INTRODUCTION
Body dissatisfaction affects both genders, with 61% of women and 41% of men perceiving themselves as 'too heavy,' and 21% of women and 11% of men feeling unattractive (Frederick, Peplau & Lever, 2006) This perception is prevalent even among individuals who are not medically classified as overweight Such feelings of body dissatisfaction are associated with negative impacts on mental and physical well-being, regardless of actual health markers (Bucchianeri & Neumark-Sztainer, 2014; Černelič-Bizjak & Jenko-Pražnikar, 2014; Vartanian & Novak, 2011; Wilson, Latner & Hayashi, 2013) Addressing body dissatisfaction may be crucial for enhancing overall health, particularly in its potential role in hindering regular exercise participation, which is vital for maintaining mental and physical health (Penedo & Dahn).
Links Between Body Dissatisfaction and Health
Body dissatisfaction is linked to unhealthy behaviors and negatively impacts both mental and physical health Research indicates that body dissatisfaction mediates the connection between BMI and psychological well-being, suggesting that a higher BMI can result in worse mental health outcomes, partly due to feelings of body dissatisfaction.
Body dissatisfaction plays a crucial role in mediating the relationship between BMI, self-esteem, and depressive mood, as highlighted by Neumark-Sztainer (2014) and Mond et al (2011) Additionally, it significantly affects physical health-related quality of life, with higher BMI linked to poorer health outcomes, partly due to body dissatisfaction (Wilson, Latner & Hayashi, 2013) This influence extends to health-related behaviors, as body dissatisfaction is associated with dieting, which can increase the risk of disordered eating (Stice & Shaw).
Research indicates that individuals with anti-fat attitudes and those who face weight-related stigma tend to avoid exercise (Vartanian & Novak, 2011) Both men and women experiencing body dissatisfaction show elevated levels of inflammatory biomarkers, such as C-reactive protein, even when accounting for factors like weight, sleep quantity, alcohol consumption, gender, and age (Černelič-Bizjak & Jenko-Pražnikar, 2014) Consequently, body dissatisfaction may serve as an independent risk factor for heart disease.
Positive body image is linked to significant mental and physical health benefits, as individuals with body satisfaction tend to avoid unhealthy diets and take measures to protect their skin from sun damage (Gillen, 2015) Both men and women who maintain a positive body image often experience higher self-esteem and lower rates of depression (Gillien, 2015) This connection between body satisfaction and mental well-being may stem from individual differences in optimism and the use of proactive coping strategies, such as regular exercise, among those who report positive body image (Avalos, Tylka, & Wood-Barcalow, 2005).
Tested Interventions to Increase Exercise and Body Satisfaction
Interventions aimed at enhancing body satisfaction have largely concentrated on boosting physical activity levels among participants, demonstrating varying degrees of success across diverse exercise types and demographic groups (Campbell & Hausenblas, 2009; Hausenblas & Fallon, 2006).
A meta-analysis of 57 studies revealed that exercise interventions led to a small but significant improvement in body satisfaction among participants compared to control groups, regardless of their overweight status or changes in fitness level or BMI during the intervention (Campbell & Hausenblas, 2009) This suggests that both medically healthy and overweight individuals can enhance their body satisfaction through exercise, without necessarily needing to improve their actual fitness or BMI levels.
Exercise interventions can enhance body satisfaction, but their effects are often minimal (Campbell & Hausenblas, 2009) These interventions tend to be effective primarily for participants who complete the studies, highlighting a significant issue with attrition (Linke, Gallo, & Norman, 2011) To improve the effectiveness of exercise interventions on behavioral, mental, and physical health outcomes, it is crucial to address the reasons behind participant dropout and the intention-behavior gap, including factors like perceived behavioral control, self-efficacy, and barriers to exercise (Ajzen, 1991; 2013; Sniehotta, Scholz & Schwarzer, 2005).
Body Dissatisfaction Prevents Engagement in Exercise
Exercise interventions may be ineffective for individuals with low body satisfaction, as they are likely to avoid signing up or may drop out of such programs Body dissatisfaction can lead to active avoidance of exercise, which reduces participation in moderate or vigorous activities Consequently, this limits the effectiveness of exercise interventions for those at risk, particularly individuals with high levels of body dissatisfaction.
