(Luận văn) relationship between leadership style and intrinsic motivation, moderating effects of power distance orientation and time with leader

Key words: transformational leadership, transactional leadership, intrinsic motivation, time with manger tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com

-

LE HUU MINH QUAN

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEADERSHIP STYLE AND

-

LE HUU MINH QUAN

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEADERSHIP STYLE AND

MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION THESIS

Supervisor: DR PHAM QUOC HUNG

HoChiMinh City – 2012

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

of formulating the ideas to establish my research on a sound foundation While my study was in progress, Dr Hung timely pointed out my mistakes and assisted me with insightful comments by his wisdom, remarkable professional knowledge, wealth of experience and passion

I am fortunate to have great friends and colleagues who have supported me throughout the entire period of my studies until accomplishing this thesis, especially

to those who helped me with my data collection

I have many other people at Ho Chi Minh University of Economics to thank for helping me along my scholastic journey

I deeply appreciate my wife and my expectant baby, for their endless love and always wholeheartedly supporting me throughout my most difficult time She gave me time to be a student when she needed a husband to share with her and take care of her during her very first hard trimester of her pregnancy

I cannot list down everyone who helped me but I extend my thanks to each

of them Truly, without you, it would never have turned out this well

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

Using 253 followers in HoChiMinh city – the biggest city in Vietnam – the author found that part of the transformational and transactional leadership behaviours were related to follower’s intrinsic motivation In detail, core transformational leadership and high performance expectation positively affected follower’s intrinsic motivation while contingent punishment posed negative impact

Providing individualized support, intellectual stimulation, and contingent reward were not found to be related to intrinsic motivation Assumptions were provided to back up the findings Results of the study did not prove the moderating role of power distance orientation on the relationship between leadership behaviors and follower’s intrinsic motivation However, time with leader showed to be the moderator for the relationship: the relationship between core transformational leadership behaviors and follower’s intrinsic motivation was more positive when follower had shorter working relationship time with leader Along the study, results also showed that there was significant effect of age on follower’s intrinsic motivation, both males and females However, difference magnitudes of effects between males and females were observed at different age groups

Key words: transformational leadership, transactional leadership, intrinsic

motivation, time with manger

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

TABLE OF CONTENT

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i

ABSTRACT ii

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY 1

1.1 Research background 1

1.2 Research objectives 2

1.3 Research scope and approach 3

1.4 Research structure 3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW, THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK, AND HYPOTHESES 5

2.1 Leadership behaviors 5

2.1.1 Transactional leadership behaviors 5

2.1.2 Transformational leadership behaviors 5

2.2 Leadership and intrinsic motivation 6

2.2.1 Intrinsic motivation 6

2.2.2 Transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation 7

2.2.2.1 Core transformational leadership behaviors and intrinsic motivation 7 2.2.2.2 High performance expectation and intrinsic motivation 8

2.2.2.3 Providing individualized support and intrinsic motivation 8 tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

