(Luận văn) hedging in representatives in english and vietnamese weather forecasts

INTRODUCTION

Rationale

Weather has historically been vital for human survival, impacting transportation, farming, tourism, and more For thousands of years, people have monitored and predicted weather patterns, a practice known as weather forecasting, which utilizes scientific models to anticipate future atmospheric conditions Accurate weather predictions are essential to prevent dangerous situations and protect lives Additionally, weather forecasts enhance safety awareness for impending disasters, allowing governments to implement protective measures and minimize the aftermath of such events Ultimately, understanding weather forecasts is crucial for safeguarding life, property, policymaking, construction planning, productivity, and managing environmental risks.

In applied linguistics, hedges are used by speakers and writers to express caution or probability rather than absolute certainty Research on hedging typically examines it through textual or pragmatic lenses, including speech act theory, politeness theory, genre-specific studies, interactional pragmatics, and the analysis of vague language.

Hedging in various disciplinary discourses, particularly in weather forecasts, has been largely overlooked despite its significance and the extensive research on the topic This gap in the literature prompted the author to conduct a study titled “Hedging in Representatives in English and Vietnamese Weather Forecasts.” The findings aim to enhance the understanding of hedging in weather forecasts and contribute valuable insights to the existing body of research.

Aims and Objectives of the Study

This study investigates the hedging devices and their functions in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts It also explores the similarities and differences in the use of hedging within these forecasts across both languages.

To achieve the aims, the objectives of this study are:

1 to examine hedging devices applied in representatives in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts

2 to analyze the functions of such hedging devices

3 to compare and contrast hedging in representatives in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts.

Research Questions

This research focuses on the use of hedging in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts The primary problem addressed is the differences in hedging strategies between the two languages Consequently, the study aims to answer specific research questions related to these hedging practices.

1 What hedging devices are used in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts ? luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

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2 What are the functions of the hedging devices?

3 What are the similarities and differences in the use of hedging in representatives in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts?

Scope of the Study

Searle (1979) categorizes illocutionary acts into five types: Directive, Expressive, Declarative, Commissive, and Representative speech acts This study focuses specifically on Representative speech acts, as they play a crucial role in knowledge sharing Additionally, the research is confined to examining the use of hedges in Representative speech acts within English and Vietnamese weather forecasts.

Significance of the Study

The study is hoped to bring out some theoretical and practical contributions

This study aims to enhance existing research on hedging in representatives and serve as a valuable reference for future studies It is designed to inspire upcoming researchers with new ideas to advance the field of hedging in representatives.

Understanding hedging in weather forecasts is crucial for linguistics students, as it aids in risk prevention for both citizens and authorities For instance, farmers can utilize these forecasts to mitigate risks associated with adverse weather conditions, such as insufficient rainfall during growth, excessive rain during harvest, high winds affecting plantations, or temperature fluctuations in greenhouses Accurate weather predictions enable individuals to plan their activities, ensure safety during extreme weather events, and make informed decisions.

The article discusses the potential impact of storms that can lead to significant destruction and chaos It emphasizes the importance of staying informed about storm updates and preparedness measures to mitigate risks The content highlights the necessity for individuals and communities to remain vigilant and proactive in the face of severe weather events.

Structure of the Study

The study consists of six chapters:

This chapter outlines the justification for selecting the study area, along with the aims, objectives, research questions, scope, and significance of the research Additionally, it provides a structured overview of the thesis to serve as a roadmap for the study.

Chapter 2- Literature Review and Theoretical Background

This chapter discusses the notions of representative speech act, hedges, relationship between hedges and conversational maxims and weather forecasts

This chapter states the chosen methods to carry out the study and to analyze the collected data It also deals with the procedures of the data collection

Chapter 4 – Findings and Discussion on Types of Hedges

This chapter describes hedging forms in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts as well as the similarities and differences between them Chapter 5 – Findings and Discussion on Hedging Functions

This chapter analyses the collected data to find out the major similarities and differences in hedging functions in the investigated weather forecasts in English and in Vietnamese

This section highlights the key findings of the study, discusses their implications for Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL), and presents recommendations for future research.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Overview of speech acts

Speech Act Theory, initially developed in the Philosophy of Language to elucidate the functions of language, has since expanded its application to broader linguistic contexts and, more recently, to computational models.

Speech Act Theory was introduced by J.L Austin and summarized in his William James Lectures presented at Harvard University in 1955 (Austin,

In response to significant questions and challenges in the field, Searle, a student of Austin, played a crucial role in shaping Speech Act Theory into its contemporary form His seminal contributions are highlighted in his works from 1969 and 1979, as well as in the collaboration with Vanderveken in 1985.

Speech acts, as defined by Yule (1996: 47), are actions executed through utterances, which can be categorized into specific types such as apologies, complaints, compliments, invitations, promises, and requests When individuals communicate, they not only use grammatical structures and vocabulary but also engage in actions through their spoken words.

There are numerous speech acts in people’s utterances and Yule (1996: luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

53) classifies them into five groups, namely declarations, directives, expressives, representatives, and commisives

Representatives reflect the speaker's beliefs about reality, encompassing statements of fact, assertions, conclusions, and descriptions (Yule, 1996: 53) Their primary function is to bind the speaker to the truth of the position expressed, affirming the validity of the claims made (Searle).

