Research Problem
Early childhood development (ECD) is crucial for overall human development, as it lays the foundation for lifelong growth through epigenetic, immunological, physiological, and psychological adaptations to the environment (Young, 2002) Research indicates that children in low- and middle-income countries who participated in early childhood educational programs experienced a 25% greater increase in cognitive development over the past 25 years compared to those who did not (Glewwe, 2005).
Early Childhood Development (ECD) is recognized as a crucial element for sustainable development in developing countries The significance of child development was highlighted in 2007 with the publication of The Lancet's landmark series, which focused on the challenges and opportunities for child development in these regions.
Since 2011, there has been a significant rise in scientific publications focused on Early Childhood Development This increase is paralleled by a growing number of funding programs dedicated to this field, as recent studies indicate that early human development plays a crucial role in influencing overall development throughout an individual's life (Britto et al., 2017).
Early childhood development has significantly advanced over the past few decades, thanks to the support of various development agencies This progress aligns with the efforts to achieve the Millennium Development Goals established by the UNDP.
1990, so that there has been a great improvement in child survival while mortality of child under five is dramatically dropped
Numerous studies have established a significant link between a mother's education and various aspects of child development For instance, Barrera (1990b) found a positive correlation between maternal education levels and the health and nutritional status of children Additionally, Hill and King (1995) highlighted that higher educational attainment in mothers leads to smaller family sizes, enabling families to invest more resources in each child's upbringing.
Some fact on Lao social, economic Status
Government policy on gender
The Lao Constitution, adopted in 1991, guarantees gender equality in politics, economy, culture, and society, with specific provisions in family law In 2003, the National Assembly revised the family law to emphasize the state's commitment to promoting women's advancement and protecting the rights and benefits of women and children This highlights the Lao government's focus on the importance of women and children The law also ensures that all Lao citizens, particularly women from various ethnic groups, receive equal treatment regarding legal rights and economic and social opportunities.
The principle of equality between men and women is enshrined not only in the constitution and laws but also in various legal documents, such as the Labor Law of 1994, which mandates non-discrimination in employment and equal pay for both genders in terms of quantity, quality, and value Female workers are entitled to a minimum of ninety days of maternity leave with normal pay, provided by their employers or the social security fund, with an additional thirty days permitted for any illness related to pregnancy.
In October 2004, the National Assembly of the Lao PDR enacted the Law on Development and Protection of Women, which was subsequently decreed by the President to enhance women's roles and safeguard their legitimate interests This legal framework outlines the responsibilities of the state, society, and families towards women, promoting gender equality and eliminating discrimination It also focuses on empowering women through education and skills development, combating domestic violence, and preventing trafficking in women and children, ultimately fostering their active participation in national protection and development.
The law also indicated the responsibility of the state, society and family towards women is to encourage knowledge, capacity and gender quality
Laos is committed to implementing various international conventions, including the Convention on the Political Rights of Women, in addition to adhering to national laws and regulations.
1969, and ratifies the convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW) and the convention on the Right of Child (CRC) in 1981 and
In 1990, CEDAW was established to prohibit discrimination against women and safeguard their rights, while the CRC mandates that governments protect the rights of all children, ensuring their basic needs are met, including safe motherhood The government's dedication to gender equality is reflected in various policy documents related to population, health, and human resources.
Lao PDR has incorporated the main ideas of these conventions in its constitution
To strengthen the Lao legal framework, there is a pressing need for the development of laws, addressing the current lack of experience and human capacity, as well as limited public awareness The Ministry of Justice is actively working to raise awareness of women's rights and plans to incorporate gender training into the legal education curriculum at the Faculty of Law and Political Science, National University of Laos Additionally, gender training will be extended to crime investigators and judges of the Supreme Court, aiming to enhance awareness of human rights for women, ethnic minorities, children, and other disadvantaged groups.
Mechanism
The Lao government has designated the Lao Women’s Union and the Lao National Commission for Advancement of Women (NCAW) as key organizations to enhance women's status and promote gender equality.
The Lao Women’s Union, established in 1995 as the Lao Patriotic Women’s Association, is a mass organization recognized by article 7 of the 1991 constitution Its primary mission is to mobilize and safeguard the rights and benefits of all Lao women and children, uniting women from diverse ethnic groups and social backgrounds in the collective effort for national liberation.
