Introduction
Mangrove forests occupy a narrow ecotone between marine and terrestrial environments across a broad latitudinal range from 25° N to 30° S, providing vital ecosystem services such as safeguarding coastal communities from natural disasters like tsunamis and cyclones In Southeast Asia, rapid mangrove degradation driven by human activities threatens these ecosystems, which are crucial for the livelihoods of coastal rural populations, especially in Vietnam Mangroves act as natural buffers against land erosion and support diverse wildlife, including fish, reptiles, birds, and amphibians, while also supplying resources like timber, fuel, honey, and tannins Despite their ecological and economic importance, mangroves face ongoing threats from urban development, pollution, and disruption of their delicate water and salt balance, leading to global declines in mangrove extent.
Sustainable management of mangroves is essential for balancing ecological health and economic benefits, requiring a multidisciplinary approach (Datta, Guha, and Chattopadhyay, 2010) Developing comprehensive guidelines for sustainable mangrove management is crucial to achieve effective forest utilization while minimizing environmental and social impacts.
Vietnam's mangrove management policies require revision to improve coordination across different levels of coastal conservation efforts Developing a comprehensive, integrated management framework is essential, incorporating diverse performance measures to ensure effective sustainability An integrated wetland research approach, combining economic valuation, modeling, stakeholder analysis, and multi-criteria evaluation, can offer valuable insights for sustainable and welfare-optimized mangrove policies (Bowen and Riley, 2003; Turner et al.) Strengthening these strategies will support more effective conservation and sustainable development of Vietnam’s coastal wetlands.
While the significance of evaluating policies and their impact on sustainable mangrove management is widely acknowledged, there remains a gap in accurate and reliable assessment methods, particularly in Hai Phong and specifically in Dai Hop and Bang La communes.
Hai Phong, a vibrant coastal city in Vietnam, boasts 125 km of seacoast lined with vital mangrove forests These mangroves play a crucial role in mitigating natural disaster impacts and generating significant economic benefits for local communities The city has implemented conservation and management policies to protect its mangrove ecosystems, emphasizing sustainable development However, assessments of the effectiveness of these policies remain limited, highlighting a need for further research to optimize mangrove conservation efforts in Hai Phong and across Vietnam.
Hai Phong, situated on Vietnam's North coast, is notable for its mangroves, classified as Zone I and II among the country's four mangrove zones The city lies within the tropical monsoon belt of Asia, contributing to its unique climate and ecological characteristics (Dat and Yoshino, 2013) With an extensive coastline, Hai Phong plays a vital role in regional biodiversity and maritime activities, making it a significant hub for mangrove conservation and sustainable development.
Hai Phong, a coastal city spanning 125 km, is highly vulnerable to rising sea levels and storms caused by climate change Mangroves in the region are vital for protecting the coastline, supporting coastal dykes, and reducing the impact of natural disasters These mangroves are distributed across seven districts: Thuy Nguyen, Kien Thuy, Tien Lang, Cat Hai, Do Son, Duong Kinh, and Hai An, playing a crucial role in climate resilience and environmental protection.
Since 1992, there have been some mangrove plantation programs supported by both international funding agencies and the government of Vietnam For instance, PAM 5325,
The 327 Program is a national afforestation initiative focused on mangrove plantation projects, with funding provided by the Japanese Red Cross (JRC) in collaboration with Hai Phong Red Cross Effective cooperation among city authorities, government agencies, non-government organizations, and local communities has been essential to the program’s success By leveraging these partnerships and efficiently utilizing financial resources, the program has achieved notable accomplishments in promoting mangrove restoration and environmental conservation.
The livelihoods of local communities are gradually improving due to sustainable mangrove foraging, which not only reduces damage from natural disasters but also boosts their income Raising awareness among residents about the ecological importance of mangroves is essential for effective coastal environmental management Promoting community engagement in mangrove conservation supports long-term sustainability and resilience of coastal ecosystems.
Policy effectiveness evaluation is crucial for assessing whether environmental policies are working and cost-effective, providing essential feedback for policy improvement (European Environment Agency) It offers a vital mechanism in the policy cycle to guide policymakers, yet there is limited data on evaluating mangrove management policies in developing coastal regions like Vietnam Although scientific and volunteer surveys have increased, they often focus separately on ecological, social, or livelihood aspects, with few applying comprehensive criteria or indicators for overall policy effectiveness (Adeel and Pomeroy, 2002) Effective mangrove policies should address ecological, social, and economic factors sustainably, emphasizing the importance of criteria and indicators to evaluate community performance in mangrove management (Datta et al., 2010) Additionally, geographic information systems (GIS) have been highlighted as valuable tools for understanding the status and threats to mangroves in developing countries (Adeel and Pomeroy, 2002), emphasizing the need for integrated assessment approaches.
The Thai Binh River valley in Tien Lang district, Hai Phong, as studied by Nguyen Huy Thang (1996), highlights the geographical significance of the region Research by Martin Boojand, Ferdinand Bonn, and Pham Van Cu (1986–2001) examines the impact of shrimp farm expansion on mangrove ecosystems in Giao Thuy, Nam Dinh, emphasizing the environmental consequences of aquaculture growth Furthermore, Dat and Yoshino (2013) provide a comparative analysis of mangrove forest management in Hai Phong City, Vietnam, focusing on strategies for sustainable aquaculture development Together, these studies underscore the importance of balancing aquaculture expansion with ecological preservation to ensure long-term sustainability.
Assessing sustainability in natural resource management is an interdisciplinary process that requires integrating environmental, economic, and social criteria (Glaser and Diele, 2004) Recent approaches to evaluating marine fisheries now incorporate ecological, economic, and social aspects to provide a comprehensive sustainability assessment However, despite these developments, few integrated, indicator-based assessments of the sustainability of coastal fisheries have been successfully implemented to date.
This study evaluates the effectiveness of coastal mangrove management policies through a case study in Kien Thuy and Do Son districts, Hai Phong city The research aims to develop a comprehensive set of indicators to assess policy impact on mangrove conservation efforts By establishing these indicators, the study provides valuable insights for improving policy implementation and sustainability in Vietnam's coastal mangrove ecosystems.
Study Goals and Objectives
Research question and hypothesis
This study evaluates the effectiveness of coastal mangrove management policies in the designated study area by analyzing three key indicators It aims to identify strengths and weaknesses in current strategies and propose targeted solutions to improve mangrove conservation efforts The research provides valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders seeking to enhance sustainable mangrove management in the region.