For example, The earth is flat

Commissives are speech acts that commit the speaker to future actions, conveying intentions through promises, threats, refusals, and pledges (Yule, 1996).

For example, I’ll be back

Expressives deal with stating what the speaker feels They express psychological conditions which can be the statement of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow (Yule, 1996: 53)

Directives are communication tools used by speakers to prompt others to take action They convey the speaker's intentions through commands, orders, requests, and suggestions, which can be framed positively or negatively (Yule, 1996: 54).

For example, Could you lend me a pen, please?

Declaratives are related to change the world via utterance The speaker has a luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

In a specific context, the special institutional role is crucial for performing a declaration appropriately, as highlighted by Yule (1996: 53).

For example, Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife

According to Searle, a representative speech act commits the speaker to the truth of an expressed proposition, reflecting their belief that can be evaluated as true or false Performative verbs such as describe, classify, and predict indicate these acts, which are considered illocutionary acts that convey the real and intended meaning of words Representative speech acts also illustrate a speaker's belief in the words of others they recite Yule (1996) emphasizes that these acts pertain to the truth of the utterance, while Searle and Vanderveken (1985) categorize representative speech acts into thirty-two subcategories.

Overview of hedges

This section explores the background and origins of the term "hedge," followed by a detailed discussion on the concept of hedging, including both form-based and function-based definitions.

Thirdly, she establishes the working definition of a hedge used in this thesis

2.2.1 Origin of the term hedge

Hedging refers to a barrier, limit, or means of protection While the concept of hedges has existed for a long time, it was first formally introduced by Lakoff in 1972 in his article "Hedges: A Study in."

The article explores the concept of meaning criteria and the logic behind fuzzy concepts, focusing on words that inherently possess fuzziness in their meanings It highlights that the interpretation of hedges is context-dependent, emphasizing that the impact of hedging is a pragmatic phenomenon rather than a semantic one.

Lakoff's groundbreaking concepts have been expanded upon by various linguists, who now view hedging as both a semantic and pragmatic phenomenon (Mauranen, 2004: 173) This shift in perspective recognizes that hedges not only express inexactitude, such as in the phrase "a rose is kind of a flower," but also play a crucial role in pragmatic strategies, including politeness and mitigation.

Salager-Meyer (1994), a renowned French linguist, has contributed significantly to the fields of linguistic, rhetorical, and discourse analysis He developed a taxonomy of hedges that categorizes various word classes utilized as hedging devices.

According to Lakoff, hedges are “words whose meaning implicitly involves fuzziness- whose job is to make things fuzzier or less fuzzy”

Brown and Levinson(1987) state that “A hedge is a particle, word, luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

The content includes a series of email addresses and identifiers, such as "Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd" and "bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn," which appear to be related to a specific academic or administrative context Additionally, it references a concept from Levinson (1987) regarding the modification of membership degrees in predicates or noun phrases, indicating that such membership can be partial or context-dependent This highlights the complexity of language and meaning in relation to membership within a set.

According to Locastro (2003), speakers often use hedges to indicate partial adherence to the maxims of Cooperative Principles A hedge is an expression that reflects a speaker's awareness of these maxims while signaling that they are not fully complying with them.

The impact of hedging devices in the discourse is measured by their overall effect on meaning or the message of the text oral/written Hyland

(1996) illustrates that hedging devices are used to indicate a lack of complete commitment to the truth of the proposition, and a desire not to express the commitment categorically

2.2.3 Hedges adhering to Varttala’s classification

Varttala (1998) introduces a framework for identifying hedging devices through the analysis of common epistemic lexical items This framework categorizes five key word classes: modal auxiliaries (e.g., may), main verbs (such as argue and believe), adverbs (like possibly and perhaps), adjectives (including potential and probable), and nouns (such as hypothesis, idea, and notion).

This study utilizes a framework primarily based on Varttala (2001) and Quirk (1985) to categorize hedging types and functions While no single framework can encompass the entire scope of hedging, this combination aims to create a comprehensive set of hedging forms Additionally, the author has developed a working definition of a hedge, focusing on specific types relevant to the research.

The article discusses the use of lexical and phrasal hedges in communication Lexical hedges, such as "perhaps" or "possibly," help to soften statements and express uncertainty Phrasal hedges, like "I think" or "it seems," serve a similar purpose by indicating that the speaker is not entirely confident in their assertions These linguistic tools are essential for effective communication, allowing speakers to navigate complex topics while maintaining a level of politeness and openness to alternative viewpoints Understanding and utilizing hedges can enhance clarity and foster more engaging conversations.

