples were collected at these points across four different periods to monitor changes and evaluate potential pollution levels associated with the golf course.
Day 1: No apply fertilize and pesticide on golf course: 16h – 18h, 25 July 2016
Day 2: After applying fertilizer and pesticide on golf course: 16h – 18h, 30 July, 2016
Day 3: After raining and applying fertilizer, pesticide on golf course: 16h – 18h, 15 August, 2016
Day 4: Sunny day and using fertilizer and pesticide on golf course: 16h – 18h, 31 August, 2016
Figure 3.3 Water samples location in study site
The Bui River water sampling locations are illustrated in Figure 3.3, where the blue line represents the river’s course Water samples were collected from three key sites: upstream, the golf course area, and downstream, totaling 12 samples across these locations.
Water samples were collected in the field following the standard method outlined in Vietnam TCVN 5996-1995, which provides comprehensive guidance on sampling water quality in rivers and streams.
Preparation: 12 plastic bottles (volume > 500ml), 1 black box, layout map of Phoenix Golf Course, GPS device, pen and notebook, adhesive tape, and so on
When collecting water samples in the field, ensure bottles are thoroughly cleaned and rinsed with local water to prevent impurities Dip the bottles into surface water at a depth of 30–50 cm, pointing the bottle’s mouth toward the flow to capture representative samples Immediately cap the bottles underwater to prevent oxygen contamination Label the samples with handwritten or pre-printed labels and store them in a black box to protect against sunlight, which can affect organism activity and skew results Transport the samples promptly to the laboratory for quality analysis For invertebrate animal samples, follow appropriate collection protocols to preserve specimen integrity before analysis.
Historically, water quality assessment relied solely on physicochemical parameters, which only indicate immediate pollution events Incorporating biological indicators provides a more comprehensive understanding of long-term water quality changes, as aquatic organisms are adapted to specific environmental conditions Changes in the presence or absence of certain species—such as the disappearance of intolerant organisms and the rise of tolerant ones—can signal ongoing pollution Therefore, analyzing shifts in the composition and structure of aquatic communities in flowing waters is an effective method for detecting environmental disturbances (Alba-Tercedor, 1996).
Biomonitoring is the use of biological variables to survey the environment (Gerhardt,
2000) The first step in this type of monitoring is to find the ideal bioindicator whose presence, abundance and behavior reflects the effect of a stressor on biota (Bonada et al., 2006b)
Benthic macroinvertebrates are excellent indicators of local aquatic ecosystem conditions, as they inhabit the bottom of water bodies throughout part of their life cycle (Metcalfe, 1989) These invertebrates, including mollusks, crustaceans, leeches, worms, flatworms, and insect larvae, can be effectively collected using pond nets or ISO 7828 (EN 27828, 1994) Due to their high diversity in form and behavior, aquatic invertebrates are widely utilized in bio-assessment to evaluate the quality of aquatic ecosystems (Rosenberg and Resh, 1993).
Invertebrate samples and water samples were collected simultaneously from three locations: upstream, within the stream passing through Phoenix Golf Course, and downstream The sampling was conducted using the pond net method as described by Nguyen Xuan Quynh et al (2004) All collected specimens were preserved in 70% alcohol to ensure proper conservation for further analysis.
This pond net features a durable metal rectangular frame measuring 20-30 cm in length and 20-22 cm in width, designed to securely hold a 50 cm deep net with a 1mm mesh size The frame is reinforced with a sturdy wooden stake, 20 cm in length, ensuring stability and ease of installation in pond environments.
Insects and larvae were collected using a pond net, which was passed through grasses, shrubs along the stream bank, and floating leaves on the water surface To gather surface-dwelling insects, the net was quickly placed on the water surface All collected samples were then preserved in 70% ethanol for further analysis.
Picture 2.2 (a): collecting samples; (b) putting samples in metal dish;
(c) conserving samples in 70% alcohol; (d) laboratory analysis
When collecting samples from shallow stream areas, a pond net was placed at the bottom and used in conjunction with the kick sampling method, where the net was positioned downstream and the riverbed was agitated with a foot for three minutes In deeper sections, the pond net was submerged to capture invertebrates from the streambed In rocky areas, specimens such as crabs and snails were collected manually by hand All collected specimens were then placed on trays for identification, and after study, they were preserved in 70% alcohol in the laboratory Finally, the species were identified under the guidance of a teacher at the Faculty of Biology, University of Science.