Objective 1: To investigate relevant policies and projects on coastal mangrove management in Dai Hop and Bang La communes, Hai Phong city
Objective 2: To assess the effectiveness of mangrove management policies using three main indicators
● Ecological indicator: dynamics of coastal mangroves during three significant period of policies applied;
● Economic indicator: improvements of local livelihoods before and after policies applied in study areas;
● Social indicator: social satisfaction and local participation
Objective 3: To propose the solutions to enhance management of coastal mangroves
(1) What are relevant policies and projects on coastal mangrove management in Dai Hop and Bang La communes, Hai Phong city?
(2) Do policies and projects on coastal mangrove management meet three significant indicators of policies effectiveness?
(3) How to enhance the policies effectiveness on coastal mangrove management?
Policies in study site have been implemented effectively to enhance management of coastal mangroves over last 26 years.
Study Site and Research Methodology
Study site
The study site spans two districts, Kien Thuy and Do Son, specifically located within the frontiers of Dai Hop Commune in Kien Thuy and Bang La Commune in Do Son Figure 3.1 illustrates the precise location of the study site, highlighting its position within these two administrative boundaries.
Fig 3.1: Study Site: (a) Vietnam (b) Hai Phong city (c) Kien Thuy and Do Son districts and the distribution of mangroves in study site
3.1.1 Geographical location and topography a) Geographical location
Bang La Commune, located at 20°42‘42‘‘N, 106°44‘43‘‘E, encompasses 966.73 hectares of natural area It is bordered by Ngoc Xuyen and Van Huong communes to the east, Kien Thuy district to the west, the Gulf of Tonkin to the south, and Minh Duc commune along with Kien Thuy district to the north.
Dai Hop commune (20°41′45″N, 106°42′51″E) has 1097.79 hectares of natural area with 4.2
East: Bang La commune; West: Doan Xa commune; South: Van Uc seaport; North: Tu Son commune
Dai Hop commune includes four villages: Dai Loc, Quan Muc, Dong Tac and Viet Tien b) Topography
Study area is far from city center Topography is not flat, separated by river, encompassed by sea and along the northwest - southeast The soil has high acidity and salinity.
Hai Phong has a subtropical climate characterized by distinct seasons influenced by monsoon patterns The rainy season, from May to October, brings cooling summer winds and frequent rainfall, while the dry season, from November to April, features cold, dry winter winds The average summer temperature is around 32.5°C, while winter averages approximately 20.3°C, with an annual mean temperature exceeding 23.9°C Annual precipitation averages between 1,600 and 1,800 mm Additionally, areas like Dai Hop and Bang La are vulnerable to one to two storms annually, typically occurring between June and September.
Dai Hop and Bang La are located along the coast so it contains mainly alkaline soil, saline soil, sediment, feralit
Dai Hop and Bang La villages boast over 500 hectares of mangrove forests, extending along a seven-kilometer sea dyke and reaching more than one kilometer from the shore into the sea These vital forest resources play a crucial role in coastline protection, biodiversity conservation, and supporting local livelihoods The mangroves in this area are a significant part of the region's natural ecosystem, emphasizing the importance of sustainable management and conservation efforts Protecting these wetlands ensures ecological stability and promotes eco-tourism opportunities while enhancing resilience against climate change impacts.
Dai Hop (Kien Thuy) has a population of 9,491 residents residing in 2,675 households, with an average population density exceeding 865 people per square kilometer The majority of residents are engaged in agriculture and fishing, with 69.5% being farmers and 8.1% fishermen Additionally, approximately 46% of the population are of working age, highlighting the commune’s active labor force.
Thuy Population in Bang La commune is 8765, average population density was 1339 people/km 2
Dai Hop's economy primarily revolves around aquaculture and the exploitation of aquatic products, with in 2008, aquatic product exploitation making up 43.5% of economic activities Aquaculture contributed 30.5%, while small-scale industry and services accounted for 26%, highlighting the area's reliance on marine resources Currently, Dai Hop is actively developing its economy by leveraging its potential advantages in fish catching, aiming to boost local productivity and economic growth in the region.
In Bang La, local authorities are focusing on economic development through interdisciplinary approaches and the sustainable exploitation of aquatic products The strategic shift in economic structure has reduced traditional salt-making activities, which historically provided low income, and increased investments in animal husbandry, horticulture, and business services Recent welfare projects—including improvements to roads, lighting, schools, clinics, markets, and irrigation systems—have significantly enhanced living standards, while the emergence of hundreds of multi-storied villas reflects rapid urban growth and increased prosperity in the region.
Research methodology
In this study, policy effectiveness is evaluated using three main indicators Therefore, a policy is considered as the effectiveness as it could meet these indicators
This study uses the extent of mangroves as an ecological indicator to assess changes over three time periods from 1990 to 2016 Satellite imagery, as highlighted by Seto and Fragkias (2007), proves to be a powerful tool for evaluating land cover conditions before and after Ramsar Convention designations in Vietnam The mangrove extent serves as one of three key indicators to evaluate the effectiveness of conservation policies This approach is adapted from the methodology proposed by Harty and Cheng (2003).
Economic indicator in this study is considered as the improvement of local livelihood
A livelihood refers to the means of making a living, including people's capabilities, assets, income, and activities necessary to secure basic necessities (Aheto et al., 2016) Sustainable livelihoods are those that enable individuals to cope with and recover from shocks such as natural disasters and economic upheavals while improving their well-being and that of future generations Importantly, sustainable livelihoods do so without degrading the natural environment or depleting critical resources (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies).
Social indicator in this study includes two main aspects:
Local empowerment involves supporting communities to take initiative and manage their own development, fostering community empowerment (Aminu Liman and Ibrahim Ngah, 2015) Active community engagement and participation ensure that local voices are heard in the planning and delivery of services, strengthening local governance and promoting sustainable development.
Local satisfaction plays a crucial role in natural resources management, as communities’ perspectives on the effectiveness of policies and projects provide valuable insights for improvement This assessment of local feedback is considered one of the most important steps to refine management strategies, ensuring that policies meet community needs and foster sustainable resource use (Brosius, Tsing, and Zerner, 1998).
3.2.1 Literature review and secondary data
A comprehensive literature review is essential for clarifying key definitions and establishing the rationale of the study while also facilitating the collection of relevant secondary data It involves analyzing all documents related to policies at the study site to ensure a thorough understanding of the contextual framework Incorporating a detailed literature review enhances the credibility of the research and supports evidence-based conclusions.
A comprehensive review was conducted by analyzing published documents, academic papers, and worldwide case studies related to mangroves and specific study areas This approach provides a thorough overview of the research topic, with collected data encompassing various insights essential for understanding mangrove ecosystems.