TABLE OF CONTENT

Continued

2.2.2.4 Intellectual stimulation and intrinsic motivation 9

2.2.3 Transactional leadership and intrinsic motivation 10

2.2.3.1 Contingent reward and intrinsic motivation 10

2.2.3.2 Contingent punishment and intrinsic motivation 10

2.3 Power distance orientation as a moderator of the leader behavior-follower’s intrinsic motivation relationship 11

2.3.1 Cultural values as moderators of the leader behavior-follower’s intrinsic motivation relationship 11

2.3.2 Power distance orientation as the moderator of the leader behavior-follower’s intrinsic motivation relationship 12

2.4 Time with leader as a moderator of the leader behavior-follower’s intrinsic motivation relationship 11

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 16

3.1 Research design 16

3.2 Questionnaire development 17

3.2.1 Transformational leadership 18

3.2.2 Transactional leadership 19

3.2.3 Power distance orientation 19

3.2.4 Intrinsic motivation 19

3.2.5 Control variables 19

3.3 Translation of the questionnaire 20

3.4 The pilot study 21

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

TABLE OF CONTENT

Continued

3.4.1 Pilot study phase 1 21

3.4.2 Pilot study phase 2 22

3.5 Target population 24

3.6 Sample size 24

3.7 Selecting the sample and collecting data 25

3.8 Sample characteristics 26

3.9 Methods of data analysis 26

3.9.1 Data cleaning 26

3.9.2 Reliability 26

3.9.3 Confirmatory factor analysis 27

3.9.4 Analysis of Variance (one-way and two-way ANOVA) 28

3.9.5 Regression analysis 28

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS 30

4.1 Data cleaning 30

4.2 Profiles of qualified respondents 30

4.3 Normality analysis 32

4.4 Reliability of the measurements 33

4.5 Confirmatory factor analysis 34

4.6 Analysis of variance 37

4.7 Correlation analysis 41

4.8 Hypotheses testing 43

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

TABLE OF CONTENT

Continued

4.8.1 Effects of leadership behaviors on follower’s intrinsic motivation (H1a,

H1b, H1c, H1d, H2a, H2b) 43

4.8.2 Moderating effects of power distance orientation on the leadership behaviors-follower’s intrinsic motivation relationship (H3a, H3b) 45

4.8.3 Moderating effects of Time with Manager on the leadership behaviors-follower’s intrinsic motivation relationship (H4a, H4b) 47

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION 50

5.1 Discussions of findings 50

5.2 Practical implications 53

5.3 Contribution of the current study 54

5.4 Limitations and future research 55

REFERENCES 57

RESERCH APPENDICES 63

Appendix A: Vietnamese Questionnaire 63

Appendix B: Reliability Test Results 66

Appendix C: Testing Regression Assumptions 72

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

LIST OF TABLES

3-1 Survey Item Used in the Study 23

3-2 Assessing Fit Indices 28

4-1 Variables Included in the Analyses 30

4-2 Socio-demographic Characteristics of the Qualified Samples 31

4-3 Assessment of Normality 32

4-4 Summary of Cronbach Alpha Measures Across Variables 34

4-5 Assessing Fit Indices – Hypothesized Model 35

4-6 Standardized Regression Weights – Hypothesized Model 35

4-7 Assessing Fit Indices – Modified Model 37

4-8 Analysis of Variance 38

4-9 2-Way ANOVA of Age and Sex 40

4-10 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations 42

4-11 Multi Linear Regression: Model summary, ANOVA & Coefficients 44

4-12 Power Distance Orientation Moderates the Relationship between Core Transformational Leadership and Subordinate Intrinsic Motivation 46

4-13 Power Distance Orientation Moderates the Relationship between High Performance Expectation and Subordinate Intrinsic Motivation 46

4-14 Power Distance Orientation Moderates the Relationship between Contingent Punishment and Subordinate Intrinsic Motivation 47

4-15 Time with Manager Moderates the Relationship between Core Transformational Leadership Behaviours and Subordinate Intrinsic Motivation 48 tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

LIST OF FIGURES

2-1 The Hypothesized Model 15

3-1 The Research Process 18

4-1 Hypothesized First-order 32-items CFA Model 36

4-2 2-Way ANOVA of Age and Sex – Plot of Means 41

5-1 Building Blocks for the Four Types of Intrinsic Rewards 53 tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

Vietnam is on the quest of globalization and modernization Along with this

is the irresistible trend of urbanization and domestic labor migration where people relocate themselves from rural to urban areas and move from one region to another