Table 2.1: Taxonomy of hedging devices

Types Subtypes Realizations of hedges

Modal Auxiliaries Will/would, can/could, may/might, shall/should, ought to, etc

Argue, predict, imply, suggest, propose, contend, forecast, claim, etc

Feel, believe, conceive, maintain, judge, think, wish, assume, estimate, speculate, reckon, claim, etc

Appear, seem, look, tend,etc

Probability adjectives Apparent, likely, possible, potential, probable, suggestive, etc Adjectives of indefinite frequency

Common, frequent, general, normal, usual, substantial, etc Adjectives of indefinite degrees

Fair, little, main, major, slight, relative, etc

Approximate, close, gross, virtual, etc

Probability adverbs (un)likely, perhaps, possibly, probably, apparently, etc

Commonly, generally, usually, often, frequently, etc

Fairly, highly, mainly, slightly, rather, quite, etc

About, almost, nearly, roughly, some, just, somewhat, approximately, greatly, mostly, etc

Argument, clue, claim, suggestion, etc

Tentative cognition Approximation, assumption, belief, luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

Types Subtypes Realizations of hedges

Trend, likelihood, guess, hope, etc

Verb phrases really do believe, want to make sure, mean actually, ect Adjective phrases Really good, really so clear, etc Adverb phrases Just like, completely just

Prepositional phrases For me, By the way Other phrasal hedges Kind of

2.2.4 Hedges adhering to Grice’s conversational maxims 2.2.4.1 The cooperative principle

Effective communication relies on the application of certain rules to ensure successful conversations These rules assist both the speaker and the listener in effectively delivering and understanding messages Known as the Cooperative Principles, this concept was first introduced by English philosopher Paul Grice in 1975.

Effective communication relies on the cooperative principle, which emphasizes the need for speakers and listeners to work together for mutual understanding Grice posits that both parties in a conversation must adhere to this principle, with speakers striving to ensure their messages are clear and comprehensible The cooperative principle is further delineated into four maxims: quality, quantity, relation/relevance, and manner These maxims guide conversational exchanges, promoting clarity and coherence in communication.

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2.2.4.2 Hedges adhering to Grice’s maxims

The field of pragmatics is significantly shaped by Grice's work on cooperative principles, which aim to clarify the intended meaning behind utterances Grice posits that interlocutors are rational individuals who collaborate to fulfill the conversation's purpose, leading to the expectation of meaningful contributions (Grice, 1975: 45) He identifies specific maxims that govern communication, facilitating the understanding of both indirect speech acts and general speech These maxims are categorized into four key principles: quantity, quality, relevance, and manner.

The maxim of quantity emphasizes the importance of providing just the right amount of information in communication It requires speakers to be as informative as possible while ensuring that they neither overwhelm nor under-inform their audience By focusing on precise and relevant details, speakers can effectively highlight key points and maintain clarity in their messages This balance allows for effective communication, ensuring that the information shared is appropriate and tailored to the listener's needs.

(1) All I know is smoking damages your health

In this instance, the addresser limits the quantity of information by using All I know Therefore, the maxim of quantity is hedged

The principle of quality emphasizes the importance of truthfulness, ensuring that information shared is accurate and backed by evidence.

Overview of weather forecasting

2.3.1 Brief history of weather forecasting

Weather observation has significantly advanced since the creation of the first weather instruments Early humans relied on personal experiences and natural indicators, such as plant flowering and animal behavior, for weather predictions, which are now considered unreliable Today, enhanced monitoring networks, sophisticated instruments, and well-trained personnel enable the generation of detailed and accurate weather records According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the accuracy of today's five-day weather forecast is approximately 90%, while the seven-day forecast is correct about 80% of the time, and the ten-day forecast reflects actual weather conditions around 50% of the time.

A weather forecast, as defined by the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, is a report provided through media such as radio or television that predicts the weather conditions for the upcoming day or several days.

A weather forecast is defined as a statement that describes recent weather conditions, current weather, and predictions for future weather It serves as a daily report of meteorological observations and anticipated changes, often issued by government authorities.

2.3.3 Forecast quality of weather forecasts (This part is based on an article entitled “Forecast quality of weather forecasts” by Weather bonk (2020) on the web www weatherbonk.com)

There are three categories of weather forecasts: short-term, medium- term, and long-term weather forecasts

Short-term weather forecasts, typically covering a period of 1 to 7 days, provide detailed insights into various atmospheric conditions, including wind patterns, rainfall, temperature, and cloud cover The accuracy of these forecasts is highest on the first day and tends to decrease by the seventh day.

Medium-term weather forecasts provide an indication of the expected trends beyond the seventh day, suggesting the likely direction of upcoming weather events While these forecasts signal that a significant weather event may be approaching, they do not guarantee certainty.

Long-term weather forecasts, often highlighted in seasonal predictions, focus on temperature trends—indicating whether conditions will be too warm or too cold—and potential precipitation patterns, assessing whether it will be too wet or too dry.

Previous relevant studies

Hedges and hedging encompass a broad range of lexical and syntactic elements in text aimed at modifying and softening propositions (Leech, 1983; Levinson, 1983; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik, 1985).

Hyland (1994) defines hedging as a reflection of the relationship between the writer and the reader He categorizes hedges into content-oriented, which focus on accuracy and real-world representation, and reader-oriented, which emphasize interpersonal relationships and conduct rules Additionally, Hyland (2000) highlights the importance of understanding the pragmatic impact of hedges and recognizing them in texts for developing rhetorical competence across disciplines.

Research on hedging and intensifying devices in English peaked in the 1970s and 1980s, leading to numerous publications that explored their roles in both written and spoken discourse This study builds on previous works, referencing similar studies to analyze hedging Over time, hedging has been examined from various perspectives, including cross-cultural comparisons, gender studies, translation studies, politeness theory, and academic discourse Recent research highlights the pragmatic aspects of hedging, recognizing it as a crucial strategy for effective interpersonal communication.