● Socio- economic conditions of study sites;
● Geographic Information System layers and Land Use Land Cover maps
● Technical steps of processing Landsat image;
● Data related to the dynamics of coastal mangroves;
● Relevant policies on coastal mangrove management in Dai Hop (Kien Thuy) and Bang
● Social – economic reports from communes
3.2.2 Landsat Images classification and processing
This study utilizes multi-temporal Landsat images to analyze the changes in coastal mangrove areas before and after the implementation of new policies Both visual interpretation and unsupervised classification methods are employed to map mangrove extent since 1990, providing reliable spatial data By integrating field data through ground truth validation, the accuracy of the remote sensing analysis is effectively assessed, ensuring robust results for understanding mangrove dynamics.
Table 3.1: Landsat data used in the study
Years Landsat image code Date Resolution Path/Row
Source : (a) http://glovis.usgs.com (b) Hai Phong Institute of Oceanography
The visual interpretation and unsupervised classification methods are used to map the coastal mangroves extent in 1990, 1997, 2005 and 2016
Constructing a map of coastal mangrove extents in particular year:
Step 2: Constructing maps of the current state of mangroves in particular years and dynamic maps of mangroves
Constructing thematic maps of mangroves
This study employed an unsupervised classification method to analyze satellite images, effectively grouping pixels with similar spectral characteristics The results segmented Landsat images into distinct classes, including mangroves, populated areas, water bodies, agricultural, and industrial zones Subsequently, the "reclass" command was applied to consolidate these classes into two primary categories: mangroves and all other land cover types, facilitating focused environmental analysis.
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) used as supporting tool in this report to reclass layers NDVI values could be calculated for Landsat 5 and Landsat 7 image as the following equation:
(BandNir – BandRed)/(BandNir + BandRed) Or (Band 4 – Band 3)/(Band 4 + Band 3)
Images from Google Earth and maps of mangrove status provided by the Hai Phong Institute of Oceanography were essential for developing the final thematic mangrove map and conducting accuracy assessments, ensuring precise and reliable results for this research.
Constructing dynamic maps of mangroves
Unsupervised classification was employed to generate maps illustrating the state of mangroves in specific years—1990, 1997, 2005, and 2016—providing a temporal overview of mangrove distribution These maps were further analyzed by overlaying two map layers to produce dynamic change maps that depict changes over different periods The accompanying table details the basic information of the two map layers used in this analysis, facilitating a comprehensive understanding of mangrove dynamics over time.
Table 3.2 Data layers to construct dynamic maps of mangroves
In ArcGIS (Arc Map), two spatial layers were combined to create a comprehensive dynamic map of coastal mangroves across three periods: 1990–1997, 1997–2005, and 2005–2016 The analysis categorizes mangrove changes into four main classes: No Forest, Forest Loss, Forest Gain, and Stable Forest, providing valuable insights into mangrove ecosystem dynamics over time This approach enhances understanding of coastal mangrove coverage trends, supporting sustainable management and conservation efforts.
In this study, the accuracy is measured to which the ground cover classes produced in a classified image are actually found in situ
The study evaluates the accuracy of the unsupervised classification method by using the same set of ground control points identified during image classification, categorized as mangrove and non-mangrove areas These points are verified against actual field data collected via GPS in 2016 For historical analysis in 1990, 1997, and 2005, the research employs satellite images from Google Earth, maps from Hai Phong Institute of Oceanography, local interviews, and NDVI analysis to support accuracy assessment A total of 80 points were selected across these years, with 132 ground control points precisely marked in the field using GPS devices.
Fig.3.1: Flowchart of Landsat images classification and processing
Maps of the current state of mangroves in particular years
Dynamic maps of mangroves over some periods
Data information in the field
3.2.3 Structured interview and Semi-structure interview
This study primarily collected data through structured interviews, complemented by semi-structured interviews to gather specific information A total of 55 households participated, representing diverse groups based on age, occupation, gender, and social status, including wealthy, middle-income, and poor families.
A designed questionnaire form (Appendix 1) was used to interview which finally records all the following data:
The history and dynamics of the mangroves along the investigated time periods reveal significant changes driven by local policies and conservation projects in Dai Hop (Kien Thuy) and Bang La (Do Son) These initiatives have aimed to restore and protect mangrove ecosystems, influencing both ecological health and community livelihoods Over time, the livelihoods of local residents have evolved in response to these environmental policies, with shifts toward sustainable practices and increased awareness of the importance of mangrove conservation for ecological stability and economic resilience.
● The level of participation which local people have been involved in management activities as well as projects
● The responsibilities and rights of local people in mangroves management
● Living condition in term of well-being and social conditions b) Semi – structured interview
A semi-structured interview involves the interviewer following a prepared list of questions and topics to ensure a focused and organized conversation In this study, data collection was conducted through transect walks in the field, allowing interviews with key stakeholders such as hamlet leaders, commune heads, private secretaries, and local residents including sellers and experienced farmers This approach facilitates gathering comprehensive insights from various community members, making it an effective method for qualitative research.
In this case, we verified information which were potential to use for social indicator assessment such as social empowerment and social satisfaction and to contribute to figure out
Results
Policies and projects on coastal mangrove management
Vietnam's natural resources policies have been shaped by factors such as historical development, the political system and its historical context, and land use property systems Initially, coastal mangrove management was not prioritized; however, these issues were still incorporated into key legal frameworks In the study area, policy application regarding coastal mangrove management began in the 1990s and can be divided into three major periods: 1990–1997, 1997–2005, and 2005–2016.
Following are figures which show eras of Natural Resources policy in Vietnam and the institutional framework of mangrove management in study site
Fig 4.1: Era of Natural Resources policy in Vietnam
In study site, the policies on coastal mangroves management started in 1990s
Fig 4.2: Provincial institutional structure for coastal mangrove management in Dai
Hop and Bang La communes (adapted from Cuc et al., 2008)
4.1.1 Policies related to coastal mangrove management from 1990 to 1997
In Northern Vietnam's Red River Delta coastal area, a once-thriving mangrove ecosystem played a crucial role in the region's environment However, socioeconomic changes over time have significantly impacted this area, leading to reduced awareness of the ecological and economic value of mangroves among local communities Historically, policies for mangrove management and development were underdeveloped, weak, and at a primitive stage, contributing to the degradation of this vital ecosystem.
Reforestation and plantation projects were implemented in Dai Hop and Bang La; however, these initiatives did not yield the desired outcomes, as most new plants failed to establish before 1997 Table 4.1 highlights the key policies and their characteristics during this period, providing insight into the factors influencing project success.