Following the liberation and establishment of the Lao PDR on December 2, 1975, the organization was renamed the Lao Women’s Union (LWU), broadening its role to align with the socioeconomic development of the new era With a status equivalent to that of a ministerial level, the LWU has an organizational structure that extends from the central level to grassroots The IV National Lao Women’s Congress endorsed the Lao Women’s Slogan: “Three goods,” which emphasizes being a good citizen, excelling in development, and fostering a good cultural family.
The LWU is dedicated to educating women from all ethnic backgrounds about their rights and benefits as outlined in the constitution, laws, and international conventions It aims to protect the rights of Lao women and children while encouraging their active participation in socio-economic development Additionally, the LWU plays a vital role in preserving the rich culture and traditions of Lao women across various ethnic groups.
The Lao Women’s Union serves as the national body dedicated to promoting equal rights and advancing women's status It is tasked with overseeing the implementation of government policies and programs that focus on women's development and gender-related issues.
Over the past three decades, the Lao Women’s Union has significantly enhanced its initiatives to empower ethnic minority and rural women through skill training, income generation, and financial support It has promoted good health practices, family planning, and raised awareness about women's rights, particularly in the workplace and regarding land registration The Union has also facilitated the formation of women's professional associations and supported women's participation in the civil service and National Assembly Recently, the LWU has begun to tackle pressing issues such as domestic violence, HIV/AIDS, and human trafficking, while maintaining its primary focus on the political mobilization of Lao women.
Since its establishment in 1997, the LWU has been a key advocate for gender equality and women's empowerment through the Gender Resource Information and Development Center (GRID) GRID has successfully raised gender awareness and provided gender analysis to government officials at all levels, facilitating gender mainstreaming Notable achievements include collaboration with the National Statistic Center to promote the use of sex-disaggregated statistics, developing guidelines and conducting training on gender-sensitive planning in partnership with CPI, and providing gender awareness and skill training for government staff and media Additionally, GRID has conducted extensive research on various topics affecting Lao women, engaged in consultations with CPI and line ministries to integrate gender into the NGPES, prepared a comprehensive country gender analysis, and created informative resources such as a website, newsletters, brochures, posters, calendars, and videos.
In 2002, the Lao government established the Lao National Commission for the Advancement of Women (Lao NCAW) to promote gender equality and women's advancement, drawing inspiration from the experiences of Vietnam and the Philippines Officially recognized by Decree No 37 in April 2003, the Lao NCAW operates as a state organization, distinct from the Lao Women's Union, yet both are dedicated to safeguarding the rights of Lao women and fostering gender equality across diverse ethnic groups The Lao NCAW serves as a central coordinating body, collaborating with local authorities and international organizations to implement government policies aimed at achieving gender equality and eliminating discrimination against women To enhance its effectiveness, the Prime Minister of Lao PDR mandated the establishment of sub-Commissions on the Advancement of Women within various organizations, tasked with coordinating the execution of national laws, policies, and plans for women's advancement.
The National Strategy for the Advancement of Women (2005-2010) aligns with the Beijing Platform for Action and focuses on five key goals: enhancing women's participation in the National Government Program for Economic and Social Development (NGPES), promoting women's education, improving access to healthcare services for women, increasing the representation of women in decision-making positions, and strengthening organizations dedicated to the protection and advancement of women.
Despite the achievements of Lao women through various initiatives, they continue to encounter significant challenges that hinder their progress Key issues include insufficient human capacity for effective gender mainstreaming in programs and training for ministry staff, a lack of accurate sex-disaggregated and relevant gender data for informed policy-making, limited budgets and resources to support gender initiatives, and inadequate coordination of gender mainstreaming activities among government ministries, international donors, and INGOs.
Education policy toward women empowerment
Despite significant advancements in education over the past few decades, Lao PDR still faces some of the lowest education indicators in East Asia, highlighting stark disparities between urban and rural areas, as well as between genders and socioeconomic statuses While the gender gap in education has nearly closed in urban regions, rural areas continue to struggle with poor educational outcomes, and the gap is widening for girls A considerable number of children, particularly girls and those from ethnic minority groups in remote areas, remain out of school, contributing to a higher illiteracy rate among women compared to men.