Sample location: samples were taken 3 times at three locations: upstream, in the golf course and downstream:
Figure 3.4 Map of biological sample
3.2.2 Laboratory sample processing a Physical and chemical parameters
Water and sediment samples collected from each location were analyzed to determine their physical and chemical characteristics, prior to invertebrate sampling Key parameters measured included water temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids (TSS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), total nitrogen (N – NO3), total phosphorus (P – PO4), and total Coliforms, providing comprehensive insights into the water quality and environmental condition of each site.
Water quality indicators Method pH Hana pH measurement directly in the field
Total Suspended solid (TSS) Filter and weight in lab (Chapman et al 1996)
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Modified Winkler, treated with MnSO4,H2SO4 in lab
Biological oxygen demand (BOD-5) Pipetted into a BOD bottle containing aerated dilution water
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) Redox titration, oxygen is used to oxidize the organics to carbon dioxide and water
Total Coliform Fecal coliform confirming test
3.2.3 Data analysis a America Water quality index (WQI) method (Srivastava and Kumar 2013)
The WQI is based on the results of nine chemical/physical tests:
After completing the nine tests, the results are recorded and plotted on a weighting curve chart to obtain a numerical value Each test’s Q-value is multiplied by a specific weighting factor to reflect its relative importance The nine weighted values are then summed to calculate the overall Water Quality Index (WQI), providing a comprehensive assessment of water quality.
Weighting factor was taken from the table 3.2:
Table 3.2 Weighting factors of water quality parameters
Impact of Phoenix Golf Course on invertebrate composition and diversity
The table below shows invertebrate community which was identify in 3 areas: upstream, in the stream passing through the golf course, and downstream:
Table 4.1 List of invertebrate present in sample location
Based on the data presented in table 4.1, a total of 40 species from 26 families were collected from three locations along the Bui River The Arthropoda phylum was the most diverse, comprising 16 families and 22 species, making it the predominant group Mollusca was represented by 14 species across 7 families, while Annelida had the smallest diversity with 4 species from 3 families The species composition ratio is illustrated in the figure below.
Figure 4.1 The ratio of species composition in 3 sample locations of Bui River
Arthropoda, a diverse phylum, comprises two main classes: Insecta and Crustacea Insecta is more numerous, with 12 families and 17 species, while Crustacea includes 4 families with 5 species These species are widely distributed across our country, particularly in northern Vietnam Notably, A costula is found at all sample locations and exists in high abundance.
Within the Mollusca phylum, Gastropoda is the most abundant class, comprising five families and twelve species Notably, Pila conica, also known as the golden apple snail or Pomacea canaliculata, was introduced to Vietnam between 1985 and 1988 and has become one of the most dangerous invasive species, spreading widely across the country and causing significant harm to farmers In contrast, the class Bivalvia includes two families—Corbiculidae and Amblemidae—with two species identified: Corbicula lamarckiana and Oxynaia micheloti However, these bivalve species are not found in all sample locations, indicating variable distribution.
The presence of phylum Annelida, including two classes, three families, and four species, indicates water pollution, as these organisms are tolerant of low oxygen levels and often proliferate in contaminated waters For example, leeches are found in all streams and signal organic pollution when present in large numbers, feeding on bloodworms and sludge worms that thrive in such conditions This highlights the significance of invertebrate diversity as an indicator of water quality and pollution levels.
To evaluate the impact of Phoenix Golf Course on the Bui River, I used the Shannon-Weiner index to measure invertebrate diversity at three locations: upstream, within the golf course, and downstream The results, presented in Figure 4.4, provide insights into how the golf course influences biodiversity along the river.
Figure 4.2 The Shannon Wiener index of diversity values at study site
Based on the results depicted in Figure 4.2, the golf course location, while not hosting the highest number of families, exhibits the highest diversity index with a value of 2.39 In comparison, the upstream location has a diversity score of 2.1, and the downstream location scores 2.03, indicating greater ecological diversity at the golf course site despite a lower family count. -Boost your SEO with expertly crafted, concise paragraphs that capture your article’s essence perfectly—[Learn more](https://pollinations.ai/redirect/draftalpha)
This study investigates how Phoenix Golf Course influences the composition and diversity of invertebrate communities in the Bui River By comparing the distribution of invertebrate populations from upstream to downstream areas, the research assesses changes in community structure in relation to natural stream ecological patterns The findings highlight the impact of the golf course on biodiversity and invertebrate habitat quality along the river.