Provincial Dept of Agriculture and Rural development
Dai Hop and Bang La Red Cross
Kien Thuy and Do Son district Red Cross
Hai Phong city Red Cross
Table 4.1: Major features of mangrove management policies before 1997
Time/ Periods Major features Sources
1960s ● Vietnam‘s economy enters the recovery period after the war;
● Mangroves were destroyed to serve the aquaculture development;
● Area of mangroves declined seriously
1990s ● Economic liberalization associated with shrimp farming expansion and mangrove reduction
1991 ● Economic reform periods started Le (2008)
1992 ● Projects to restore and protect coastal mangroves had been developed;
● Hundreds of hectares of mangroves planted in Hai Phong
Duong Duc Tung (Deputy director of the Department of Agriculture and rural development Hai Phong)
1993 – 1998 ● Program 327 (implemented from 1993 to 1998 by decision 327): Regenerate mangroves in Dai Hop and Bang La;
4.1.2 Policies related to coastal mangrove management from 1997 to 2005
During this period, policies and project systems saw significant improvements Hai Phong emerged as one of the eight coastal provinces, from Quang Ninh to Ha Tinh, successfully implementing the mangrove plantation project supported by the Vietnam Red Cross and Japanese Red Cross.
Policies and projects systems that focus on mangroves plantation and protection in study site can be evaluated as following:
Table 4.2: Projects in the period of 1997 - 2005 in study site (MARD, 2006)
Periods Name Major features Achievement Existence
● Planting 5 million hectares of forest;
● Improve the coverage of forest in Vietnam to 43% in 2010;
● Phase 1: the country planted 1,424,135 ha;
● Contributed to forest cover in Vietnam to 36.7% (up 3.5% compared with 1999);
● Vietnam became one of the 10 countries with the largest plantation area in the world
● Planted areas did not meet the target
● Approved in 11/6/1997 by Prime Minister;
● Support of Japanese Red Cross and Danish Red Cross;
● Started in Bang La and Dai Hop in
● Local people take part in the planting activities
● Supervised and assessed activities was focused by Staffs of Red Cross;
● Planning Kandelia obovata before plan Sonneratia caseolaris
● 22,439 hectares of mangrove have grown;
● Seven kilometers of Sea dyke protected
Policy serves as a crucial guideline for the conservation and sustainable development of forest ecosystems, with a particular emphasis on mangroves (Demurger, Hou Yuanzhao, & Yang Weiyong, 2009; Bowen & Riley, 2003; Adeel & Pomeroy, 2002) Since the 1990s, both regional and global communities have recognized the importance of implementing policies focused on coastal mangrove preservation In Northern Vietnam's coastal provinces, government policy systems specifically targeting mangrove conservation and management were established during the 1990s to promote sustainable development and environmental protection.
Since 1998, detailed coastal mangrove management policies have been implemented at the study site The research area spans two adjacent communes, Bang La and Dai Hop, where coastal mangroves extend beyond a seven-kilometer sea dyke These mangroves are influenced by two distinct management policies and overseen by specialized teams from both communes, ensuring coordinated conservation efforts.
Hai Phong Red Cross directly manages mangrove areas in two communes, with both policy systems being largely similar and featuring comparable specialized team structures However, the implementation processes of certain policies differ significantly, reflecting tailored approaches to local conditions.
Table 4.3: Implementation process of management policies in Dai Hop and Bang La
(The beginning of planting mangroves)
● Local authority prohibits all exploitation of fishery resources
Mangrove had been growing and developing
● Exploitation is allowed and free;
● Model of protection group (responsible for mangroves);
● Protection force divided into small teams; into many plots;
● Group of 4 people responsible for each plot;
● Protection groups are equipped and have right to discipline
● Investigation and treatment for violations of forest destruction is seriously;
● One kilometer of sea dyke protected by 18 people
● Local people get the information about mangroves by themselves;
● Local authorities inform through local broadcast system;
● Training for people about mangroves through the media and movies;
● Primary pupils have been participating in the class of protected mangroves
4.1.3 Policies-related to coastal mangrove management from 2005 – 2016
After 2005, mangroves area in Hai Phong city increased dramatically: from 297 ha
(1990) to more than 4.700 ha until now (according to Mr Le Van Van, 2014) Projects and policies of the previous times focus on planting activities (dominant species is Kandelia obovata)
Dai Hop and Bang La communes both maintain ranger departments annually, but they differ in their efforts to raise awareness among local residents These variations in community engagement have led to differences in the quality of mangroves between the two areas Since 2005, local authorities and the Hai Phong Red Cross have continued to implement various projects to support mangrove conservation and community development.
Table 4.4 shows the major features of mangrove management policies in study area from 2005 to 2016.
Table 4.4: Major features of mangrove management in Dai Hop and Bang La from 2005 to 2016
2005 ● Forest management model based on the community (by Mr Ngac – Vietnam Institute of Forestry);
● After 3 years, because of out of funding, assessment and monitoring became weak, lead to ineffectiveness
Interviewee: Mr Nguyen Van Hien (leader of Mangrove protection group – Bang La Ward)
2006 – 2008 ● The final phase of project 661;
● Investment of Japanese guiding for conservation and planning
2009 - 2014 ● Sea Dyke had been improved for three years;
● Caring activities in the present is implemented by ranger department
Overall, coastal mangrove management policies and projects in the study site have been shaped by the evolving natural resource policies in Vietnam These policies have demonstrated positive progress across different eras, beginning with the primitive period (1990-1997), followed by the recovery and transition phase (1997-2005), and culminating in the continuous sustainable development period (2005-2016).
Effectiveness of mangrove management policies
4.2.1 Ecological indicator: Coastal mangrove extents before and after application of policies
Mangrove extent is a key indicator for evaluating the effectiveness of management policies, as changes in the total mangrove area reflect policy impacts over time (Mumby et al., 1999) While global statistics provide an overview of mangrove forest status, precise data on remaining areas and rates of loss remain uncertain (Adeel and Pomeroy, 2002) To assess these changes, thematic maps were developed for the years 1990, 1997, 2005, and 2016 using an unsupervised classification method, illustrating the evolving status of mangroves (Figure 4.3).
Fig 4.3: Thematic maps of coastal mangrove extents in Dai Hop and Bang La communes in different years using Landsat images
Note: Mangroves area changed differently due to three periods (1990 – 1997, 1997 – 2005 and 2005 – 2016) In general, mangroves area in Dai Hop and Bang La communes has relatively large fluctuation from 1990 until 2016.
The total area of mangrove and non-mangrove regions in the study site for each year was calculated using the raster calculation tool in ArcGIS The results are presented in the following tables and charts, providing a clear overview of the spatial distribution and changes over time.