This trend unostentatiously makes an organization workforce more diverse in terms

of cultural values, beliefs, practices and behaviors (Vance & Paik, 2011) Further, it

is obvious that young Vietnamese people now have more chances to expose to and inherit from overseas educations and cultures, which bring them a long-lasting impact on their set of values and behaviors throughout their future career In the so-called information age, with surprisingly high Internet accessibility, to get access to world is easier than ever This is, undoubtedly, an influential factor on their cultural value shape-up As such, at micro level, organizations are to deal with a diverse workforce with multi cultural values Effectively managing workforce diversity has been identified as one of five distinguishing features of organizations that make it onto Fortune magazines’ list of 100 Best Companies (Werner & DeSimone, 2009)

Cultural values are defined as a consciously and subconsciously held set of beliefs and norms - often anchored in the morals, laws, customs, and practices of a society – that define what is right and wrong and specify general preferences (Adler, 2002) (as cited in Kirkman, Chen, Farh, & Lowe, 2009) Among those tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

cultural values is individually held power distance orientation Power distance is defined as the extent to which one accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally (Hofstede, G., 2001) House et al (2004) referred to high power distance as “hierarchy” and low power distance as

“egalitarianism” (cited in Kirkman et al., 2009) To differentiate individually-held and country power distance orientation, Kirkman et al (2009) used the term power distance orientation to indicate an individual-level construct

In the leadership domain, such as implicit leadership theory, cultural value orientations can shape beliefs about what behaviours, styles, skills, and personality traits characterize effective leadership (Javidan, Dorfman, de Luque, & House 2006) Followers with different cultural values may react differently to the same leadership behaviors Hence, to be effective in managing a culturally diverse workforce, leaders need to understand how individually held cultural value orientations affect reactions to leadership, as well as how various leadership behaviors interact with follower’s cultural value orientations to influence follower’s affective, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes (Kirkman et al., 2009), and thereby influencing his/ her intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation is the extent to which

an individual is inner-directed, interested in or fascinated with a task, and engages

in it for the sake of the task itself (Utman, 1997) When intrinsically motivated, employees spend more effort based on interest, curiosity, and a desire to learn (Ryan & Deci, 2000) (cited in Grant & Berry, 2011) Intrinsic motivation may help reinforce creativity, cognitive flexibility, risk taking, and persistence (Grant &

Berry, 2011)

1.2 Research objectives:

In this study, the author examines the effects of leadership behaviors on followers’ intrinsic motivation, while also taking into account possible moderating roles of individual differences (i.e individual level power distance orientation) and time a follower spends with his/ her leader Accordingly, the study aims at answering the below 4 research questions:

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

Question 1: Is there any difference in intrinsic motivation among groups of followers with different socio-demographic characteristics (age and gender)?

Question 2: How do different leadership behaviors (transformational leadership behaviors, transactional leadership behavior) influence follower’s intrinsic motivation?

Question 3: How does follower’s power distance orientation interact with different leadership behaviors to influence follower’s intrinsic motivation?

Question 4: How does follower’s time with leader moderate the relationship between leadership behaviors and follower’s intrinsic motivation?

1.3 Research scope and approach:

First, this study is conducted in HoChiMinh city, the biggest city in Vietnam

The choice of HoChiMinh city is mainly led by the increasing diversified workforce, due to which cultural value difference is possibly clearer as compared to other cities

Second, the research only focuses on highly educated employees who at least have a university degree This choice of population and sample frame makes the study feasible (given time and resource limitation) by facilitating online survey method and helps address the research questions in the simplest way possible

Third, the research only includes into the analysis those respondents who have been working with their leaders for at least 3 months This is to ensure that followers have enough time to observe and to be influenced by their leaders’

leadership behaviors

Forth, the study is conducted in 2 main phases: pilot study (comprising of 2 sub-phases) and main study The purpose of the pilot study is to check the contents and to examine the measurement scales Then the main study is conducted to confirm the measurement scales, to test the hypotheses and to confirm the research model

1.4 Research structure

The study is reported in 5 chapters:

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

Chapter 1: Introduction will provide the research background, research objectives, as well as research scope and approach

Chapter 2: Literature review provides theoretical and empirical background behind the hypothesized research model