Illiteracy and low attendance rates among girls and women are influenced by various factors, including poverty, traditional beliefs, language preferences, and geographical remoteness Additionally, issues such as dropping out of school due to household responsibilities, early marriage, or pregnancy contribute to the problem Many impoverished families fail to recognize the value of formal education in enhancing their livelihoods, and parental disinterest further discourages children from pursuing their education.
Government policy on education
The Lao Constitution and Education law recognize the right of all citizens to education
The promotion of compulsory primary education emphasizes the importance of developing educational opportunities for ethnic minority groups, impoverished women, and both disabled and exceptionally talented children Key documents guiding these efforts include the Strategic Plan for 2020 and the five-year Development Plan for Education Additionally, government-wide policies, such as the Prime Minister's Decree on Decentralization of the Education Sector, the five-year socio-economic Plan, and the National Poverty Reduction Plan, have significantly influenced the educational landscape.
The Lao Government has ratified international agreements related to education, including CEDAW and CRC, and has committed to the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), specifically emphasizing its dedication to "Education for All."
The Education for All (EFA) initiative aims to achieve a net enrollment rate (NER) of 95% in primary education and 74% in lower secondary education by 2015 In 2004, education expenditure accounted for 11.8% of public expenditure relative to GDP The Ministry of Education (MOE) is currently implementing a $55 million project focused on providing seven years of basic education for girls, along with a school feeding program in remote areas, which supports poor children, particularly girls and ethnic minority groups, in accessing education.
Literacy status of Lao people
Approximately 40% of the population in Laos lives below the poverty line, significantly impacting access to primary education in terms of duration and outcomes Adult illiteracy in Laos stands at around 34%, with a notably higher rate among women at 45%, compared to 23% for men (Bank, 2002).
The gender gap remains significant, especially in rural, impoverished, and ethnic minority households However, urban areas have seen notable improvements over the past few decades, with the literacy gap between men and women narrowing rapidly The most substantial progress has been observed among poor urban females, whose advancements in recent years have outpaced those of their male counterparts (King and Van de Walle 2005).
Gender disparities in literacy are particularly pronounced in highland areas inhabited by numerous ethnic minorities The literacy rate for poor rural non Lao-Tai women stands at a mere 29%, significantly lower than the 66% rate for their Lao-Tai counterparts (World Bank 2006) Furthermore, disparities exist among different ethno-linguistic groups, with only 20% of Chine-Tibet women able to read and write, which is even lower than the overall rate for poor rural non Lao-Tai women.
The widening gender gap in education becomes more pronounced as educational levels rise, particularly at the university level Despite the Ministry of Education's efforts to address this issue, significant disparities in school participation between boys and girls persist and need to be addressed.
Table1.1: Attendance of students by Education Level in 2014-2015
Primary enrollment rates in Laos are among the lowest in East Asia, particularly affecting ethnic minority girls in rural areas (UNESCO 2003) While 80% of villages have a primary school, only 36% offer complete primary education with all five grades (National Census 2015).
North region is of particular concern nationwide, 90 percent of schools in the poorest districts are incomplete, and more than 40% of students attend an incomplete school
The net intake has doubled during the last five years in the 46 poorest districts
However, in those districts with high concentrations of ethnic minorities, three of five children attend school at some period, but only half of these complete a basic education
The vast majority of ethnic minority children never make it past second grade
In rural regions, over 40% of girls and 30% of boys are likely to drop out before completing the fifth grade Among non Lao-Tai students in these areas, the dropout rate at the end of primary school approaches 50% (King and Van de Walle, 2005)
Primary school enrollment rates reveal significant disparities, with non-Lao-Tai girls in rural areas experiencing the lowest rates, while Lao-Tai men from urban areas have the highest Among the Hmong-Lu Mien, 48% of rural girls are enrolled in primary school, compared to 66% of boys Similarly, the Mong-Khmer group shows that 57% of rural girls and 61% of boys are attending primary school.
The gender gap in primary school enrollment among the Chine-Tibet ethnic group is relatively small, with only 33% of girls and 39% of boys in rural areas attending school Additionally, for all three non Lao-Tai groups, urban areas show a smaller gender gap in primary enrollment compared to rural regions.
Table 1.2: Mean primary school enrollment rates (in %) for children aged 6-12 (2012-
Mon-Khmer 80.1 75.0 61.4 75.4 tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
Source: King and Van de Walle 2015 based on LECS3
The transition from primary to secondary education poses significant challenges, with only 35% of students enrolling in secondary schools Of those, merely 5% manage to complete the full six-year program, and less than 5% pursue higher education at the university level.