Table 4.5: Mangroves extent in 1990, 1997, 2005 and 2016 (ha)
Fig 4.4: Mangroves extent in 1990, 1997, 2005 and 2016
The dynamics of the mangrove area can be understood through the calculated extent of mangroves over time The changes in mangrove coverage, including both expansion and contraction, are demonstrated by the percentage variations listed in the following table, highlighting trends and fluctuations in mangrove ecosystems.
Table 4.6: Dynamics of mangrove extent in three different periods
Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery gives good estimates of the area of mangroves, but, because of the 30 m pixel resolution, it underestimated the linear extent in places where
Mangroves are often included in the inventory and mapping of tropical coastal resources, but many studies, such as Green et al (1996), do not assess the accuracy of these mappings However, accuracy assessment is crucial for utilizing remote sensing data effectively in resource management decisions To detect changes in coastal resources accurately, understanding the precision and reliability of the remote sensing techniques is essential In this study, the final results were evaluated using matrix tables to ensure the accuracy of the classified imagery.
Table 4.7: Accuracy assessment of unsupervised classification method in 1990 GPS
Table 4.8: Accuracy assessment of unsupervised classification method in 1997 GPS
Table 4.9: Accuracy assessment of unsupervised classification method in 2005 GPS
Table 4.10: Accuracy assessment of unsupervised classification method in 2016 GPS
The accuracy of image classification and interpretation are 80%, 85.83%, 84.17% and 85.17% performed on classified images in 1990, 1997, 2005 and 2016 respectively
After constructing thematics maps of mangroves in four major years, the dynamic map of mangrove area through three remarkable period was created as in the Fig 4.5
Fig 4.5: Changes in coastal mangroves in Dai Hop and Bang La communes from 1990 to 2016
Table 4.11: Land Use Land Cover (LULC) changes in study site during three periods
Dynamics of mangroves are shown in the following chart:
Fig 4.6: Changes of mangroves loss in Dai Hop and Bang La communes
4.2.2 Economic indicator: Changes in local livelihood after applying policies
According to the interview with local people in study area, the sources of household income are illustrated as the following:
No Forest Forest Loss Forest Gain Stable Forest
M an gr o ve s D yn am ic (H a)
Table 4.12: Sources of incomes in Dai Hop and Bang La Households Aquaculture Agriculture activities Services Others
Aquaculture serves as the primary source of income for local residents in the study area Therefore, the economic assessment relies on data related to fisheries productivity and insights gathered through interviews with local communities.
An interview with 55 households in Dai Hop and Bang La communes, along with local administrative staff, revealed significant improvements in local livelihoods The study highlights notable positive changes, indicating enhanced living conditions and economic stability within the community These findings emphasize the transformative impact of recent development initiatives on residents' quality of life.
Fig 4.7: Production of fishery during three periods
(Adapted from General Statistics Office of Viet Nam) Source: http://www.gso.gov.vn a)Period from 1990 to 1997
Policy and projects aspect : This was considered as the beginning period of policy and projects in study area.
Policy: Policies about management and development of mangroves are relatively poor, weak and only at primitive level
Fi sh eri e s P ro d u ct iv it y (t h o u sa n d to n s)
• Program 327 (implemented from 1993 to 1998 by decision 327): Regenerate mangroves in Dai Hop and Bang La;
Livelihood characters : Livelihood activities of coastal communities, especially in Hai
Phong during this period mainly included shrimp farms, coastal fishing, offshore fishing, and salt production b) Period from 1997 to 2005
Policy and projects aspect: This was considered as the recovery and development period of mangroves in study area
Policy: Model of protection group (responsible for mangroves)
Projects: Project 661 (1998 – 2010; Decision No 661/QD-TTg); ―Planting
Mangroves, Preventing disaster‖: support of JRC and Danish Red Cross)
The main activities of livelihood included coastal fishing inside area of mangroves development, mangrove plantation, bees raising c) Period from 2005 to 2016
Policy and projects aspect: Policy:
From 2005 to 2008, Mr Ngac from the Vietnam Institute of Forestry implemented a community-based forest management model, aiming to promote sustainable practices through local involvement However, after three years, funding shortages resulted in diminished assessment and monitoring efforts, which ultimately led to reduced effectiveness of the project.
● The final phase of project 661;
● Investment of Japanese guiding for conservation and planning
While the mangroves has been developing, life of local people in Dai Hop and Bang
Mangroves provide an ideal habitat for fiddler crabs and sand bubbler crabs, which are highly valued by local communities According to local knowledge, the best time for catching these crabs is from 7 p.m to 11 p.m daily, especially between March and August The economic value of these crabs ranges from 40,000 to 50,000 VND per kilogram On average, locals can harvest about 3 to 4 kilograms each day, earning an additional income of 150,000 to 200,000 VND daily.
In addition to fiddler crabs and sand bubbler crabs, various other seafood species are harvested from mangroves, including snails, cá lác, cáy cơm (sold at approximately 80,000 VND per kilogram), lư (60,000 VND per kilogram), and hà (100,000 VND per kilogram) Engaging in coastal fishing activities involving these species can boost individual incomes by an average of around 6 million VND per month.
In Dai Hop and Bang La, traditional livelihoods such as crab sauce making are still maintained by local households, preserving their cultural heritage Additionally, some families harvest Sonneratia caseolaris fruits directly from mangroves to produce local specialties, supporting sustainable livelihood practices in the region.
Dai Hop's offshore fishing activities, primarily focused on seafood exploitation, yield an annual harvest of approximately 2,300 to 2,500 tons, with a total value ranging from 85 to 95 billion VND These activities significantly contribute to local incomes, accounting for about 48%, and benefit both Dai Hop and Bang La communes as well as neighboring areas like Doan Xa However, the participation of residents from other communes remains relatively limited, highlighting the local-centric nature of this industry.
Table 4.13: Average income from seafood products of mangroves
No Name of seafood Productivity Value
1 Cáy (Fiddler crab) 3 – 4 kg/day 50.000 VND/kg
2 Còng (Small crab) 3 – 4 kg/day 40.000 VND/kg
3 Cá Lác 2 kg/day 80.000 VND/kg
4 Lư 1 kg/day 60.000 VND/kg
5 Hà 1kg/day 100.000 VND/kg
This study examines two key social aspects: local satisfaction and local participation, based on semi-structured interviews with 55 households, including chairpersons of local People's Committees and residents The findings reveal significant changes over three historical periods, reflecting the evolving dynamics of the community Insights from local residents regarding their experiences with mangrove management activities and projects implemented between 1990 and 2016 highlight the community’s perceptions and levels of social satisfaction.