Chapter 3: Methodology details the methodologies the author use to conduct this research

Chapter 4: Analysis is conducted based on the collected data to test the hypotheses and answer the research questions

Chapter 5: The author discusses the results; provide practical implication, and possible directions for future research

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW, THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK,

2.1 Leadership behaviours

2.1.1 Transactional leadership behaviours

Transactional leader behaviours involve an exchange between the leader and follower, such that the leader provides rewards in return for the followers’ effort (Burns, 1978) (cited in Bass, 2006) According to Bass & Riggio (2006), there are two main forms of transactional leadership behaviour One is contingent rewards behaviour, which is positive leadery feedback The other form of transactional leadership is called “management by exception” by Bass (2006) and contingent punishment by others (MacKenzie & Podsakoff, 2001), which involves a variety of forms of negative feedback (e.g correction, criticism, and other forms of punishment), administered by the manager contingent on poor performance

2.1.2 Transformational leadership behaviours

Although transformational theories are complementary, they each specify a somewhat different set of behaviours (Bass & Riggio, 2006) Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, & Fetter (1990) indentified 6 key classes of transformational leadership behaviours: Articulating a vision, providing an tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

appropriate model (e.g., leading by example), fostering the acceptance of group goals, having high performance expectations, providing individualized support, and providing intellectual stimulation Previous research (e.g Podsakoff, MacKenzie, and Bommer 1996; Podsakoff et al 1990) found that three dimensions (articulating

a vision, providing an appropriate model, and fostering the acceptance of group goals) were highly inter-correlated and modeled those dimensions as indicators of a second order construct called core transformational leader behavior

Transformational leadership behaviours differ from transactional leadership behaviours in many ways (MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Rich, 2001) First, the forms

of transformational leadership behaviours involve far more than just the administration of rewards and punishment Second, the process through which transformational leadership influences followers is different from the process involved in transactional leadership Transformational leadership involves fundamentally changing the values, goals, and aspirations of followers, so that they perform their work because it is consistent with their values, as opposed to the expectations that they will be rewarded for their efforts Finally, the transformational leadership behaviours tend to be more proactive ways of influencing followers, while transactional behaviours tend to be more reactive

2.2 Leadership and intrinsic motivation

2.2.1 Intrinsic motivation

Review of recent research indicates that different forms of leadership are related to intrinsic motivation (e.g Zhang & Bartol, 2010; Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006) Intrinsic motivation refers to the extent to which an individual is inner-directed, is interested in or fascinated with a task, and engages in it for the sake of the task itself (Utman, 1997) Employees fine the rewards inherent to the activity (Sansone & Harackiewicz, 2000) When intrinsically motivated, employees are process focused, meaning they see the work as an end in and of itself (Amabile, 1993) Individual must be intrinsically motivated for creativity to occur (Amabile &

Hennessey) (cited in Sansone & Harackiewicz, 2000) tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

Conceptually, there are different factors influencing intrinsic motivation

Edward Deci’s model focuses on task activities (cited in Thomas, 2009) In Deci’s model, task activities are intrinsically rewarding when people experience a sense of

self-determination and of competence Another model was developed by Richard

Hackman and Greg Oldham (cited in Thomas, 2009) The Hackman and Oldham’s model says that intrinsic motivation occurs when three “psychological states” are

present: experience meaningfulness of the work, experience responsibility for outcomes of the work, and acknowledge actual results of the work