Body dissatisfaction can lead to exercise avoidance, primarily because individuals who feel stigmatized about their weight often doubt their ability to participate in physical activities Research by Schmalz (2010) indicates that this perception of weight stigma negatively impacts self-efficacy, as perceived exercise competence is influenced more by body satisfaction than by actual weight status, such as BMI Consequently, low self-efficacy stemming from body dissatisfaction may deter individuals from engaging in exercise.
Individuals dissatisfied with their bodies often perceive significant barriers to exercise, which can hinder their ability to adopt and sustain a regular exercise routine This perception of barriers, whether real or imagined, plays a crucial role in preventing engagement in physical activity.
Research by Grubbs and Carter (2002) indicates that individuals who do not regularly exercise are more likely to view exercising as embarrassing compared to regular exercisers These non-exercisers not only perceive greater barriers, such as embarrassment and fatigue, but also recognize fewer benefits associated with physical activity Consequently, those dissatisfied with their bodies may avoid exercise due to these perceived barriers and may be less inclined to participate in exercise interventions.
This study aims to investigate the relationship between body dissatisfaction and exercise frequency, specifically examining the role of exercise avoidance as a mediator Additionally, it seeks to determine if body dissatisfaction predicts psychological well-being through exercise avoidance While these connections have not been explicitly explored in existing literature, the interplay between body dissatisfaction, health behaviors, and mental and physical health outcomes suggests their existence The research also focuses on identifying changeable factors that may influence the relationship between body dissatisfaction and exercise avoidance, testing the hypothesis that exercise self-efficacy and perceived barriers—such as embarrassment and fatigue—mediate this relationship To ensure accurate results, the study controls for participants' BMI, isolating the impact of body dissatisfaction on exercise behaviors.
Research indicates that exercise self-efficacy, perceived embarrassment, and perceived fatigue may mediate the link between body dissatisfaction and exercise avoidance Addressing these factors in individuals with body dissatisfaction before starting an exercise program could enhance their engagement and maximize the benefits of the intervention By focusing on improving body satisfaction and reducing exercise avoidance, exercise programs may increase participation and effectiveness for those at high risk for poor mental and physical health.
METHOD
The study involved a sample of 123 adults, including 36 staff members, recruited from an urban private university in the US through the psychology subject pool and departmental emails Participants' ages ranged from 18 to 73 years, with an average age of 24.7 years The majority of the sample was female (72%), and most participants identified as Caucasian (76%), while other ethnicities included South Asian (9.1%), Black (6.6%), East Asian (3.3%), and Middle Eastern (0.8%) The final analysis excluded participants who did not pass random response checks or who identified as NCAA athletes, resulting in a total of 110 participants.
The current study utilized data from a month-long observational research project, focusing on unique hypotheses not previously published Participants were recruited based on their commitment to engage in physical activity at least twice a week for 20 consecutive minutes Initially, they provided information on body satisfaction and demographics Following this, participants attended an in-person session to receive their Fitbits, during which researchers assisted them in developing a 'Fitbit action plan' to ensure consistent usage throughout the study Additionally, participants downloaded the Fitbit app to sync their activity data, with instructions to start wearing their Fitbits the following day.
Participants received a link to a second online questionnaire within 48 hours of the in-person session, which assessed self-efficacy, perceived embarrassment, and fatigue during exercise Four weeks later, they returned to the lab to return their assigned Fitbit, undergo weighing, and complete self-report questionnaires evaluating exercise avoidance and psychological well-being.
Body dissatisfaction was evaluated using the Body Appreciation Scale, a 13-item tool developed by Avalos, Tylka, and Wood-Barcalow (2005) This scale measures four dimensions of body acceptance: positive body opinions, acceptance of perceived imperfections, respect for one’s body through healthy behaviors, and satisfaction without idealizing thinness as portrayed in media It employs a 5-point Likert scale, where higher scores reflect greater body appreciation For the current analysis, scores were adjusted so that higher values indicate increased body dissatisfaction The Body Appreciation Scale demonstrates high internal consistency (α = 94) and convergent validity.
In a study by Barcalow (2005), significant negative correlations were found between body surveillance (r = -.55) and body shame (r = -.77) The Body Appreciation Scale demonstrated high reliability, with a coefficient of 0.92 at baseline and a test-retest reliability of r = 83 for follow-up scores (paired t(112) = -.66, p = 51) Additionally, the Body Shape Satisfaction Scale was utilized in the research.