The social satisfaction scale evaluates perceptions across five levels: completely dissatisfied, somewhat dissatisfied, neutral, somewhat satisfied, and completely satisfied Households assess their satisfaction with mangrove management policies and projects, as well as the effectiveness of management activities, from their own perspectives over three different time periods This comprehensive evaluation provides valuable insights into community perceptions and the impact of mangrove conservation efforts.
Table 4.14: Social satisfaction of local people about mangrove management policies
Total HHs No % No % No % No % No %
From the table above, the graph of local satisfaction in percent can be drawn as the following:
Fig 4.8: Local satisfaction about mangrove management policies
The chart demonstrates a significant increase in local residents’ overall satisfaction over time The percentage of people dissatisfied has decreased from 16.4% to 0%, while those somewhat dissatisfied have declined from 30.9% to 3.6% Additionally, the proportion of residents who are neither satisfied nor dissatisfied has dropped from 12.7% to 7.3% Conversely, there is a notable rise in higher satisfaction levels, with the completely satisfied group increasing from 14.5% to 56.4%, and the somewhat satisfied group going up from 27.3% to 30.9% This data highlights a clear upward trend in community satisfaction over the observed period.
Local participation aspect is assessed in term of households‘ participation in mangrove management policies and mangrove rehabilitation or restoration projects
Households’ participation in mangrove management policies
Households‘ participation in mangrove management policies was assessed by three different levels:
Level 1: No participation in management
Level 2: Provide contribution & feedbacks to the policy makers
Level 3: Take part in community – based management
Table 4.15: Households’ participation in mangrove management policies
Social participation in management policies Periods
Total HHs No % No % No %
The study reveals three key trends across different levels: a decrease at level 1, stability at level 2, and an increase at level 3 Notably, the participation of local residents in management activities surged significantly during 1997-2005, reaching 78.5% by 2016, driven by community-based management policies Despite this increased engagement, local people currently lack the authority to provide feedback or contribute directly to policy-making processes.
Households’ participation in mangrove rehabitation and restoration projects
Households‘ participation in mangrove rehabilitation and restoration projects is one of the most important factors to show how did local people involved in management activities
Table 4.16: Social participation in mangrove management projects
Social participation in rehabilitation/restoration projects Periods
Involved Not involved Do not know
Total number of HHs No % No % No %
Solutions for better management of mangroves
4.3.1 Model of sustainable management and development of mangroves
From the research results and literature overview, some possible solutions that improve the effectiveness of coastal mangrove management in study areas were figured out:
Vietnam has implemented various models of mangrove management due to the critical importance of mangroves, with community-based management (CBM) being one of the most common Although not entirely new to Vietnam, CBM has been successfully applied in areas like Dai Hop and Bang La for over three years (2005–) This approach emphasizes local community involvement in sustainable mangrove conservation, ensuring effective management and long-term preservation of these vital ecosystems.
5008) by Vietnam silviculture science Institute piloted However, small capital and low effect lead to the end point of this model
CBM emphasizes the importance of local stakeholder participation in planning, research, development, management, and policymaking to ensure community-wide sustainability (Catherine A Courtney & Alan T Whit, 2000) Stakeholders play a critical role, as the success of a strategy is evaluated based on how well their needs are met and their satisfaction is achieved (Rachel Allen) This participatory approach is highly suitable for sustainable mangrove management, promoting environmentally responsible and community-driven conservation efforts.
Stakeholder analysis is essential for effective management, as it identifies various stakeholders and emphasizes that some are more influential than others Recognizing the differing importance of stakeholders allows organizations to tailor their engagement strategies accordingly, ensuring proper prioritization and relationship management (Ackermann and Eden, 2011).
Effective manager teams must prioritize their efforts by identifying and engaging key stakeholders—those highly affected by or influential to the organization or project (Powell and Osbeck, 2010) To achieve this, it is essential to compile a comprehensive list of all stakeholders, highlighting those who have the most significant impact Prioritizing key stakeholders ensures targeted engagement and improves project success and organizational outcomes.
● Red cross (city, district, commune);
● NGOs & Foreign organizations (Japanese Red Cross, Danish Red Cross, etc.)
Fig 4.9: Power versus interest grid (adapted from Eden & Ackermann, 1998)
Effective coastal mangrove management must prioritize local communities, who are key stakeholders with high interest but limited influence, making Community-Based Management (CBM) an ideal approach (Bryson, 2004) Engaging local residents in planning, research, development, and policy-making ensures their involvement and promotes sustainable conservation efforts Training programs help communities balance their livelihoods with mangrove preservation, empowering them to manage assigned areas responsibly Local people are granted rights to protect and develop designated mangrove zones, with permissions to sustainably exploit resources like crabs and fiddler crabs Additionally, assigned forest managers receive compensation and bear responsibility for safeguarding mangroves from destruction, fostering community investment in conservation.
Members of the security guard team are responsible for managing extensive mangrove areas and monitoring the protection efforts of local communities to ensure timely intervention in case of damage due to overexploitation It is essential for local authorities to establish clear legislation that both safeguards and promotes the sustainable development of mangroves Additionally, granting certification to individuals assigned to oversee mangrove areas helps ensure proper management and accountability.
NGOs & Foreign organization Local Red cross under agreement of government agencies Co-management of mangroves help local people change behaviors very well, combine with administration to protect environment
Strengthening cooperation between two communes in mangrove management
The mangrove system extends over seven kilometers along the sea dyke at the boundary between two communes, which influences the variation in mangrove quality observed in each area This extensive length contributes to differing environmental conditions and health statuses of the mangroves across the two communes Understanding this geographic extent is crucial for targeted conservation efforts and sustainable management of the mangrove ecosystem.
The cooperation system is one of the best choices for this type of region to manage mangroves effectively Cooperation in mangrove protection and management should be applied between:
● Local commune mangroves protection station
● Protection group to assess the effectiveness of CBM regularly
4.3.2 Other solutions for sustainable development of mangroves
In addition to changing model of coastal mangroves management, using engineering, capital, public communication and technology solutions harmoniously enhances effectiveness of coastal mangroves management in general
Engineering solutions for mangrove conservation involve planting selective species on bare soil to enhance vegetation cover, constructing vital protection models through mixed forests, and designing optimal distances between mangrove belts to ensure effective protection Additionally, planning and rationally exploiting aquaculture ponds without impacting mangrove ecosystems is essential For existing mangroves, predominantly composed of Bruguiera gymnorhiza and Sonneratia caseolaris, continued planting and increased density are crucial to promote their regeneration and strengthen the resilience of the mangrove habitat.