1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 upstream in the golf course downstream
Figure 4.3 The proportion of invertebrate feed groups corresponds to changes in the physical factor in the longitudinal direction (Source: USDA 2001)
The River Continuum Concept (RCC) explains that macroinvertebrate communities gradually shift from headwaters to large rivers downstream, with changes in functional feeding groups along the way (Vannote et al., 1980) Specifically, shredder-dominated communities are prevalent in headwaters, while collector-dominated assemblages become more common in lower reaches Additionally, scrapers tend to reach their peak abundances in the middle sections of large rivers, reflecting the predictable ecological transitions along the river continuum.
It implies that, the closer to upstream area, the more abundance diversity of invertebrate animals
This study reveals that the highest biodiversity of macroinvertebrates is found in the golf course, while the lowest is in the downstream area, highlighting significant differences from natural stream ecology The variation in invertebrate distribution is likely influenced by the use of fertilizers and pesticides at Phoenix Golf Course, which alter nutrient chemical concentrations in the water and affect invertebrate community composition Additionally, the proximity between upstream and downstream sections in the study site limits the precision of the results Overall, macroinvertebrate analysis serves as an effective method for assessing water quality in the Bui River.
A total of 26 families were identified across three sampling sites along the Bui River, with 21 of these families classified within the BMWP VIET scoring system The dominant taxonomic groups included Gastropoda (5 families), Insecta (7 families), Crustacea (4 families), Bivalvia (2 families), Hirudinea (2 families), and Oligochaeta (1 family).
Table 4.2 List of macroinvertebrates were found in sample location that lay in BMWP VIET scoring system
No Family BMWP VIET Score
After determining score of BMWP VIET , we conducted to measure the ASPT score and got the results of each sample location:
Table 4.3 Biological index in sample location 1:
No Family BMWP VIET Score
The number of family were calculated 13
The ASPT score of the upstream sample location is 6.4, indicating that the water quality is relatively clean or slightly polluted According to Table 4.3, this score suggests minimal pollution levels, as there are no significant impacts from golf course activities or human interventions in this area Overall, the high ASPT score reflects the relatively good water quality at this upstream site.
Table 4.4 Biological index in sample location 2:
No Family BMWP VIET Score
The number of family were calculated 17
The ASPT score of 5.3 in the section of the Bui River passing through the golf course indicates a moderate pollution level Golf course activities have contributed to a significant decline in water quality downstream, with deterioration observed from upstream to this section of the river.
Table 4.5 Biological index in sample location 3
No Family BMWP VIET Score
The number of family were calculated 18
The ASPT score of 4.2 at the downstream site indicates very high water pollution levels Located in Lam Son commune, the Bui River downstream is directly impacted by sewage discharge and the leaching of fertilizers and pesticides from Phoenix Golf Course As a result, water quality in this area is significantly polluted.
Figure 4.4 The respond of the number of families and ASPT score
The analysis presented in Figure 4.4 illustrates the relationship between the number of families and ASPT scores at three key locations: upstream, within the golf course stream, and downstream Although the upstream site has the fewest families, it exhibits the highest ASPT score, indicating relatively cleaner water Conversely, the golf course location shows lower ASPT scores despite a higher number of families, suggesting increased pollution levels Downstream, the area has the highest number of families—18 in total—but the lowest ASPT score of 4.2, signifying very high pollution levels.
Upstream In the golf course Downstream
Physical and chemical parameters
4.2.1 Evaluating water quality in Bui River based on Vietnam’s water quality standard a pH
Figure 4.5.pH fluctuation in four periods at three different locations
Analysis of Figure 4.5 reveals a volatile pH trend ranging from 7.3 to 8.6 across three locations—upstream, golf course, and downstream—over four sampling periods Typically, upstream water exhibits lower pH levels compared to water in the golf course and downstream areas The highest pH value of 8.6 was recorded in the golf course on August 15th, following the application of fertilizers and pesticides for turf maintenance, while the lowest pH of 7.3 was detected upstream on August 31st These findings indicate that golf course activities, particularly the use of fertilizers and pesticides, influence the pH level of Bui River by increasing nutrient concentrations Nonetheless, the pH fluctuations are minimal, remaining within the permissible limits set by QCVN 08:2008/BTNMT column B1, ensuring water quality standards are maintained.