Salagan-Meyer’s theory (1994) categorizes hedges into various groups while examining their frequency and distribution across different genres The research indicates that case reports and research papers utilize fewer hedges compared to editorials and reviews, where the passive voice is more commonly employed as a hedging device.

Hedges serve distinct communicative functions in specialist research articles compared to popular research articles, as noted by Varttala (1998).

In popular research articles, hedging reflects textual precision and conveys interpersonal negative politeness Conversely, in specialist research articles, hedging serves as a textual tool that balances both imprecision and precision, while also demonstrating interpersonal positive politeness.

Nikula (1997) examines the use of hedging in the conversational speech of Finnish learners of English compared to native speakers The study reveals that learners employ hedges less frequently and with less variety than native speakers Additionally, while native speakers often combine multiple hedges at various positions within their utterances, learners predominantly overuse "I think" and restrict its placement to the beginning of their statements.

Yu (2009) expands on Nikula's (1997) research by exploring the pragmatic development of hedging among EFL learners He classifies hedges into several categories, including quantificational approximators, performative shields, modal shields, pragmatic-marker hedges, and various syntactic and discoursal hedging strategies The study utilizes written questionnaires, simulated debates, and oral interviews to gather data.

A study involving 211 Chinese learners from junior high school, high school, and university-level English courses reveals a progression in their language use Initially, learners rely solely on performative expressions They then transition to an intermediate stage characterized by the use of intensifiers and mitigators Ultimately, at the university level, they demonstrate an advanced understanding of hedging clusters that incorporate various categories of hedges.

In her 2013 study, Rabab’ah examines the use of hedging in academic articles within the fields of nursing and education She identifies both the similarities and differences in how hedges and their subcategories are employed across these two disciplines.

A recent study highlights significant differences in the use of hedging devices between nursing and education writers, with a notable preference for the education discipline The findings indicate that hedging serves as a crucial communicative strategy, allowing writers to qualify their commitment, soften the impact of their statements, express probability, maintain their credibility, persuade readers, and mitigate potential rejection of their claims.

In addition, Yang, J (2019) conducts Analysis of hedges in English advertising from the perspective of Cooperative Principle He employs

Grice’s maxims reveal the significant role of hedges in English advertising, highlighting their function as a communication strategy that embraces linguistic fuzziness The study encourages further exploration of hedges from various perspectives, suggesting that advertisers can effectively utilize them to enhance product and service promotion Additionally, understanding these strategies can deepen insights into advertising practices and the cooperative principle in communication.

Vietnamese researchers have significantly contributed to the understanding of hedging as a pragmatic phenomenon Hoàng Phê (2002) defines hedging as expressions that prevent unexpected misunderstandings and reactions to statements Similarly, Nguyễn Quang (2003) identifies hedging as a strategy employed to mitigate the propositional content.

Nguyễn Lê Tố Quyên (2014) conducted a study titled “Types of Hedges Used by American and Vietnamese Celebrities,” which explores the syntactic and pragmatic features of hedges employed by these celebrities The findings indicate that quality hedges are the most frequently used type in the analyzed data.

The analysis of Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac reveals distinct differences in the use of quantity hedges, manner hedges, and mixed hedges between American and Vietnamese data Specifically, the patterns of hedging vary significantly, indicating cultural influences on communication styles Understanding these differences is crucial for effective cross-cultural interactions and can enhance clarity in both academic and professional settings.

Summary

This chapter provides an overview of speech acts, hedges, and weather forecasting, while proposing a theoretical framework for the current study Additionally, it includes a concise review of previous research to highlight existing gaps in the literature.

RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Research methods

This research used both quantitative and qualitative approach in analysis of English and Vietnamese weather forecasts in terms of hedging devices and hedging functions

The study employed a quantitative approach to analyze the frequency and percentage of various types of hedges, while a qualitative approach was utilized to uncover the pragmatic features of the identified hedges.

The study primarily employs descriptive and comparative methods to explore the similarities and differences in hedges used in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts.

Data collection and data analysis

The data collected meet the following criteria

The data will be gathered from trustworthy online newspapers in both English and Vietnamese, including sources like The Sun, Weather.com, WeatherBug, and VTV.

Secondly, all the news will present weather forecasts in November and December of the year 2019

Thirdly, the average length of each forecast is between 15 clauses and

40 clauses luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

The author of the present study randomly collected the data mainly from the Internet The quantity of data included 30 English weather forecasts and 30 Vietnamese ones

The study analyzed representative speech acts from weather forecasts in both English and Vietnamese, utilizing the framework proposed by Searle and Vanderveken (1985) for classification This approach was advantageous for the research, although it was noted that not all collected representatives fit within the established categories, and several of Searle and Vanderveken’s classifications were absent from the weather forecasts.

There were about 619 hedges found in the data sources, in which 290 hedges were used in the English weather forecasts and 329 were employed in the Vietnamese weather forecasts

3.2.4 Process and theoretical framework for data analysis 3.2.4.1 Data analytical process

With the data of 30 English weather forecasts and 30 Vietnamese ones, the hedges wielded in the representatives in the two languages were positioned, sorted out regarding typology

With the above results, the author drew out similarities and differences in using hedges in English weather forecasts and Vietnamese ones

3.2.4.2 Theoretical framework for data analysis

Based on previous theories of hedges by Searle and Vanderveken (1985), the author analyzed representatives in weather forecasts Additionally, a framework from Varttala (2001) was utilized to categorize and code the data into different hedge categories For further information, please download the latest thesis at luanvanfull@gmail.com.