The Body Shape Satisfaction Scale, developed by Pingitore, Spring, and Garfield in 1997, consists of 10 items that evaluate body satisfaction across specific areas such as the waist, stomach, and thighs Participants rate their satisfaction on a 5-point Likert scale from 'Very dissatisfied' to 'Very satisfied', with items reverse coded to reflect higher dissatisfaction at elevated scores This scale has demonstrated high internal consistency (α = 88) and convergent validity, correlating significantly with measures of bodily shame (r = -.63) and appearance evaluation (r = -.75) In the current study, the reliability coefficient for the Body Shape Satisfaction Scale was also 0.88, and the baseline and follow-up scores indicated strong test-retest reliability (r = 82, paired t(114) = 79, p = 43).
Recent research highlights the differences between body dissatisfaction and body appreciation, suggesting that these concepts are not merely opposite ends of the same spectrum Studies by Tylka and Wood-Barlow (2015) and Tiggemann and McCourt (2013) indicate that negative body image, such as body dissatisfaction, and positive body image, like body appreciation, represent distinct dimensions of body perception.
In the current study, exploratory factor analysis using maximum likelihood extraction and direct oblimin, along with parallel analysis, is employed to assess whether body dissatisfaction and body appreciation should be treated as combined or separate predictors for the main hypotheses, as suggested by Hayton, Allen, and Scarpello (2004).
The Fitbit Zip model utilizes accelerometry technology to accurately count steps, demonstrating high convergent validity with manually counted steps (Evenson, Goto & Furberg, 2015) and strong inter-device reliability Even individuals with sedentary lifestyles typically exhibit light daily activity, such as walking between classes, making a lack of recorded activity a sign that the Fitbit was not worn Participants were excluded from the final dataset if they had no recorded activity on 25% or more of the intervention days, and days with less than 10 hours of device wear were also omitted from analyses In this study, exercise frequency was defined as the proportion of days individuals participated in at least one 20-minute session of moderate or vigorous exercise.
Exercise avoidance was evaluated using two items from Vartanian and Shaprow (2008): "I avoid engaging in physical activity when others might be around" and "I feel uncomfortable going to a gym." These items are part of a 3-item scale utilized by Vartanian and Novak (2011) to measure exercise avoidance, with one original item excluded due to its focus on embarrassment Responses were recorded on a 7-point Likert scale, where higher scores indicated greater exercise avoidance The observed reliability of the scale was α = 86, and test-retest reliability was confirmed with follow-up scores (r = 78, paired t(115) = -1.54, p = 13).
The flourishing scale, developed by Diener et al (2009), evaluates participants' subjective psychological well-being through 8 items, such as "I lead a purposeful and meaningful life." Responses are measured on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from "Strongly disagree" to "Strongly agree."
The flourishing scale demonstrates strong temporal stability and high internal validity, with a reliability coefficient of 0.95 Higher scores on the scale indicate greater levels of general psychological well-being It also shows significant convergent validity with other psychological well-being measures, such as a correlation of r = 62 with life satisfaction and r = -.59 with optimism, where lower scores indicate higher optimism (Diener et al., 2010) Test-retest reliability was assessed using baseline scores, further confirming the scale's robustness.
The Benefits and Barriers to Exercise Scale, developed by Sechrist, Walker, and Pender (1987), was utilized to evaluate perceived barriers to exercise This study identifies two specific barriers—embarrassment and fatigue—that mediate the relationship between body dissatisfaction and exercise avoidance Embarrassment was assessed with the statement, "I am too embarrassed to exercise," while fatigue was measured through the items "I am fatigued by exercise" and "exercise is hard work" (α = 76) Participants rated these items on a 5-point Likert scale from "Strongly disagree" to "Strongly agree," with higher scores indicating a greater experience of barriers The selected barriers were based on their relevance to body dissatisfaction as highlighted in existing literature, excluding other barriers that do not conceptually relate to body dissatisfaction, such as "Inconvenient facility schedules" and "Costs too much to exercise."
Self-efficacy was measured using the item ‘I am confident that I can exercise for at least
The item '20 minutes, three times per week for the next month' is derived from the Theory of Planned Behavior Questionnaire and assesses behavior-specific self-efficacy, a component of perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 2013) It utilizes a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 'False' to 'True' Significant differences were observed in self-efficacy scores between baseline and follow-up measurements (r = 24, paired t(115) = 4.66, p < 001), indicating that self-efficacy may not be a stable construct.