Nationally, female enrollment in lower secondary education remains low, with a net enrollment rate of 32 percent for females compared to 38 percent for males in the 11-16 age group This reflects a significant drop of 42% for females and 48% for males Additionally, while the overall net enrollment for urban students stands at 48%, it plummets to just 25% for rural children.
To address the issue of illiteracy and the existing gender disparities in education sector, government of Lao has the strategic plan as follows:
The universalization of quality basic education at the primary level, along with the ongoing expansion of participation in lower secondary education, ensures that everyone has the opportunity to utilize their education in support of socio-economic programs.
Eradication of illiteracy, thus providing poor people with a means of helping to improve their quality of life;
Expansion of vocational, technical and higher education to meet the demands of the new labor market and to improve economic rates of return on human capital investment;
The development of skilled workers, technicians, and professionals is essential for effectively applying modern science and technology to meet developmental needs Additionally, there is a focus on progressively enhancing the quality of national education to align with international standards.
In Laos, there is a noticeable disconnect between public policy and its implementation, as public investment primarily targets urban infrastructure and business subsidies, which are thought to stimulate economic growth However, expenditures on healthcare significantly declined between 2014 and 2016, raising concerns about the overall effectiveness of these investments.
In Laos, the fluctuation in maternal and child health status may be attributed to the fact that health care for children is primarily the responsibility of the Ministry of Health, which allocates only 3 to 2.4% of GDP to this sector.
According to the LSIS reports from 2012 and 2017, the Early Childhood Development (ECD) index in Laos improved from 81.3% to 89.1% However, the Northern region of Laos lags significantly behind the central and southern areas in terms of ECD A World Bank survey of 7,520 children across five Northern provinces found that only 25% participated in early childhood education, 22% accessed health services, and 50% of the children were stunted.
Research objective and Research question
This dissertation investigates the relationship between maternal education levels and early childhood development, providing a comprehensive view of child health in Laos from 2000 to 2016 It aims to control for variables such as family wealth quintiles and other maternal characteristics to achieve its primary objectives.
Maternal education plays a significant role in early childhood development in Lao PDR Research indicates that higher levels of maternal education are associated with improved developmental outcomes for children This connection highlights the importance of educational initiatives aimed at mothers to enhance the well-being and growth of young children in the region.
Second, how does the access to information of women affect the development of children in Laos?
And finally, are there any big differences in terms of ECD among different regions of Laos?
Scope of the Study
This thesis analyses and calculates the interaction among level of education of mothers and early childhood development.
Contribution
To achieve the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) and sustainable development in Laos, recognizing the significance of early childhood development is crucial Identifying the key determinants of development allows for targeted and scientifically informed policymaking.
The finding of this research may provide scientific evidence for policy makers to recognize the role of Child development, maternal education and women access to information.
Thesis structure
This thesis is organized into 5 chapters, above section is first chapter, and sections hereafter are:
Literature review
Theoretical background
Early childhood development is a complex, multi-dimensional concept influenced by various theoretical frameworks, including psycho-analytical, behavioral, social learning, biological, cognitive development, and system theories These diverse theories enable researchers to identify key determinants and understand the relationships among socio-economic factors that impact a child's development.
Early childhood development is significantly shaped by psychoanalytical theories, particularly those of Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson Freud emphasized that a child's personality is formed through parental management of their sexual and aggressive drives In contrast, Erikson expanded on Freud's ideas by incorporating societal influences into the understanding of personality development Additionally, Behavioral and Social Learning theories explore the critical relationship between the environment, nurturing, and a child's growth.
Various indicators and measurement methods are used in literature to explain the factors affecting child development and health status According to Glewwe (1999), determinants of a child's health are influenced by parental education, household assets, the local health environment, and the child's inherent health endowment.
Ecological systems theory, now known as Bioecological systems theory, emphasizes the importance of a child's biology as a primary factor in their development within a complex system of relationships This theory outlines various "layers" of the environment, including immediate family, community, and societal influences, all of which interact to shape a child's growth Changes or conflicts in any one layer can impact the others, highlighting the need to consider both the child and their broader environment when studying development.