Thomas’ (2009) model covers the above two models by collapsing Hackman and Oldham’s three psychological states into two intrinsically rewarding states (a

sense of meaningfulness and of progress) and adding the missing activity-related rewards (sense of choice and of competence) A sense of meaningfulness is the opportunity a person feels to pursue a worthy purpose A sense of choice is the

opportunity a person feels to select activities that make sense to that person and to

perform them in ways that seem appropriate A sense of competence is the

accomplishment a person feels in skilfully performing the activities chosen A sense

of progress is the accomplishment a person feels in achieving the purpose

2.2.2 Transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation

According to Bass & Riggio (2006), transformational leadership emphasizes

on intrinsic motivation and on the positive development of followers

Transformational leaders do more with followers than set up simple exchanges or agreements They behave in ways to achieve superior results by employing one or more of the four components of transformational leadership Each of the components can help build follower’s intrinsic motivation in different ways The leadership inspires followers with challenge and persuasion, providing both meaning and understanding The leadership is intellectually stimulating, expanding the followers’ use of their abilities Finally, the leadership is individually considerate, providing the follower with support, mentoring, and coaching

2.2.2.1 Core transformational leadership behaviours and intrinsic motivation

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

Articulating a vision is behaviour on the part of a manager that is aimed at identifying and expressing of a clear vision of the future (Podsakoff et al., 1990)

According to House, Shamir, & Arthur (1993), a vision is “an ideological goal that describes better future for followers” By articulating a vision or a mission, the

transformational leader increases the intrinsic value of goal accomplishment (Bass

& Riggio, 2006) Going beyond a transactional leader’s specification and clarification of goals, the transformational leader presents the values in the goals

Accomplishment of the goals, thereby, becomes more meaningful

Providing an appropriate model is aimed at setting an example for followers that is consistent with both the values the leaders espouse and the goals of the organization (Podsakoff et al., 1990) A leader, who leads by example, by modelling behaviours that are consistent with an organization’s goals, should be effective at clarifying the followers’ role within that organization, and consequently followers

will find more meaningfulness in their tasks

Thus, the author predicts:

Hypothesis 1a: Core transformational leadership behaviours are positively

related to follower’s intrinsic motivation 2.2.2.2 High performance expectation and intrinsic motivation

The followers’ self-esteem is reinforced by the transformational leader through expressions of confidence in the followers (Bass & Riggio, 2006) High expectations are set by the transformational leader, which induce greater commitment to the effort Holding and subtly communicating high performance expectations for followers has been demonstrated to positively influence followers’

performance in organizations (Kierein & Gold, 2000) (cited in Bass & Riggio, 2006) This effect raises a particular form of self-esteem, or self-efficacy, in

followers, instilling in them the idea that they can indeed perform up to high

expectations and assuring them that the leader will help ensure they have the means

to do it (Eden & Sulimani, 2002) (cited in Bass, 2006) Thus, the author predicts:

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

Hypothesis 1b: High performance expectation behaviour is positively related

to follower’s intrinsic motivation 2.2.2.3 Providing individualized support and intrinsic motivation

Transformational leaders pay special attention to each individual follower’s needs for achievement and growth by acting as a coach or mentor (Bass & Riggio, 2006) Followers and colleagues are developed to successively higher levels of potential Individual differences in terms of needs and desires are recognized

Leaders indicate that he/ she respects followers and is concerned about their personal feelings and needs (Podsakoff et al., 1990) The leader’s behaviour demonstrates acceptance of individual differences (e.g., some employees receive more encouragement, some more autonomy, others firmer standards, and still others more task structure) (Bass, 2006; Podsakoff et al., 1990) A two-way exchange in communication is encouraged, interactions with followers are personalized (e.g., the leader remembers previous conversations, is aware of individual concerns, and sees the individual as a whole person rather than as just an employee) The individually considerate leader listens effectively The leader delegates tasks as a means of developing followers Delegated tasks are monitored to see if the followers need additional direction or support and to assess progress; ideally, followers do not feel they are being checked on Followers feel their personal career needs are being met

Additionally, the coaching and mentoring provided to them provides them with a

sense of increased competence to carry out tasks Consequently, the author predicts:

Hypothesis 1c: Providing individualized support behaviour is positively

related to follower’s intrinsic motivation 2.2.2.4 Intellectual stimulation and intrinsic motivation