The article discusses the analysis of hedges using Grice's (1975) framework, as detailed in Table 2.1 It includes various email addresses and identifiers, emphasizing the importance of understanding the functions of hedges in communication.

Searle and Vanderveken (1985: 182) classify the categories in representative speech acts into thirty-two subcategories Here are the categories of representative speech acts

Table 3.1 The framework of the analysis of representatives

1) Asserting - stating firmly that something is true, good, valid, and so on

2) Claiming - asserting something based on the speaker claim

3) Affirming - carrying the positive assertion as opposed to negative assertion

4) Stating - connecting to the notion of setting something forth or representing something normally for the benefit or edification of the hearer

5) Denying - creating the action of denial and opposing or negating the proportion

6) Disclaim - the illocutionary denegation of claiming

7) Assuring - assuring is done when one assures one tries to make the hearer feel sure, normally because he already has some doubts

8) Arguing - the action which is against a certain thesis

9) Rebut - the act to argue against an argument or view already put forward

10) Informing - providing the hearer with necessary information

11) Notifying - asserting to a hearer with the additional of achievement that the hearer be put on notice

12) Reminding - asserting to a hearer with the additional preparatory condition that the hearer once knew and might have forgotten the proportional content

13) Objecting - the act of asserting with the additional preparatory luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

Subtypes Description condition that some proposition

14) Predicting - asserting with the proportional content condition that the proportional content is future with respect to the time of the utterance and the additional preparatory condition that the speaker has evidence in support of the proposition

15) Reporting - asserting with the proportional content condition that the proportional content is about the past with the respect to the time of the utterance

16) Retrodict - retrodicting is the opposite of predict

17) Suggesting - giving a suggestion for someone to do something

18) Insisting - the same illocutionary force with suggesting The different is that the force to do something where insisting has more authority to assert the hearer

19) Conjecturing - conjecturing is when P is to weakly assert that P while presupposing that one has at least some slight evidence 20)Hypothesizing - involving diagnoses and hypotheses regarding diseases and symptoms

21) Guessing - guessing can just be an unfounded stab in the dark

22) Swearing - swearing has both representative and commissive use

Swearing adds a level of solemnity and intensity to both assertions and commitments, reinforcing the speaker's conviction in the truth of their statement or their promise to act.

23) Testifying - a special case of swearing, asserting in the capacity of being a witness and under an oath

24) Admitting - asserting the state of affairs represented by the proportional content which is bad

25) Confessing - admitting the speaker’s responsibility for a certain state of affairs which is bad

26) Accusing - asserting to someone with the proportional content condition that the proportional content predicates luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

Subtypes Description responsibility to some individual for the existence of state of affairs and with the preparatory condition that this state of affair is bad

27) Blaming - the main difference between blaming and accusing appears to be that whereas blaming can be done privately in one’s thoughts, accusing requires a public speech performance

28) Criticizing - asserting something is bad while expressing disapproval of the speaker

29) Praising - asserting something is good while expressing approval of the speaker

30) Complaining - complaining has both an assertive and an expressive use

To complain about P means to assert that P while genuinely expressing dissatisfaction with it, along with the understanding that the situation is unfavorable.

31) Boasting - boasting has both representative and expressive use In the representative sense, to boast that P is to assert P while expressing pride that P because of the ego involvement in boasting, it is do not form a minimal pair

32) Lamenting - lamenting that P is to assert P while expressing dissatisfaction and sadness that P, because of the ego a feature lacking in lamenting Lamenting differs from complain, only by the fact that sadness.

Data-processing procedures

There were main steps followed by the author and presented as follows:

Step 1: Prepare and organize the data

The initial step in data analysis involved ensuring that the data was formatted for easy analysis The researcher targeted varying levels of preparation depth based on the available time and resources.

The transcription of data, such as Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd 77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77, involves both data analysis and preparation This process is crucial for ensuring accurate and organized information management.

Step 2: Review and explore the data

The researcher began by reviewing various types of collected data to gain a general understanding of its content and assess the adequacy of the data collected, rather than focusing on detailed reading initially.

Step 3: Code the data into categories

Coding is the process of identifying different segments of the data that describe related phenomena and labeling these parts using broad category names

The author utilized the framework of representative speech acts to extract key elements from weather forecasts Following this, the author meticulously identified hedging devices within these representatives, recognizing that not every word or expression qualifies as a hedge.

After collecting the data, the analysis process began with examining the forms of hedging devices The author then performed statistical analysis to obtain quantitative data, calculating the percentage to determine the occurrence frequency of various types of hedges Following this, the pragmatic functions of these hedging devices were analyzed in a manner similar to the analysis of their forms Finally, a comparison was made between the hedging forms and functions in English and Vietnamese weather forecasts, highlighting significant differences.

The study integrates quantitative and qualitative analyses to elucidate the socio-cultural factors that contribute to both similarities and differences in the observed phenomena By examining these factors, the research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the underlying reasons influencing the outcomes.

Step 5: Report and interpret the data

Based on the findings, the author prepared a research report to discuss the study's results Additionally, the report outlines implications for enhancing learning and teaching strategies on the effective use of hedges in communication.