The microsystem is the closest structure to a child's health status, encompassing the relationships and interactions that influence their development within immediate surroundings such as family, school, neighborhood, and childcare environments At this level, relationships exert bi-directional influences, meaning that while parents can shape a child's beliefs and behaviors, children also impact their parents in return Bronfenbrenner emphasizes the significance of these interactions, highlighting that the strongest influences on a child occur within the microsystem, although interactions from outer layers can still affect inner structures.
The mesosystem serves as the crucial link between various elements of a child's microsystem, such as the relationship between a child's teacher and their parents, as well as the connections between their church and neighborhood (Berk, 2000).
The exosystem represents the broader social environment that indirectly influences a child's development Structures within this layer, such as parental work schedules and community resources, interact with the child's microsystem Although the child may not engage directly with these external factors, they still experience the effects—both positive and negative—of these interactions on their immediate environment.
The macrosystem represents the outermost layer of a child's environment, encompassing cultural values, customs, and laws (Berk, 2000) Although it is not a specific framework, the macrosystem's broader principles exert a significant cascading influence on the interactions within all other layers of a child's development.
Cultural beliefs significantly influence the allocation of resources for parenting; if a culture holds that parents should independently raise their children, it is less likely to offer support systems for them.
The dynamics within a child's microsystem significantly influence the structures that parents operate within, impacting their ability to fulfill their responsibilities toward their child.
The chronosystem encompasses the dimension of time in relation to a child's environments, including both external factors, like the timing of a parent's death, and internal factors, such as physiological changes during aging As children mature, their responses to environmental changes evolve, enabling them to better understand how these changes impact their lives.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory (1986), several key factors influence child development, including maternal education at the microsystem level, family involvement in home activities at the macrosystem level, participation in school activities at the mesosystem level, and social support at the exosystem level.
The ecological theory posits that child outcomes are influenced by various factors, including the child, parent, family, school, community, and society, along with their interactions However, some researchers criticize this traditional framework for neglecting critical variables such as social position (including social class, ethnicity, race, and gender) and social stratification (like racism, prejudice, discrimination, and segregation) To address these limitations, Coll et al (1996) introduced an integrative model that emphasizes the importance of social position and stratification in understanding the development of competence in children of color This model highlights factors often overlooked in mainstream ecological models, such as experiences of racism, intragroup diversity within minority families, and the impact of social stratification and acculturation on the developmental competencies of minority children.
Children are influenced by both family and childcare microsystems, which are interconnected Parents choose different types of childcare based on various factors such as family structure, parental characteristics, and geographical location Singer et al (1998) emphasized the importance of considering these selection effects in childcare research to accurately assess the impact of childcare on children's development over time The study highlights the significance of family-level and community-level factors in shaping childcare decisions.
This study posits that maternal education significantly influences children's health through two primary mechanisms Firstly, women with higher education levels demonstrate greater production and allocation efficiencies in health production, leading to improved health outcomes for their children Production efficiency refers to achieving better health conditions with the same health inputs, while allocation efficiency involves optimizing the use of various health resources within a budget Secondly, increased maternal education enhances the resources available for children's health production, as more educated women tend to earn higher incomes and often partner with similarly educated and affluent spouses This results in better family resources and environments that foster the accumulation of children's health human capital.
Empirical review
Many recent studies have examined the impact of the mother’s (and father) education on child health For comprehensive reviews of the literature, (Strauss and Thomas,
This thesis provides an overview of recent studies that examine the influence of a mother's education on early childhood development, emphasizing the comprehensive health status of children.
Research across various countries indicates that a mother's education positively influences her children's height and weight While many studies provide reduced form estimates, some delve into the mechanisms through which maternal education enhances child health For instance, Barrera (1990b) found in the Philippines that more educated mothers weaned their children earlier but compensated with improved care, resulting in healthier children, as evidenced by higher height-for-age z-scores.
Thomas et al (1991a) examined the "information processing" attributes of schooling using Braillian data, which included variables related to women's media consumption, such as reading newspapers, listening to the radio, and watching television The study found that mother's education was not significant when accounting for these activities In rural areas, both newspaper and radio consumption were significant, while in urban areas, only television viewing showed significance.
The Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey has provided valuable insights into how external factors affect child nutrition and health Research by the Cebu Study Team (1991, 1992) indicates that maternal education significantly enhances waste disposal practices and increases non-breastmilk calorie intake, both of which contribute to a lower incidence of diarrhea While maternal education may lead to earlier weaning, which can increase diarrhea episodes, the overall impact is a reduction in diarrhea rates among children.