Self-report questions were used to identify participants’ age, gender identification, race and ethnicity identifications, year of schooling, height, and weight
The survey included two items designed to detect random responding: one required participants to answer "mostly untrue," while the other required selecting the value "4." Research indicates that random responses can significantly distort effect sizes (Credé, 2010) To maintain data integrity, we conservatively excluded only those individuals who failed both checks.
14
As hypothesized, the relationship between body dissatisfaction and exercise frequency was mediated by exercise avoidance, even after controlling for BMI [Indirect effect: B = -.02 (SE
=.01) (95% CI: -.04 to -.01]) That is, a one-unit increase in body dissatisfaction results in a -.02 unit decrease in exercise frequency through the mediating variable of exercise avoidance
The link between body dissatisfaction and exercise frequency is influenced by exercise avoidance, as the direct impact of body dissatisfaction on exercise frequency is not significant Individuals who experience greater body dissatisfaction tend to engage in less exercise due to a higher likelihood of avoiding it Notably, this relationship is independent of BMI.
15
The study found that body dissatisfaction negatively impacts psychological well-being, independent of exercise avoidance and BMI While there was a significant relationship between body dissatisfaction and exercise avoidance, the latter did not mediate the connection to psychological well-being Higher levels of body dissatisfaction were associated with lower psychological well-being, confirming that this relationship exists beyond the influence of exercise avoidance and BMI Thus, the hypothesis that exercise avoidance mediates the relationship between body dissatisfaction and psychological well-being was only partially supported.
15
As hypothesized, the relationship between body dissatisfaction and exercise avoidance was mediated by embarrassment and fatigue as barriers to exercise, even after controlling for BMI (B
A one-unit increase in body dissatisfaction results in a significant increase in exercise avoidance, specifically by 24 due to perceived embarrassment and 10 due to fatigue The direct effect of body dissatisfaction on exercise avoidance was found to be non-significant, indicating that perceived embarrassment and fatigue serve as barriers to exercise Consequently, Hypothesis 3 was partially confirmed, as the relationship between body dissatisfaction and exercise avoidance was mediated by embarrassment and fatigue, but not by self-efficacy.
DISCUSSION
Body dissatisfaction is associated with negative mental and physical health effects, such as depression and a higher risk of heart disease Exercise interventions are commonly employed to enhance body image; however, their effectiveness may be limited for those struggling with body dissatisfaction Individuals who feel dissatisfied with their bodies often avoid exercise due to concerns about their ability to participate or fears of fatigue and embarrassment.
This study is the first to explore the connection between body dissatisfaction and exercise avoidance, highlighting the roles of perceived embarrassment and fatigue as significant factors Findings indicate that exercise avoidance mediates the relationship between body dissatisfaction and exercise frequency By addressing perceived barriers such as embarrassment and fatigue, interventions can encourage individuals dissatisfied with their bodies to engage in and maintain exercise routines Notably, targeting these factors alone may yield substantial effects, even in the absence of a direct relationship between body dissatisfaction and exercise avoidance.
In 2016, it was noted that a non-significant direct effect may indicate a non-linear relationship between the predictor and outcome variables or suggest that a third variable (mediator) influences this relationship (Hayes & Rockwood, 2006) Therefore, the lack of a significant direct effect between body dissatisfaction and exercise frequency (hypothesis 1), as well as between body dissatisfaction and exercise avoidance (hypothesis 2), does not diminish the importance of the mediation (indirect) effects observed in both scenarios.
Low body satisfaction is linked to reduced psychological well-being; however, this study found no evidence that exercise avoidance mediates this relationship, leading to the rejection of Hypothesis 2 The connection between body dissatisfaction and psychological well-being may stem from a general negative mood or the impact of poor well-being on body image perceptions Future research could explore more specific measures of well-being, particularly those related to exercise, to determine if body dissatisfaction influences exercise-related experiences through avoidance behaviors.
A surprising discovery was that exercise self-efficacy did not mediate the relationship between body dissatisfaction and exercise avoidance This indicates that individuals with low body satisfaction do not avoid exercise due to a lack of perceived ability to engage in physical activity This null finding contrasts with expectations based on a meta-analysis of the components of the Theory of Planned Behavior.
Self-efficacy is a significant predictor of both intention and behavior (Armitage & Conner, 2001), while body esteem influences perceived competence in physical activity (Schmalz, 2010) The null finding regarding self-efficacy may stem from the use of a limited single-item measure, although such measures have been effective in assessing health outcomes in other studies (Hoeppner et al., 2001) Additionally, a ceiling effect, where 71.8% of participants reported the highest self-efficacy, may have compromised the mediation analysis linking body dissatisfaction to exercise avoidance through perceived ability Future research should consider establishing a higher threshold for self-efficacy to align with current physical activity guidelines for adults (Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2017).