Transformational leaders stimulate their followers’ efforts to be innovative and creative by questioning assumptions, reframing problems, and approaching old situations in new ways (Bass, 2006) Creativity is encouraged There is no public criticism of individual members’ mistakes New ideas and creative problem solutions are solicited from followers, who are included in the process of addressing tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

problems and finding solutions Followers are encouraged to try new approaches, and their ideas are not criticized because they differ from the leaders’ ideas

Kark & Shamir (2002) found that transformational leadership behaviour such

as intellectual stimulation increases the followers’ feeling of self-worth because

they transmit the message that the leader believes in the followers’ integrity and ability Based on the discussion, the author expects:

Hypothesis 1d: Intellectual stimulation is positively related to follower’s

intrinsic motivation

2.2.3 Transactional leadership and intrinsic motivation

2.2.3.1 Contingent reward and intrinsic motivation

According to Bass (1985), contingent reward leadership involves the leader assigning or obtaining follower’s agreement on what needs to be done with promised or actual rewards offered in exchange for satisfactorily carrying out the assignment Eisenberger & Cameron (1996) suggested that reward contingent on

reaching a specific criterion of performance increases self-determination They also

maintained that the promise of repeated use of rewards conveys that (a) the individual giving the reward lacks control over the performance of the potential reward recipient, and (b) the potential reward recipient has the option of declining

the reward and not acting as requested Therefore, reward should increase perceived

autonomy This view is further supported by Eisenberger & Cameron’s (1999)

meta-analysis The analysis also indicated that rewards increased perceived

self-determination and that rewards’ effects on intrinsic motivation depend on the

performance requirement Reward for meeting vague performance standards reduced the subsequent choice to carry out the task and did not affect self reported interest Reward for meeting absolute performance standards did not affect free choice but increased self-reported interest The above arguments may indicate that the positive effects of contingent reward on follower’s intrinsic motivation may be diluted in certain cases In sum, the author expects:

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

Hypothesis 2a: Contingent reward behaviour is positively related to

follower’s intrinsic motivation 2.2.3.2 Contingent punishment and intrinsic motivation

Contingent punishment has the function of reminding followers that their performance is being monitored and future punishment is contingent on their level

of performance (MacKenzie et al., 2001) In the context of military service, Bass &

Riggio (2006) pointed out that obedience is initiated by punishment during the early phases of socialization into military life However, obedience can have double-edged effects, especially when it becomes blind Under certain circumstances most individuals can be pushed to the point of fully obedient behaviour despite their doubts or distress Acting in obedience to a perceived legitimized authority, individuals can lose sense of responsibility for their most destructive acts Deci &

Cascio (1972) reported that when subjects were threatened with punishment for poor performance, their intrinsic motivation decreased Thus, the author expects:

Hypothesis 2b: Contingent punishment behaviour is negatively related to

follower’s intrinsic motivation

2.3 Power distance orientation as a moderator of the leader follower’s intrinsic motivation relationship

behaviour-2.3.1 Cultural values as moderators of the leader behaviour-follower’s intrinsic motivation relationship

Cultural values are defined as a consciously and subconsciously held set of beliefs and norms – often anchored in the morals, laws, customs, and practices of a society – that define what is right and wrong and specify general preferences (Adler, 2002) Review of the cultural management literature (Kirkman et al., 2009;

Nahum-Shani & Somech, 2011) indicate that cultural value orientations, or individually held cultural values and beliefs, play an important role in how employees react to aspects of their work In the leadership domain, cultural value orientations can shape beliefs about what behaviours, styles, skills, and personality traits characterize effective leadership (House, Javidan, Dofman, Gupta, & Globe tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

Associates, 2004) Referring to the work of Lord & Maher (1991), Gerstner & Day (1994) suggested that a follower's evaluation of a leader is a subjective process which reflects the self and its cultural background Since this evaluation process determines the extent to which the leader will be able to influence followers’

outcomes in the desired direction, recent cross-cultural leadership research has examined cultural factors that may moderate the effectiveness of transformational and transactional leadership The underlying premise for this research is that the relationship between leadership styles and followers’ perceptions, attitudes and behaviours may be contingent upon the cultural context within which leader–

follower relations are nested (Gelfand, Bhawuk, Nishi, & Bechtold, 2004)

Walumbwa, Lawler, & Avolio (2007) (cited in Nahum-Shani & Somech, 2011) suggest that "without taking into consideration individual differences among followers, research on transactional and transformational leadership, especially across cultures, will likely fall short of fully explaining the linkages between leadership, followers, and performance outcomes."