After interview, this study states that communication activities in Bang La commune particular and people living in the coastal areas of Vietnam in general, local authorities should:
- Construct propaganda and education programs in community fit for each object (children, youth, managers ), pay attention to the young audience
Train administrative staff and local inhabitants involved in forest management to effectively maintain and promote the growth of mangroves, ensuring sustainable practices Educate them on proper exploitation of natural resources within mangrove ecosystems to prevent degradation and support long-term ecological health.
- Promote environmental education trend, move from the information dissemination to education, from awareness to the communities education
Application of scientific breakthroughs is integral, including:
- promote scientific breeding techniques to choose appropriate species put technology transfers into management tasks, exploitation activities to reduce vulnerability of mangroves ecosystem
To secure sufficient funding for implementing ecotourism solutions, the study proposes that Hai Phong's local government allocate profits from ecotourism activities towards protecting and developing the conservation zone Supporting seedling sources and infrastructure development should be facilitated through preferential policies Additionally, expanding partnerships and attracting investments from domestic and international organizations such as GIZ, MFF, the Danish Red Cross, and the Japanese Red Cross can significantly increase the available budget.
This study proposes key sustainable management strategies, including community-based management, enhanced cooperation between local communes, engineering solutions, capital investments, and improved communication Due to the specific characteristics of the study area, the research primarily focuses on community-managed buffer zones (CMB) management solutions to effectively promote long-term environmental sustainability.
Discussion
Effectiveness of coastal mangrove management in study area based on three significant
Research findings from Chapter 4 indicate that the effectiveness of coastal mangrove management policies has generally improved since 1990 across multiple indicators Nonetheless, it is essential to foster opportunities for local communities to provide feedback and actively participate in shaping management strategies, ensuring more inclusive and sustainable outcomes.
Table 5.1: Policies effectiveness assessment based on three significant indicators
Ecological indicator (Mangroves dynamic; unit: ha)
Economic indicator (Productivity of fisheries; unit: thousand tons)
Social participation in communities-based management policy (*)
Social participation in major management projects
The assessment of social participation, including giving feedback and contributing to the development of management policies, has not been addressed in this table and consistently remains at 0% across all three studied periods, indicating no progress or engagement in this area.
5.1.1 Period from 1990 to 1997: A beginning of mangrove management polices
The management policies during this period, as outlined in section 4.1.1, are in the early stages of development and have not yet achieved the three key indicators of policy effectiveness.
The ecological indicator data reveal a significant loss of 202.41 hectares of mangroves, with much of the coastal area transforming into vacant land due to overexploitation and invasive factors In response, mangrove restoration and coastal protection projects were initiated, including a 1992 initiative by Mr Duong Duc Tung and the 327 Program by MARD from 1993 to 1998, targeting areas like Dai Hop and Bang La However, these efforts failed to meet their conservation objectives.
In 1995, the mangrove area in Dai Hop and Bang La communes was at its lowest point, experiencing significant decline The mangrove coverage continued to decrease sharply until 1997, coinciding with increased vulnerability to natural hazards This decline had serious consequences for local inhabitants, leading to heightened risks from environmental threats during that period.
Fisheries productivity declined by 0.002 thousand tons (2 tons) during this period, largely due to the loss of mangrove ecosystems which hinder aquaculture activities and reduce habitat for small fish, crabs, and other species Post-war mangrove destruction for shrimp farming initially boosted income through coastal and offshore fishing, attracting many local communities seeking short-term benefits However, this increased exploitation, combined with environmental pressures such as pollution, salinity changes, and decreased oxygen levels, led to rapid depletion of coastal resources By the early 1990s, overexploitation reached critical levels, resulting in abandoned shrimp farms and unproductive offshore fishing efforts due to equipment shortages, posing serious threats to sustainable fisheries.
Natural disturbance such as storms or waves in rainy seasons resulted in damage to their boats, houses, shrimp farms and even their lives
The social indicator during this period reflects the low effectiveness of mangrove management policies and projects, with only 14.5% indicating social satisfaction A lack of policies encouraging local community participation in management activities further hampers progress Although some major projects like Project 327 saw a participation rate of 45.5%, this remains the lowest among the three assessed periods, highlighting the need for improved community engagement and policy development.
5.1.2 Period from 1997 to 2005: Recovery and transition period of mangrove management polices
The management policies during this period, as outlined in section 4.1.2, reflect a phase of recovery and transition The results indicate that these policies effectively address key objectives, demonstrating strong alignment with three critical indicators of policy effectiveness.
Ecological assessments indicate that the extent of mangroves has decreased by 31.77%, marking a significant reduction; however, this decline is approximately six times less severe than in the previous period, primarily due to changes in laws, policies, and project implementations Initiated in 1997, Project 661, "Planting Mangroves, Preventing Disaster," alongside the application of protection group models, facilitated the reforestation of vacant shrimp farms and intertidal areas with mangroves Despite these efforts, local administration in Hai Phong mainly focused on planning activities, which limited the increase in mangrove coverage Overall, this period represents a phase of new mangrove plantations, achieving initial success in mangrove management.
Between 2000 and 2005, fisheries productivity increased by 6,326 tons, marking a positive economic development This period also represents the initial growth phase of mangrove forests, which significantly benefited local communities by providing substantial resources and ecosystem services Prior to 1997, mangroves contributed greatly to the livelihood of impoverished populations through plantation activities, offering sustainable income opportunities Additionally, mangroves created favorable environments for bee-keeping, generating an annual income of around 10,000 USD for local residents, further supporting community livelihoods.
During this period, significant positive changes were observed across all three social indicators Social satisfaction increased to 41.8%, while community-based social participation rose to 65.5% Additionally, participation in major management projects such as "661" and "Planting Mangroves, Preventing Disaster" peaked at 74.5%, marking substantial improvements in mangrove management within the study area.
5.1.3 Period from 2005 to 2016: Development and prescription period of mangrove management policies
During this period, management policies were characterized by a focus on development and prescription, as detailed in section 4.1.3 The findings indicate that this phase aligns with three key indicators of policy effectiveness, highlighting its role in fostering progress and structured guidance.
Ecological data indicates significant expansion in mangrove ecosystems, with the total mangrove area increasing by 313.02 hectares at the study site In 2016, mangroves reached their peak extent of 587.79 hectares, marking the highest coverage in recent years This continuous growth is attributed to effective conservation efforts by local authorities, which emphasize both plantation initiatives and protective propaganda activities The primary goal remains sustainable development through the ongoing implementation of the third phase of the 661 project, ensuring the health and resilience of mangrove ecosystems.