An important critique of finding that mother’s education improves child health is the hyphothesis that education simply reflects unobserved maternal characteristics
Behrman and Wolfe (1987) analyzed Nicaraguan data on mothers' siblings to account for unobserved family fixed effects, concluding that mother's education does not significantly impact child anthropometric status In contrast, Strauss and Mundial (1988) discovered in rural Cote D’Ivoire that mother's education positively influences child health, demonstrating a significant effect on height-for-age and weight-for-height, even after controlling for family fixed effects.
In Vietnam, research by Thu (2014) indicates that a mother's education significantly influences a child's health, while toilet usage does not have a notable effect Additionally, Cam (2018) highlights that maternal education, along with household wealth, gender, and living area, plays a role in child health outcomes This study is pioneering in its use of quantile regression to assess the impact of maternal education on child health, contrasting with previous studies that relied on OLS or fixed effects Quantile regression allows for a nuanced analysis of how maternal education affects child health across different levels of the child's body index.
Dr Vo (2018) found that women's empowerment significantly impacts child development in rural Vietnam Additionally, research by Thomas et al (1991b) indicates a positive correlation between a mother's education and her child's height, with results showing high statistical significance Schultz (1984) explored how household economic and community variables affect child mortality, identifying five ways maternal education influences child health: it leads to a more efficient mix of health goods, enhances the effectiveness of health production, systematically alters maternal preferences, increases income and productivity, and raises the opportunity cost of time, allowing mothers to dedicate more time to their children's care.
Maitra et al (2006) investigate how parental, household, and community characteristics influence child health in China, highlighting the critical role of parental education and unobserved maternal heterogeneity Their findings indicate that higher maternal educational attainment has a more significant impact on child health than paternal education, supporting the notion that increased maternal education leads to better health outcomes for children by enhancing the information available to the household Additionally, they note that the income effect linked to higher paternal education also contributes to child health, while addressing the importance of reducing discrimination against girls to further improve health status.
A study conducted by Yusuke Kamiya and colleagues investigated the relationship between women's autonomy and childhood stunting in Laos, a country with the highest prevalence of stunting in the Indochina region By examining factors such as self-esteem, self-efficacy, decision-making power, freedom of mobility, and control of money among 100 mothers and their 115 children under five, the research aimed to clarify the determinants of childhood stunting The findings highlight the importance of understanding maternal autonomy to address the issue effectively.
Research indicates that higher maternal self-efficacy in healthcare, self-esteem, and control are linked to a significantly lower likelihood of childhood stunting Conversely, a mother's decision-making power and freedom of mobility do not show a significant association with stunting levels in children.
Research indicates that a mother's education significantly enhances child health, with some insights into the mechanisms behind this improvement However, there is a lack of comprehensive studies examining how various maternal characteristics influence child health, particularly in relation to early childhood development metrics.
1.2.1 The impact of maternal education on early childhood development
Numerous studies have established a strong link between a mother's education and her child's health Barrera (1990a) examined this relationship, using height-for-age scores as indicators of child health The findings revealed that higher maternal education positively influences child nutritional outcomes and contributes to improved height-for-age measurements in children.
A study conducted in 22 developing countries by Desai and Alva (1998) investigates the impact of maternal education on three key indicators of child health: the likelihood of infant mortality, children's height relative to their age, and their immunization status.
The educational level of mothers is categorized into two groups: those who are uneducated and those with a secondary education Research shows a causal relationship between a mother's education and infant mortality rates Additionally, there is a significant positive correlation between maternal education and children's height-for-age measurements.
Although the coefficient correlation of mother’s education on immunization status is small, this effect is statistically significant in sample countries
The impact of a mother's education on child health is evident in Morocco, as highlighted by Glewwe (1999) The study reveals a positive correlation between the mother's educational level and the health condition of her children However, it also emphasizes that household wealth plays a significant role in influencing child health outcomes.
Research Methodology and Data Resources
Conceptual framework
This study is guided by a conceptual framework that examines the relationship between maternal education, childcare, and child health It explores how maternal education influences child development through skill acquisition, enhancing knowledge about healthcare and parenting Consequently, it is anticipated that more educated women are better informed about the importance of timely and proportionate feeding for their children, ultimately leading to improved child health outcomes.