Validity and reliability

The study utilizes authentic data to ensure validity and reliability, sourced from widely recognized and publicly available websites Notably, AccuWeather is acknowledged for its comprehensive weather data and superior forecasting accuracy, as highlighted in the New Proof of Performance Results Similarly, WeatherBug offers online weather forecasts and live updates Furthermore, the author established clear criteria for data collection, ensuring a reliable and feasible data gathering process.

The author conducted the analysis using clear frameworks, effectively minimizing the risk of subjectivity Additionally, by considering both the co-text and the context of the situations, the analysis is rendered less subjective.

Summary

This chapter outlines the methodology of the present study, starting with an introduction to the research methods employed It provides a comprehensive description of the data collection and analysis processes, along with the research procedures followed Additionally, the chapter addresses the validity and reliability of the study's findings.

The study presents essential data, including email addresses and identification numbers, to ensure the accuracy of the research In the following chapter, the findings and discussions are thoroughly and significantly detailed For those interested, the latest thesis and master's thesis can be downloaded via the provided email addresses.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ON TYPES OF HEDGES

Types of hedges in the English weather forecasts

Table 4.1: Overall distribution of hedging categories in EWFs

Hedging categories Raw numbers Percentages (%)

Table 4.1 clearly indicates that forecasters predominantly utilize lexical hedges, which comprise 93.1% of their usage, in contrast to phrasal hedges, which account for only 6.9% The subsequent sections will provide a detailed analysis of the distribution of these hedging categories.

Table 4.2: The frequency of lexical hedges in EWFs

Subcategories of lexical hedges Raw numbers Percentages (%)

Total 270 100% luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

As indicated in Table 4.2, among the five sub-systems, Modal auxiliaries are found to be used most frequently Adjectives account for 14.4

In the analysis of lexical hedges, adjectives are the most prevalent, comprising 78.9% of the total, while full verbs and adverbs account for 11.5% and 9.7%, respectively Nouns are the least common, with only 5 out of 270 instances (1.9%) identified in this category.

Table 4.3: The frequency of modal auxiliaries as hedges in EWFs

Modal auxiliaries Raw numbers Percentages

Table 4.3 illustrates the frequency and distribution of eight modal verbs employed as hedges, highlighting their varied usage and the distinct ways they convey the strength of a speaker's claim Each modal verb serves a unique function in communication, emphasizing the nuances in expression.

The modal auxiliary "will" is the most commonly used in English as a foreign language (EWF), accounting for 59.2% of its usage It appears in various structures, including after nouns, noun phrases, pronouns, and in inversion forms.

(E1) After several days of wet, soggy weather, the West Coast will also see a break of rain and snow

(E2) From there, it will slide into the Upper Mississippi Valley and Great luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

Lakes late today into Wednesday

(E3) Not only will this system tap into Pacific moisture but bitter cold Canadian air will filter south in the storm’s wake

Modal verbs such as can, could, and may express possibilities, each with distinct nuances Together, could and may account for 23.3% of usage, primarily referring to specific possibilities that are limited to particular times or places.

In these examples, "could" signifies modality, enabling speakers to convey the potential for snow in specific areas, such as the Grapevine on Interstate 5 in Southern California and the Upper Mississippi Valley.

(E4) Even the Grapevine on Interstate 5 in southern California could see accumulating snow

In the Upper Mississippi Valley, a light snowfall may be bothersome, but the potential for freezing rain could create hazardous, icy road conditions.

Forecasters frequently use the term "may" to indicate the possibility of something being true or occurring It serves to express uncertain predictions or intentions, highlighting the chance of various outcomes.

May in this sense usually refers to a future event when it combines with an event verb

(E6) Light rain may appear in the evening, so the atmosphere will become cooler

(E7) Rain accompanying the storm may add further travel difficulties by reducing visibility and creating a heightened risk of hydroplaning while traveling at highway speeds

In this study, "can" is identified as the fifth most common auxiliary verb, accounting for 7% of usage This modal verb appears in both affirmative and negative constructions.

Forecasters use the modal verb can to talk about general possibilities For example,

(E8) However, drifting snow in part of this swath can be a problem through Sunday, due to high winds

In (E8), it is possible that moving in drifting snow can be a problem whoever you are, whenever you are and wherever you are It is a general possibility

The passive with can is possible if the agent is unspecified, i.e in agentless passives or when the agent is anyone

(E9) A few strong to severe thunderstorms cannot be ruled out near the central Gulf Coast

The auxiliary would is considered as a past form of will to express prediction This verb occurs only once in the data

(E10) Given this, it appears any precipitation would fall as rain from the Interstate 95 corridor of the Northeast

Must, should are used to say something that is necessary or unnecessary or to give advice While should/ should not occur 14 times (about 8.3%), must is employed only once (0.6%)

(E11) In the wake of the storm, Monday should be a good travel day over the region with temperatures reaching within a few degrees of average and some sunshine

(E12) "During episodes of strong, gusty winds, officials must space out the arriving and departing aircraft," Sosnowski said

The data indicates the presence of various specific lexical verbs, including tentative cognition verbs and tentative linking verbs, such as "expect," "forecast," and "appear."