According to Triandis (1986), individual values specify what constitutes normative behaviours and acceptable roles for individuals within specific social contexts Individual values largely determine how one evaluates other people's actions and behaviours and the way in which he/she is influenced by them In this sense, Cultural Congruence Theory (House, Wright, & Aditya, 1997) proposes that individuals have implicit theories (stereotypes, beliefs, and assumptions) about the attributes and behaviours that distinguish effective from ineffective leaders These theories influence the values individuals place on certain leader behaviours and their reasons for accepting these behaviours and perceiving the leader as influential and legitimate Although cultural congruence theory suggests that implicit leadership theories are likely to vary across societal units, it also points to the influence of external cultural forces on individual values, suggesting within-societal variation in implicit leadership theories Accordingly, it has been suggested that leader behaviours consistent with particular values will be viewed as more acceptable and tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

effective, while leader behaviours that violate individual norms are likely to result

in followers' dissatisfaction, and hence lower performance

2.3.2 Power distance orientation as the moderator of the leader follower’s intrinsic motivation relationship

behaviour-To distinguish between power distance at the country and individual levels of analysis, the author uses the term power distance orientation to indicate an individual-level construct (see Kirkman et al (2009) for a similar treatment of power distance at the individual level of analysis) Bass & Riggio (2006) maintains that “whether transformational or transactional leadership emerges and is successful and effective depends to some extent on the environment, the organization, the tasks

and goals involved, and the distribution of power between the leaders and the

followers.” According to Kirkman et al (2009), power distance orientation has a

more theoretically direct relationship to leadership reactions than other cultural values (e.g “individualism-collectivism,” “uncertainty avoidance,’ and masculinity-femininity”) Followers with high power distance orientation expect more, and are more receptive to, one-way, top-down direction from their leaders Individuals with

a high power distance orientation accept the existence of unequal power distribution and believe it is acceptable for superiors to have a great degree of power over followers (Hofstede, 2001) Conversely, employees with low power distance orientations have a tendency to develop a strong, personal connection with their superiors; this type of relationship may blur the lines of authority because the follower may be somewhat dependent on positive feedback that enhances the relationship

Transformational leaders often stimulate followers in challenging ways and expect true, two-way leader-follower relationships (Bass & Riggio, 2006) Given behaviours associated with transformational leaders, it is hypothesized that individuals lower, rather than higher, in power distance orientation would be more intrinsically motivated when working with transformational leaders Since employees with a high power distance orientation expect their leaders to tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

communicate strong directives with little explanation or clarification, a transformational leader who strives to intellectually stimulate followers by challenging them to re-examine assumptions about their work or rethink how their jobs can be performed might be met with suspicion by such followers (Hofstede, 2001; House et al., 2004) Conversely, follower with low power distance would be more intrinsically motivated when their leaders ask them to re-examine assumptions about their work and think how they their jobs can be better performed as they do not prefer the top-down approach The author has similar arguments for followers who are working with transactional leader Individuals higher, rather than lower, in power distance orientation would be more intrinsically motivated when working with transactional leaders

Hypothesis 3a: Follower’s power distance orientation moderates the

relationship between transformational leadership behaviours and follower’s intrinsic motivation: the relationship is more positive for those lower, rather than higher, in power distance orientation