Numerous studies have examined how maternal education influences child health outcomes through four key models: socioeconomic status, women's empowerment and autonomy, health knowledge and attitudes, and health and reproductive behavior.
Maternal education serves as an indicator of socioeconomic status at both individual and household levels, with more educated women typically hailing from higher socioeconomic classes (Frost et al., 2005) These women enjoy better job opportunities and higher incomes compared to their less educated counterparts Additionally, educated women are more likely to marry highly educated men, further solidifying their socioeconomic status (Barrett and Browne, 1996) They often reside in economically developed areas, such as urban regions, which provide access to essential facilities like safe water, sanitation, and healthcare Consequently, children from high socioeconomic households, where mothers work in formal sectors, experience better nutrition, reduced exposure to infectious diseases, and improved access to health services This leads to an inverse relationship between maternal education and child under-nutrition (Mukuria et al., 2005).
The selected variables were based on their correlation with women's education and child health status, as demonstrated in the research conducted by Desai and Alva (1998).
The thesis presents three key hypotheses based on empirical evidence: H1 posits that maternal education positively influences early childhood development (ECD) H2 suggests that women's access to information has a beneficial effect on ECD H3 indicates that regional factors significantly impact the health and developmental status of children in Laos.
This research examines the factors influencing early childhood development, particularly in relation to maternal education and women's access to information, as discussed in chapters one and two It highlights three key domains that identify these factors, emphasizing the critical role of early childhood development in ensuring a child's overall well-being and future potential.
Research by Berman et al (1997) and Behrman and Rosenzweig highlights the significant impact of early childhood development (ECD) status on the well-being of children aged 24 to 60 months.
2002) and (Baker et al., 1992) These includes Mother’s characteristics: maternal education, access to information of mother, mother’s age, ethnicity she belongs to
Household characteristics significantly influence a child's developmental status, as highlighted in the literature Key factors include the wealth index, land ownership, household size, the number of children under five, access to clean water, and sanitation facilities The wealth index and land ownership serve as indicators of a family's economic status, especially in the absence of household income data Additionally, a larger household may impact the family's health productivity, while having multiple children under five could lead to less individualized care due to divided attention.
The final domain encompasses social, economic, and environmental characteristics, particularly focusing on health facilities and public health care services These community-level factors are influenced by regional and residential aspects, which significantly affect the provision of health care services across different areas.
Maternal’s education Women’s accessing to Information Age, Ethnicity
Household Characteristic: family’s wealthy (wealth quintile, owning land plot) Household member, children under five
Inputs for child’s well being Outputs : as child’s well being (ECD)
Analytical model and data processing
According to (Glewwe, 1999) it is not necessary to estimate straightforward the pathways by which mother’s schooling affects child health The production function for early childhood development:
ECDi is the early childhood development score level, which has two values, 1 for properly developed and 0 for poorly developed
Hi is a vector of social, economic factor effects on children of each household
Ei is a vector summarizing the environmental condition surrounding child i
The model presented in equation (1) requires a diverse dataset; however, data availability is currently limited Consequently, the simplified version of the model illustrates the connection between a mother's education and child development.
Ms: Parental Characteristics: Mother’s age, Mother’s school year, Access information, age of mother, ethnicity of mother
A: Child’s endowment variables: Age and sex E: Social, Economic environment variables: Wealth quintile, own land plot
H: Household characteristics: use clean water, number of family members, number of children under 5
P: Public health facilty provision tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
Table 2.1 The detail of variables:
ECD Early Childhood Development 0=poorly developed 1=Properly Developed DM1
MEDU Maternal Education Number of
School year attended ACINFOR Access to Information 0=not access
MAGE Age of mother Years-old
CHAGE Child’s Age Months tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
CLEANWT Used Clean water for drinking 0 = Not Clean
Water 1= Used clean water for drink HHMEM Number of Household
Ordinal number UNDER5 Number of Children Under5 Ordinal
Number ETNGROUP Ethnicity of the Household head
WINDEX Wealth Quintile Index 1 Poorest
OWNLPLOT Owned Land Plot 0=not own any land plot 1=own at least
Public health facility environment (Social support)*
REGION Region of the Household 1: Northern
Regional disparities in health facilities across Laos may influence children's developmental outcomes, as data limitations suggest variations in access and quality of care in different areas.