Table 4.4: The frequency of lexical verbs as hedges in EWFs

The research identifies a total of 9 lexical verbs, with "expect" being the most prominent, occurring 16 times (54.6%) This verb is predominantly used in passive voice, with two exceptions where it appears in active voice followed by an infinitive.

(E13) West of the Continental Divide, temperatures are expected to remain above normal

(E14) The powerful tropical storm is expected lash the coast of Southern England by Tuesday night

The term "expect" indicates that the weatherman is confident in the occurrence of events such as a strong tropical storm or a predominantly dry day, leaving no room for doubt.

In English weather forecasts, meteorologists primarily rely on modern technology and expert opinions, leading to the frequent use of the verb "expect," which accounts for over half of the lexical verbs used In contrast, the verb "predict" is employed less frequently, appearing only twice in the data, as it is based on knowledge and experience.

(E15) Today, the entire Southern area is predicted to be sunny

Forecast ranks second with 4 occurrences (about 12.9%) The use of forecast can be exemplified in (E16) luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

(E16) Winds are forecast to remain gusty in New York City on Thanksgiving Day

Statistics indicate that verbs such as "appear," "claim," "feel," "seem," "believe," and "suggest" are infrequently used, often appearing only once or twice This observation can be illustrated with specific examples.

(E17) The BBC Weather forecaster claimed it may not feel that way with heavy rain and strong gusts

(E18) Model ensembles suggest that rainfall next week could total around 0.5’’ in Yma to 1.5-2.0’’ in Phoenix

Linking verbs such as "feel" and "appear" play a crucial role in connecting subjects to adjectives, providing additional information about their states or appearances This relationship enhances our understanding of the subjects by describing their feelings or how they seem.

(E19) But with cloud and rain and still a brisk southerly wind, it will feel quite chilly here for Friday

(E20) Motorists are urged to use caution as some roads that appear wet in this area could contain icy patches with temperatures close to freezing, making driving conditions treacherous

Table 4.5: The frequency of adverbs as hedges in EWFs

8 Perhaps 2 7.7% luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

Types of hedges in the Vietnamese weather forecasts

Table 4.12: Overall distribution of hedging categories in VWFs

Hedging categories Raw numbers Percentages (%)

As can be seen from Table 4.12, lexical hedges and phrasal hedges are used evenly in the Vietnamese weather forecasts with nearly 166 occurrences (about 50% each)

Table 4.13: The frequency of lexical hedges in VWFs

As can be seen from table 4.13, there are 5 types of lexical hedges with different rate of frequency The analysis shows that lexicall verbs take up

37.3% of the total number of lexical hedges analyzed in the data Modal auxiliaries take up 34.9 % and adverbs 24.1% Nouns account for only

Table 4.14: The frequency of lexical verbs as hedges in VWFs

1 dự báo/ được dự báo 23 37.2%

4 nhận định 5 8.1% luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

Table 4.14 reveals a diverse range of lexical verbs used as hedges in Vietnamese weather forecasts, highlighting their significance as the most crucial category of lexical hedges with 62 occurrences The verb "dự báo" (predict) appears 23 times, accounting for 37.2% of the total, while "cho thấy" (state) follows with 10 occurrences, representing 16.1%.

The term "cảnh báo" (warn) and "nhận định" (judge) rank third in frequency, appearing five times in the data Following closely, "khuyến cáo" (recommend) is noted four times, while "đề nghị" (suggest), "đề phòng" (beware), and "ghi nhận" (record) each appear three times In contrast, "thông báo" (inform) and "đảm bảo" (ensure) are mentioned only twice Lastly, "dự kiến" (estimate) and "lưu ý" (note) each occur once These examples provide a clearer understanding of the data distribution.

Trong 12 giờ tới, áp thấp nhiệt đới sẽ di chuyển theo hướng Tây với tốc độ khoảng 15 km/h, tiến sâu vào đất liền và dần suy yếu thành một vùng áp thấp.

A tropical depression is expected to move westward at a speed of 15 km/h within the next 12 hours, progressing inland before gradually weakening into a low-pressure area.

(V2) Cảnh báo, từ hôm nay (31.10), trên các sông từ Hà Tĩnh đến Quảng Nam và khu vực Tây Nguyên sẽ xuất hiện một đợt lũ

(=It is warned that from today (31.10), the rivers from Ha Tinh to Quang Nam and the Central Highlands will appear a flood.)

Bà Lan nhận định rằng trong những tháng cuối năm, tình hình mưa bão có thể diễn ra dồn dập và có khả năng kéo dài đến tháng 1-2020.

Miss Lan indicates that the late months of the year are prone to continuous rains and storms, which may extend into January 2020.

(V4) Ông lưu ý việc không để người dân vì hiếu kỳ xem bão mà ra ngoài rất nguy hiểm

(=He notes that curious residents who want to go out to watch the storm are not allowed because it is very dangerous.)

Vietnamese weather forecasters often employ lexical verbs as hedges at the start of sentences, as demonstrated in examples (V1), (V2), and (V3) Additionally, they occasionally position lexical verbs following a pronoun, as seen in example (V4).

Table 4.15: The frequency of auxiliary verbs as hedges in VWFs

Auxiliary verbs Raw numbers Percentages

Table 4.15 reveals four modal types used as hedging forms: sẽ (will), có thể/không thể (can/cannot), nên/không nên (should/should not), and cần (need) Notably, the modal type sẽ has a frequency rate of 58.6% Additionally, the modal auxiliaries có thể/không thể are favored over nên/không nên.