Fisheries productivity has increased by 3.609 compared to the previous period, highlighting significant growth Mangroves play a crucial role in supporting local livelihoods in Dai Hop and Bang La communes, acting as natural shields against disasters and climate impacts These forests are vital sources of life, contributing to environmental stability and income generation Since the planting and development of mangroves in these areas, the living standards of local communities have improved remarkably, underscoring the importance of conservation and sustainable management.
This period has the highest percentage in social satisfaction and social participation in communities –based management activities After he recovery and transition period (1997-
Since 2005, awareness among local communities and policymakers has significantly improved, leading to greater engagement in community-based management From 2005 to 2008, the implementation of the community-based management model resulted in a high percentage of local residents participating in related activities However, social participation declined in some projects during this period due to a decrease in the number of initiatives being carried out.
Limitation and further study
This study faces several limitations, including a limited number of documents on applied policies and projects, scarce economic data, a relatively small sample of interviewed individuals, and a broad scope of research objects Additionally, limited experience in the area has impacted the accuracy of results and posed challenges in assessing the dynamics of mangrove ecosystems using Landsat imagery.
To improve research outcomes, additional efforts should focus on collecting more comprehensive documentation related to existing projects, policies, and scholarly articles in the study area Increasing the sample size of local households participating in interviews will enhance the representativeness of the findings Furthermore, expanding the number of ground truth points used in mangrove quality assessment will significantly boost accuracy and reliability Incorporating more multispectral Landsat images will also improve mangrove classification, leading to more precise and trustworthy results.
Conclusion
Dai Hop (Kien Thuy) and Bang La (Do Son) feature extensive mangrove forests along the sea dike, playing a essential role in protecting coastal communities from natural disasters while supporting economic development and ecological diversity Since the recognition of their importance, local authorities have implemented various mangrove management models, including system policies and national projects initiated from 1990 onward These efforts can be categorized into three key periods: 1990-1997, 1997-2005, and 2005-2016 Community-based mangrove management was introduced between 2005 and 2008 but proved ineffective due to low human awareness and limited capital, leading to a revival of management strategies centered on security guard teams.
The three indicators—ecological, economic, and social—are essential for evaluating mangrove management policies Using this comprehensive set, the investigation reveals that effective policies positively impact ecological health, boost local economic benefits, and foster community social well-being, highlighting the importance of integrated approaches for sustainable mangrove conservation.
The mangrove area at the study site fluctuates due to policies on plantation, protection, and management, but with support from organizations like the Japanese Red Cross, 661 Project, and PAM 523, positive developments have been achieved Currently, the total mangrove coverage in Dai Hop and Bang La communes exceeds 500 hectares and continues to show an increasing trend.
From 1990 to 1997, the initial phase of mangrove management policies lacked effectiveness in meeting set goals The period from 1997 to 2005 marked a recovery and transition phase, characterized by significant policy reforms and project initiatives that reduced mangrove loss and increased awareness among stakeholders During this time, administrative efforts focused on protecting mangroves, yet it is essential for policymakers to involve local communities by encouraging their feedback and contributions to further improve mangrove management strategies.
The current quality of mangroves remains relatively good However, there are notable differences in mangrove quality between the two communes In Bang La commune, effective management, protection, and development efforts are observed, largely due to efficient communication within the local administration.
Vietnam is undergoing significant economic reforms that necessitate an effective management model to promote sustainable development, improve living standards, and protect ecological integrity This study explores the application of Community-Based Management (CBM) and cooperative systems for coastal mangroves, based on insights from local residents and administrative perspectives Implementing this model aims to raise environmental awareness among local communities and reduce the security enforcement burden, contributing to balanced economic growth and ecological sustainability.
Besides it, this study also gives some other solutions to enhance effectiveness of policies on coastal mangroves management, including: capital solutions, communication solutions, engineering solutions and technology solutions
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EFFECTIVENESS OF COASTAL MANGROVE MANAGEMENT POLICIES SURVEY
Part 1: Policies of government and locality about coastal mangrove management before and during the period 2003-2016
1 History and contents of coastal mangroves management policies: (CMMP):
Except the CMMP, does locality receive any support from project or NGOs?
Do Projects/supports bring any effectiveness?
Do they bring any effectiveness? Yes No
2 Assessing the effectiveness of policies in reality:
Does local administration assess the effectiveness and existing problems after applying projects/policies?
If ―yes‖, does the assessment bring effectiveness?
Part 2: Effectiveness of policies to local livelihoods (Before and after applying coastal mangrove management policies
Name Productivity values Name Productivity values
Changes which result from mangrove management policies:
Social satisfaction and social participation
Please choose the most suitable level which depicts your satisfaction about mangrove management policies in three different periods of time below:
Households’ participation in mangrove management policies
Level 1: No participation in management
Level 2: Provide contribution & feedbacks to the policy makers
Level 3: Take part in community – based management
Please choose the most suitable level which describes your participation in each period of mangrove management policies:
Households’ participation in mangrove rehabitation and restoration projects
Please choose the most suitable level which describes your participation in mangrove rehabitation and restoration projects for each period of time
Involved Not involved Do not know
Part 3: Assessment and suggestions of local people about coastal mangroves management
Are policies suitable with living conditions?
Do policies balance mangroves conservation and local livelihoods?
Yes No Are policies clear and easy to apply?
Is durability of policies possible?
Yes No Why? b The ways to apply policies and assessment effectiveness of policies:
Does the way policies applied create close co-operation between local authorities and inhabitants?
Is equality between benefits and mangroves conservation suitable?
Do you have any suggestion about coastal mangrove management policies (CMMP)?
Do you have any suggestion about the way to apply coastal mangrove management and activities to assess effectiveness/existing problems of policies?
APPENDIX 2: COORDINATE OF MARKED POINTS
Important legal frameworks in association with coastal mangrove management 4
Law on Forest protection and development (1999, revised in 2004):
Law on Environmental protection (2005, revised 2014)
National strategy on environmental protection 2001 – 2010 (2000)
Government Decree No.109/2003/ on conservation and sustainable use of Wetland areas in Vietnam (2003)
Decision 773/1994/QD-TTg: Prime Minister‘s Decision: emphasizes the exploitation and use of riverine, coastal flats and water bodies in lowland areas
Decree 01/1995/CP: National Decree: regulates land allocation to state enterprises for agriculture, forestry and aquaculture practices
Decree 02/1994/CP: National Decree: regulates organizations, households and individuals in relation to forestland allocation in long – term forestry purposes
4: Mangrove status and management in Vietnam, The regional training workshop: ―Economic valuation of the Goods and Services of coastal habitats‖, Thailand, 2008‖
Map and Pictures of study site Appendix 4a Map of mangrove area in Dai Hop commune