The current study has notable limitations, particularly in its measurement of exercise avoidance, which concentrated exclusively on social contexts This narrow focus may overlook other important aspects of exercise avoidance, such as private exercise avoidance or avoidance stemming from physical reactions To gain a deeper understanding of the connection between body dissatisfaction and exercise avoidance, it is essential to broaden the measurement approach to encompass these additional dimensions.
A key limitation of this study is the restricted range concerning exercise frequency and body dissatisfaction, as participants were required to engage in at least 20 minutes of exercise twice a week This criterion may have excluded individuals with the poorest body image, who might be less inclined to participate Future research should explore alternative recruitment strategies to include sedentary individuals and those with significant body dissatisfaction.
This research highlights the significant impact of body dissatisfaction on physical health, specifically through exercise frequency and avoidance Our findings indicate that exercise avoidance fully mediates the relationship between body dissatisfaction and exercise Furthermore, perceived barriers such as embarrassment and fatigue completely explain the connection between body dissatisfaction and exercise avoidance Consequently, exercise interventions focused on enhancing body satisfaction may not effectively reach those most dissatisfied with their bodies To improve the success of these interventions, it is essential to first address the perceived barriers of embarrassment and fatigue.
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P sy ch o lo g ic al W el l- B ei n g 0 3
E x er ci se A v o id an ce 4 8 6 5 0 6 - 0 7 0 7
Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations E x er ci se F re q u en cy - 2 8 - 2 0 - 0 9 1 7 0 2 - 2 3
C o m b in ed B o d y D is sa ti sf ac ti o n - 0 4 2 8 2 4 3 2 0 4 - 4 9 2 8
Table 1 Continued S ta n d ar d D ev ia ti o n 0 6 7 0 2 3 1 4 8 1 1 4 0 9 3 2 2 1 7 7 0 6 3 1
Combined body dissatisfaction can lead to increased exercise frequency and avoidance, often influenced by factors such as fatigue, embarrassment, and self-efficacy These elements significantly impact psychological well-being and can be correlated with an individual's Body Mass Index (BMI).
Table 2 Exploratory Factor Analysis of the Body Shape Satisfaction Scale and the Body Appreciation Scale
I feel good about my body 91
On the whole, I am satisfied with my body 88
I take a positive attitude toward my body 84
My feelings toward my body are positive, for the most part 83
Despite its imperfections I still like my body 82
Despite its flaws, I accept my body for what it is 81
I feel good that my body has at least some good qualities 62
I am attentive to my body’s needs 58
I engage in healthy behaviors to take care of my body 58
My self-worth is independent of my body shape or weight 45
I do not allow unrealistic images of women/men presented in the media to affect my attitudes towards my body
I do not focus a lot of energy on being concerned with my body shape or weight
Table 3 Mediation analysis results for Hypothesis 1
Upper Limit of 95% Confidence Interval
Note: path c refers to the total effect and path c’ refers to the direct effect
Table 4:Mediation analysis results for Hypothesis 2
Upper Limit of 95% Confidence Interval
Note: Path c refers to the total effect and path c’ refers to the direct effect
Table 5 Mediation analysis results for Hypothesis 3
Upper Limit of 95% Confidence Interval
Note: Path c refers to the total effect and path c’ refers to the direct effect
Figure 1 Mediation Model to Test Hypotheses 1 and 2
Note: path c refers to the total effect and path c’ refers to the direct effect
Exercise Frequency (Hyp 1) Psychological Well- Being (Hyp 2) a b c’ c
Figure 2 Mediation Model to Test Hypothesis 3
Note: Path c refers to the total effect and path c’ refers to the direct effect
2) I feel good about my body
3) On the whole, I am satisfied with my body
4) Despite its flaws, I accept my body for what it is
5) I feel that my body has at least some good qualities
6) I take a positive attitude toward my body
7) I am attentive to my body’s needs