The data indicates that Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd 77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77 represents a significant portion, constituting 27.6% and 12.1% in their respective categories.

The modal cần is quite rare in the Vietnamese weather forecasts; however, their occurrence also expresses the advice from the weathermen Below are the cases in the point

(V5) Nếu bão đi với tốc độ 10-15km/h thì khoảng 15-16 tiếng nữa (sau 22h hôm nay) sẽ đổ bộ vào đất liền với sức gió mạnh cấp 8-9, giật cấp 11

If the storm continues at a speed of 10-15 km/h over the next 15-16 hours, it is expected to make landfall with sustained winds reaching Category 8-9 and peak gusts potentially reaching Category 11.

In (V5), the modal verb "sẽ" is used with a lexical verb to indicate a potential future action, such as a storm making landfall with sustained winds of Category 8-9 and peak gusts reaching Category 11 Additionally, "có thể" serves as a common auxiliary verb in Vietnamese weather forecasts to express the possibility of future events Here are two typical examples.

(V6) Về tình hình sóng, khu vực ngoài khơi sóng cao từ 4-6m, ở Phú Yên có thể lên cao nhất 7m

(= As regards waves, the offshore areas’ waves will be 4-6m in height and Phu Yen can see waves with their height reaching an estimated maximum of 7m.)

(V7) Bão Kammuri sáng 30/11 duy trì cường độ ở mức 150 km/h, có thể mạnh lên thành siêu bão trong 2 ngày tới

(= Kammuri storm on November 30 th will maintain its intensity of 150km/h and can strengthen into a super typhoon in the next two days.)

In (V8), the auxiliary nên (should) is often used to give advice or warnings for the coming disasters

(V8) Riêng nhóm nhạy cảm (người già, trẻ em và người mắc bệnh hô hấp) nên ở trong nhà, đóng kín các cửa sổ

Vulnerable groups, including the elderly, children, and individuals with respiratory infections, should remain indoors and keep all windows closed to ensure their safety.

Table 4.16: The frequency of adverbs as hedges in VWFs

Table 4.17 reveals a significant presence of adverbs in hedging, with the adverb "khoảng" (around) being the most frequently used in weather forecasts, appearing 17 times (42.5%) Following this, the adverbs "chủ yếu" (mainly), "xấp xỉ" (approximately), and "thường" (usually) are utilized 4 times (10%), 3 times (7.5%), and 2 times (5%), respectively.

Showers are localized weather phenomena, making precise predictions about their development challenging As a result, forecasters often use the term "scattered" to indicate uncertainty in shower predictions.

Due to the influence of cold air, scattered rain is expected in the mountainous regions of Northern Vietnam.

Similarities and differences of hedges in EWFs and VWFs

This section is devoted to encapsulating the similarities and differences of hedges in the English weather forecasts versus the Vietnamese ones

4.3.1 Summary of the quantitative data of hedge usages

Graph 4.1: The frequency of hedging categories in EWFs and VWFs

The frequency of hedging categories in EWFs and VWFs

Word Phrase luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

Graph 4.1 illustrates that word hedges significantly outnumber phrasal hedges in EWFs, comprising almost 97% of the total In contrast, VWFs exhibit a nearly equal distribution between word hedges and phrasal hedges, with word hedges at 49.5% and phrasal hedges at 50.5%.

EWFs and VWFs exhibit significant similarities in the hedging forms used, with modal auxiliary verbs, lexical verbs, and various lexical items such as nouns, adverbs, and adjectives being the most frequently occurring elements in both types.

Full verbs and modal verbs are crucial for hedging in both data sets Interestingly, adverbs, adjectives, and nouns contribute similarly to expressing modality, with adjectives and nouns being less significant than adverbs.

The frequency of phrasal hedges in Vietnamese written forms (VWFs) is comparable to that of lexical hedges, while a significant difference exists in English written forms (EWFs), where lexical hedges are used eight times more than phrasal hedges Notably, phrasal hedges are predominantly found in Vietnamese data but are seldom used in English data This discrepancy may be attributed to the nature of Vietnamese as a non-inflectional language, where words retain their form throughout a sentence In Vietnamese, verbs do not change endings to indicate tense, person, or finiteness; instead, the timing of actions is inferred from time adverbs, with the word "sẽ" occasionally used to indicate future actions.

Another difference is that the Vietnamese forecasters use significantly luan van tot nghiep download luanvanfull moi nhat z z @gmail.com Luan van thac si

Students often exhibit more hedging devices in their communication compared to their English counterparts, as they tend to be more tentative and cautious when making predictions In contrast, English speakers frequently criticize this indirect approach, viewing it as a waste of time For those interested in academic resources, recent theses and dissertations can be downloaded from various educational platforms.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ON PRAGMATIC

CONCLUSIONS

Tiêu đề	Hedging in Representatives in English and Vietnamese Weather Forecasts
Tác giả	Phạm Đoàn Thanh Dung
Người hướng dẫn	Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nguyễn Quang Ngoạn
Trường học	Quy Nhơn University
Chuyên ngành	English Linguistics
Thể loại	luận văn
Năm xuất bản	2020
Thành phố	Bình Định

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