Figure 4.6 The amount of TSS in four periods at three locations
Overall, total suspended solids (TSS) in Bui River increase significantly from upstream to downstream, indicating higher pollution levels downstream The lowest TSS value of 8.91 mg is observed upstream where the water is less impacted by human activity, while the highest value of 51.4 mg occurs downstream through the golf course, highlighting the impact of recreational areas on water quality In unaffected upstream areas, TSS ranges from 8.91 to 11.3 mg, whereas within the golf course, it fluctuates between 9.77 mg and 14.5 mg Downstream, TSS levels vary markedly from 20.24 mg to a peak of 51.4 mg and then decrease to 18.3 mg, demonstrating that downstream sections are more contaminated by suspended solids.
Total suspended solids (TSS) levels vary across three locations and four periods, with significant increases following fertilizer and pesticide application on turf grasses at the golf course Notably, on August 15th, TSS concentration nearly quadrupled from upstream (13.56 mg/L) to downstream (51.4 mg/L) Heavy rains on spraying days washed nutrients, fertilizers, pesticides, and soil into the Bui River, causing TSS levels to spike, especially during rainy days Even on sunny days, such as July 30th and August 31st, TSS volumes still increased from upstream to downstream, indicating that golf course activities significantly impact TSS levels During rainy days, TSS concentrations often exceed B1 water quality standards, highlighting the environmental impact of golf course runoff on Bui River water quality.
Figure 4.7 Values for BOD in four periods at three different locations
The BOD concentration in water markedly increases from upstream to downstream, as illustrated in Figure 4.7 Notably, BOD levels in the stream passing through the golf course and downstream exceed the B1 standard of 15 mg/l, indicating significant pollution In contrast, upstream water, unaffected by the golf course, maintains low BOD levels, consistently below 5 mg/l, demonstrating minimal organic pollution without the golf course's influence. -Boost your article’s clarity and SEO with expert sentence condensation tailored for environmental science content!
Golf courses that use fertilizers and pesticides contribute to increased BOD levels both on-site and downstream, especially during rainfall events Heavy rains, such as those on August 15th, cause soil erosion and rapid runoff, carrying chemical nutrients into rivers and elevating BOD concentrations to 30.2 mg/L Even on sunny days, the impact of golf course chemicals can cause BOD levels to exceed the permissible limits set by the B1 standard, highlighting the environmental impact of golf course chemical management.
Increasing chemical nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus from golf course fertilizers and pesticides elevate organic matter decomposition, leading to higher BOD levels in Bui River The applied fertilizers and pesticides at Phoenix Golf Course have contributed to this rise in BOD, indicating a potential threat to aquatic life Elevated BOD levels due to human activities threaten the health of the river's ecosystem by reducing dissolved oxygen Additionally, chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a crucial parameter reflecting the overall pollution level from chemical contaminants, further emphasizing the impact of golf course runoff on water quality.
Figure 4.8 COD concentration in four periods at three different locations
The concentration of COD generally increases from upstream to downstream, with a significant rise observed during rainy days—upstream COD levels are nearly six times lower than those downstream Water quality comparisons against B1 standards reveal that upstream water has the lowest BOD concentration, ranging from 7.9 mg/L to 11.6 mg/L, which remains within the permissible limit of below 30 mg/L In contrast, water samples taken from the golf course and downstream areas exhibit high COD levels that exceed the B1 standard, indicating deteriorated water quality in these regions.
The highest Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) concentration recorded was 46.4 mg/l downstream on August 15th, following heavy rainfall, indicating elevated pollution levels Similar to Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), COD is significantly influenced by golf course activities, particularly after the application of fertilizers and pesticides on turf grass These pollutant levels suggest that water quality downstream and in the stream passing through the golf course is unsuitable for agriculture and aquaculture Additionally, dissolved oxygen (DO) levels are impacted by these pollution sources, further affecting aquatic health and ecosystem sustainability.
Figure 4.9 DO level of Bui River in 4 periods at 3 locations
Figure 4.9 indicates generally low dissolved oxygen (DO) levels across the study area, with slightly reduced DO concentrations observed downstream on August 15th and August 31st Upstream sites consistently exhibit higher DO levels, highlighting spatial variations in water quality Monitoring these DO fluctuations is essential for assessing ecosystem health and preventing hypoxic conditions in aquatic environments.
The dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in the water samples, measuring 3.5 mg/l at the golf course and 3.7 mg/l downstream on August 15th, fall within the B1 standard range of above 4 mg/l but are slightly below the permissible limit Both samples exhibited DO concentrations lower than the standard, indicating that the application of fertilizers and pesticides on rainy days impacts water quality Similar to COD and BOD levels, DO is affected by agricultural activities at the golf course, especially during rainy conditions Continuous use of fertilizers and pesticides during rain can negatively affect aquatic ecosystems, leading to ecological stress.
Figure 4.10 Total nitrogen of Bui River in 4 periods at 3 locations
The figure 4.10 shows the total nitrogen of Bui River in 4 periods at 3 different locations
On the whole, total nitrogen concentrations increase from upstream to downstream and all of these concentrations are lie in the allowable range of B1 standard (which is lower than 10 mg/l)
In the upstream region, all samples exhibited lower total nitrogen concentrations compared to water samples from the golf course and downstream areas, with the minimum concentration reaching 1.6 mg/L This indicates that nitrogen levels are significantly lower upstream, highlighting potential influences of agricultural runoff or land use on nutrient levels downstream and within the golf course area Comparing these values across locations, especially in July, reveals variations that are crucial for understanding nutrient dynamics and water quality in the watershed.
Before the application of fertilizers and pesticides, total nitrogen levels at both locations remained very low, indicating minimal nutrient input However, during the periods when the golf course applied fertilizers and pesticides, nitrogen concentrations increased dramatically, highlighting the impact of these inputs For example, on July 30th, after a sunny day of fertilization, NO₃⁻ levels rose from 2.23 mg/l upstream to 5.8 mg/l downstream Additionally, nitrogen concentrations were higher during rainfall events; on August 15th, following heavy rain with high precipitation, total nitrogen in the stream increased from 3.5 mg/l upstream to 7.4 mg/l downstream This data suggests that fertilizer and pesticide application significantly elevate nitrogen levels in nearby water bodies, especially during rain events.
Figure 4.11 Total phosphorus of Bui River in 4 periods at 3 locations
The analysis of Figure 4.11 reveals that, across four periods at three different locations along the Bui River, only the upstream phosphorus concentrations remained below the B1 standard limit of 0.3 mg/l In contrast, phosphorus levels at both the golf course and downstream consistently exceeded this permissible range, indicating significant pollution in these areas The findings suggest that areas unaffected by golf course activities maintain phosphorus concentrations within acceptable limits, while runoff from fertilizer and pesticide use on the golf course causes a notable increase in PO₄³⁻ levels downstream.
On August 15th, the highest total phosphorus level of 0.65 mg/L was recorded downstream of the golf course, coinciding with a rainy day when fertilizers and pesticides were applied, indicating that golf course activities significantly impact phosphorus concentrations in the Bui River during rainfall Conversely, the lowest phosphorus level of 0.06 mg/L was observed upstream on August 31st, highlighting the influence of golf course runoff on water quality This data underscores the direct effect of golf course operations on total phosphorus levels, particularly during rainy conditions.
Figure 4.12 Total coliform of Bui River in 4 periods at 3 locations
The figure 4.12 indicates the significant increase of total coliform bacteria from the upstream to downstream of Bui River surface water In general, total coliform in 4 periods at
Three locations along the Bui River have coliform levels below the B1 standard limit of 7500 MPN/100 ml, with measurements taken upstream—areas unaffected by the golf course—showing consistently lower coliform counts than those inside and downstream of the golf course The highest recorded coliform level was 3200 MPN/100 ml in a downstream water sample, while the lowest was 700 MPN/100 ml upstream Additionally, total coliform levels peaked during periods when the golf course used fertilizers and pesticides on rainy days These findings indicate that the influence of Phoenix Golf Course significantly elevates surface water coliform bacteria levels, causing a dramatic increase from upstream to downstream sections of the Bui River.