8) My self-worth is independent of my body shape or weight
9) I do not focus a lot of energy on being concerned with my body shape or weight
10)My feelings toward my body are positive, for the most part
11)I engage in health behaviors to take care of my body
12)I do not allow unrealistic images of women/men presented in the media to affect my attitudes towards my body
13)Despite its imperfections, I still like my body
1) I feel uncomfortable going to a gym
2) I avoid engaging in physical activity when others might be around
1) I lead a purposeful and meaningful life
2) My social relationships are supportive and rewarding
3) I am engaged and interested in my daily activities
4) I actively contribute to the happiness and well-being of others
5) I am competent and capable in the activities that are important to me
6) I am a good person and live a good life
7) I am optimistic about my future
1) I am confident that I can exercise for at least 20 minutes, three times per week for the next month
Perceived barriers to exercise Embarrassment
1) I am too embarrassed to exercise
Scatterplot B1 Exercise Avoidance and Combined Body Dissatisfaction
Scatterplot B2 Exercise and Combined Body Dissatisfaction
Scatterplot B3 Exercise and Exercise Avoidance
Scatterplot B4 Exercise Avoidance and Fatigue
Scatterplot B5: Exercise Avoidance and Embarrassment
Scatterplot B5: Exercise Avoidance and Embarrassment
Scatterplot B6: Exercise Avoidance and Self-Efficacy
Scatterplot B7: Combined Body Dissatisfaction and Fatigue
Scatterplot B8: Combined Body Dissatisfaction and Embarrassment
Scatterplot B9: Combined Body Dissatisfaction and Self-Efficacy
APPENDIX C RESULTS WITH EXCLUSION OF OUTLIERS
Table C1 Mediation analysis results for Hypothesis 1 (With Removal of Multivariate
Upper Limit of 95% Confidence Interval
Note: path c refers to the total effect and path c’ refers to the direct effect
Indirect effect for hypothesis 1 (B = -.02 (SE 01) [95% CI: -.04 to -.01])
Table C2 Mediation analysis results for Hypothesis 2 (With Removal of Multivariate
Upper Limit of 95% Confidence Interval
Note: Path c refers to the total effect and path c’ refers to the direct effect
Indirect effect for hypothesis 2 (B = 05 (SE 19) [95% CI: -.31 to 41])
Table C3 Mediation analysis results for Hypothesis 3 (With Removal of Multivariate
Upper Limit of 95% Confidence Interval
Note: Path c refers to the total effect and path c’ refers to the direct effect
Indirect effect for fatigue (B = 10 (SE 06) [95% CI: 01 to 28])
Indirect effect for embarrassment (B = 24(SE 10) [95% CI: 08 to 47])
Indirect effect for self-efficacy (B = -.00(SE 02) [95% CI: -.06 to 01])
APPENDIX D RESULTS WITHOUT MEAN IMPUTATION
Table D1 Mediation analysis results for Hypothesis 1 (Without Inclusion of Imputed Means)
Upper Limit of 95% Confidence Interval
Note: path c refers to the total effect and path c’ refers to the direct effect
Indirect effect for hypothesis 1 (B = -.02 (SE 01) [95% CI: -.04 to -.01])
Table D2 Mediation analysis results for Hypothesis 2 (Without Inclusion of Imputed Means)
Upper Limit of 95% Confidence Interval
Note: Path c refers to the total effect and path c’ refers to the direct effect
Indirect effect for hypothesis 2 (B = -.02 (SE 23) [95% CI: -.45 to 44])
Table D3 Mediation analysis results for Hypothesis 3 (Without Inclusion of Imputed Means)
Upper Limit of 95% Confidence Interval
Note: Path c refers to the total effect and path c’ refers to the direct effect
Indirect effect for fatigue (B = -.01(SE 02) [95% CI: -.08 to 01])
Indirect effect for embarrassment (B = 23(SE 09) [95% CI: 07 to 42])
Indirect effect for self-efficacy (B = 09 (SE 05) [95% CI: 02 to 23])
APPENDIX E RESULTS WITH LOG10 TRANSFORMATION
Table E1 Mediation analysis results for Hypothesis 1 (Using Log10 of Exercise Avoidance and Frequency)
Upper Limit of 95% Confidence Interval
Note: path c refers to the total effect and path c’ refers to the direct effect
Indirect effect for hypothesis 1 (B = -.03 (SE 01) [95% CI: -.07 to -.01])
Table E2: Mediation analysis results for Hypothesis 2 (Using Log10 of Exercise Avoidance and Psychological Well-Being)
Upper Limit of 95% Confidence Interval
Note: Path c refers to the total effect and path c’ refers to the direct effect
Indirect effect for hypothesis 2 (B =