Logit regression using maximum likelihood estimation with a robust option is employed due to the categorical nature of the dependent variable in our model The results of the regression will illustrate the trend of the impact, while the coefficients can be estimated through the marginal effects of each individual variable.
2.2.3 Variable definitions The early childhood development (ECD) in this study is in the context of the child’s health outcomes status, as a measurement and indication of the child’s present and future well being and can be determined and categorized in two statuses namely: properly developed and poorly developed child Assessment of early child development can be used for population monitoring, program evaluation, or exploratory research
UNICEF emphasizes that the early childhood period, specifically for children aged 2 to 5 years, is crucial for development across four key domains, laying the foundation for their future health and growth.
Figure 2.2 illustrates the various stages of life development, as referenced in the WD-ECD measurement toolkit.
2.3.4 The construction of the domain for measuring child development
The MICS survey utilizes the Parent’s Evaluation of Developmental Status (PEDS), which assesses children's development across four key domains: (1) Literacy-numeracy, (2) Physical development, (3) Social-emotional skills, and (4) Approaches to learning Each domain is evaluated through a standardized set of 10 questions for each child.
Unlike developed countries, surveys in the US and EU utilize distinct methodologies, focusing on 9-12 domains These surveys encompass 18 questions that address various aspects, including cognitive development, social-emotional development, motor development, language and emergent literacy, health, hygiene, safety, cultural knowledge and participation, as well as approaches to learning.
This research focuses on early childhood development, utilizing UNICEF's standard assessment that encompasses four domains and ten questions These criteria serve as key indicators for evaluating the developmental progress of children aged 2 to 5 years.
Survey questions are as follows:
1 Can (he/she) identify or name at least ten letters of the alphabet?
2 Can (he/she) read at least four simple, popular words?
3 Does (he/she) know the name and recognize the symbol at all numbers from 1 to 10?
4 Can (he/she) pick up a small object with two fingers, like a stick or a rock from ground?
5 Is (he/she) sometimes too sick to play?
6 Does (he/she) be able to follow a simple direction on how to do something correctly?
7 When giving something to do, is (he/she) able to do it independently?
8 Does (he/she) get along well with other children?
9 Does (he/she) kick, bite, or hit other children?
10 Does (he/she) get distracted easily? tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
The key indicators for ECD, however, in this paper adopts the UNICEF’s early childhood development’s indication which can be represented through 4 domains:
+ Literacy-numeracy: can be assessed from question number 1-2-3
+ Physical: can be assessed through question number 4 and 5 + Aproach to learning: can be assessed through question number 6-7 + Social-emotional can be assessed through question number 8-9-10
(1) Literacy-numeracy- Developmentally on tract if at least two of EC1-EC3;
Children at this developmental stage demonstrate key literacy and numeracy skills They can identify and name at least ten letters of the alphabet, read a minimum of four simple, popular words, and recognize both the names and symbols of all numbers from 1 to 10.
(2) Physical-Developmentally on tract if one or both of the following are true:
EC4=1 (Can pick up a small object with two fingers, like a stick or a rock from the ground), EC5=1 (is not sometimes too sick to play)
Effective learning approaches are developmentally on track if either of the following conditions is met: EC6=1, indicating the ability to follow simple directions for correct task execution, or EC7, which signifies the capability to perform tasks independently when given instructions.
For a child to be considered on track in social-emotional development, at least two of the following criteria must be met: the child gets along well with other children, does not engage in aggressive behaviors such as kicking, biting, or hitting, and is not easily distracted.
To calculate the ECD for each individual child we test the score for each domain if at least 1 one domain is missing, the child is considered poorly developed
Children's language development starts well before they say their first word, with early signs such as babbling, pointing, and gesturing during infancy The first words and sentences typically appear within the first two years, followed by a rapid increase in vocabulary between ages two and three As children enter preschool, key indicators of language development include their ability to produce and understand words, tell stories, recognize letters, and engage comfortably with books.
Children's vocabulary under the age of three is a strong indicator of language development, particularly in cultures with a history of literacy However, in cultures lacking a long tradition of written language, alternative criteria may be more relevant For instance, in certain African cultures, the ability to use alliteration and metaphor creatively and grammatically is a better sign of linguistic advancement in older children.