Figure 4.13 The impact of Phoenix Golf Course on water quality of Bui River from upstream to downstream
Suggestion for Golf Course management
To reduce the impact of Phoenix Golf Course to water quality of Bui River, I recommend some solutions:
To ensure safety and environmental protection, golf courses must prioritize the construction of dedicated pesticide facilities and storage areas These structures are among the most critical on a golf course due to the significant liability risks associated with chemical contamination and worker exposure Designing secure and isolated pesticide storage facilities helps prevent environmental contamination and protects golf course staff It is essential to keep pesticides in a separate, locked area, positioned away from combustible materials or hot work zones to mitigate fire hazards and ensure safe handling.
A golf course should incorporate riparian buffer zones with native plant species to enhance water quality, aesthetics, and wildlife habitat These buffers act as barriers during construction activities, preventing physical alterations to waterways and wetlands Additionally, leaf litter and plant debris from buffers serve as essential food sources for aquatic ecosystems, while tree trunks and large branches provide vital habitats for fish and other aquatic life Streamside forests within buffer zones are crucial for supplying both food and habitat, supporting healthy aquatic ecosystems Properly designed riparian buffers, as illustrated in figure 4.1, are integral to sustainable golf course development.
An underground drain system should be installed beneath fairways, greens, or tees situated on coarse-textured soils or where the bedrock or water table is within 1 meter The primary purpose of the drainage system is to collect potentially contaminated water with fertilizers or pesticides, preventing environmental hazards To ensure safety, leachate should be treated by allowing it to infiltrate into medium-textured soils located at least 1 meter above bedrock and the water table Alternatively, a peat and sand filter system can be used for effective leachate treatment, promoting groundwater protection and maintaining turf health.
Designing ponds on golf courses is essential for managing water quality; these ponds help release toxins and oxygen-depleted water effectively Off-channel ponds should be carefully engineered to minimize water spillage during runoff events, ensuring environmental stability Additionally, off-channel ponds can serve as valuable sources of irrigation water, promoting sustainable golf course maintenance while protecting surrounding ecosystems.
CONCLUSION
Phoenix Golf Course, established in March 2005 in Yongbong Village, Lam Son commune, is a scenic 311.7-hectare facility enhanced by the Bui River that flows through the course Maintained with substantial amounts of fertilizers and pesticides to ensure healthy turf grass growth, the golf course’s annual chemical usage highlights the impact of large-scale turf maintenance on the environment.
76 to 81 tons fertilizers and sprays 41280 l pesticides for turf grass to keep the beautiful landscape of golf course
The invertebrate community in Bui River comprises 40 species across 26 families, belonging to three main phyla: Arthropoda, Mollusca, and Annelida The highest biodiversity is observed at the golf course location, while the lowest diversity is found in the downstream area Water quality assessment using invertebrate indicators such as BMWP VIET and ASPT scoring systems reveals a decline in water quality across the river, with scores decreasing from 6.4 upstream to 4.2 downstream, indicating increasing pollution levels.
Analysis of eight physico-chemical water quality parameters against Vietnam's B1 standard revealed that most parameters exceeded acceptable limits, except for pH, total nitrogen, and total coliform, which remained within standard ranges The significant increase in pollutant concentrations from upstream to downstream indicates that activities at Phoenix Golf Course negatively impact the water quality of Bui River Additionally, Water Quality Index (WQI) assessments confirm a marked decline in Bui River's overall water quality, highlighting the adverse environmental effects caused by local golf course operations.
This study also suggested some solutions to reduce the affects of Phoenix Golf Course to local environment such as create buffer zones, improve pesticides and fertilizers management.
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1 Q – Values for Water Quality Index Calculations
(one day after applying fertilizers and pesticides)
(Rainy day and after applying fertilizers)
Using fertilizers and pesticides in sunny day
Ephemeroptera Heptageniidae, Leptophlebiidae, Ephemereliidae, Potamanthidae,
Trichoptera Phryganeidae, Molannidae, Odontoceridae/Brachycentridae, Leptoceridae,
Odonata Lestidae, Calopterygidae, Gomphidae, Cordulegastridae, Aeshnidae,
Hemiptera Veliidae, Mesoveliidae, Hydrometridae, Gerridae, Nepidae, Naucoridae,
Notonectidae, Belostomatidae, Hebridae, Pleidae, Corixidae
Coleoptera Haliplidae, Dytiscidae, Gyrinidae, Hydraenidae, Hydrophilidae, Hygrobiidae,
Helodidae, Dryopidae, Elminthidae, Chrysomelidae, Curculionidae,