Hypothesis 3b: Follower’s power distance orientation moderates the

relationship between transactional leadership behaviours and follower’s intrinsic motivation: the relationship is more positive for those higher, rather than lower, in power distance orientation

2.4 Time with leader as a moderator of the leader behaviour-follower’s intrinsic motivation relationship

To foster perceptions of shared values, leaders need sufficient time with followers to influence their value judgments (Hoffman, Bynum, Piccolo, & Sutton, 2011) Gerstner & Day (1997) also asserted that as leaders and members have new and different experiences and learn more about each other, their relationship will evolve and grow As relationship grows, leaders and followers tend to share trust, responsibilities (Bauer & Green, 1996) After multiple interactions, both the leader and the member would develop more positive attitudes towards the other individual

in the dyad, compared to their initial attitude (Nahrgang, Morgeson, Ilies, 2009) On tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

the other hand, insufficient time with manger is likely to compromise a leader’s ability to develop trust, to shape perceptions of shared meaning and also to hinder follower to give judgements for their leaders’ leadership behaviours Accordingly, the author hypothesizes that tenure with one’s leader will play an important moderating role in the relationship between leadership behaviours and follower’s intrinsic motivation, such that transformational and transactional leadership behaviours are related to increased levels of intrinsic motivation as a function of time shared between leaders and their followers

Hypothesis 4a: Tenure with a leader moderates the relationship between

transformational leadership behaviours and follower’s intrinsic motivation: the relationships are stronger with longer tenure

Hypothesis 4b: Tenure with a leader moderates the relationship between

transactional leadership behaviours and follower’s intrinsic motivation: the relationships are stronger with longer tenure

All hypotheses are summarized and depicted in Figure 2-1

Figure 2-1: The Hypothesized Model

Reward Behavior

Punishment Behavior

Individualized Support

High Performance Expectation Core Behaviors

Intellectual Stimulation

Transformational Leadership

Transactional Leadership

Intrinsic Motivation

Power Distance Orientation

H1d (+) H1c (+)

Time With Leader

H4b (+)

H4a (+)

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this chapter is to address the methods used in this study

Items that will be addressed include research design, questionnaire development, translation of the questionnaire, pilot study, target population, sample frame, sample size, sample selection, sample characteristics, data collection and methods of data analysis

After the pilot study, the main study was conducted using online survey method (web-based, docs.google.com) The purposes were to confirm the measurement scales, to test the hypotheses and to confirm the research model With online survey, the respondent completed the questionnaire without assistance of an interviewer Online survey was selected as it proved to be an appropriate research method for this study Sue & Ritter (2007) mentions some conditions when online survey should be used

First, whether the questionnaire deals with sensitive information The questionnaire in this study required the respondents to rate their leaders’ leadership behaviours Participants who are asked to respond to a questionnaire by face-to-face tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

interview or replying to an e-mail may lose their anonymity If, however, participants are directed to a Web site to complete the questionnaire, anonymity can

be better ensured, thereby improving quality of response

Second, the questionnaire was short in length (32 items), simple in content (all items are in Likert scale), and clear in structure (questionnaires are divided into sections), which facilitated high response rate, high percentage of fully-completed questionnaires

Third, online surveys require that target respondents have access to the Internet The author expected the internet access rate is high among the target respondents, who are university graduates and are currently working for a company

Besides, the target respondent group were expected to be knowledgeable to complete the questionnaire by themselves

Forth, responses to online survey are greatest when respondents are first contacted by email Access to the appropriate email list make an online survey a reasonable choice In this study, the author did not have email contacts of all target respondents; however had the email contacts of key contact leads Contact lead would then help send survey link to other target respondents

Fifth, online surveys have the potential for fast turnaround Give timeline is crucial for this study, online survey would help end the project as target timeline

3.2 Questionnaire development

The survey contained 4 sections, including leadership behavior questions, power distance orientation questions, intrinsic motivation question and socio-demographic profile questions According to Babbie’s (1998) recommendations, short instructions were given at the beginning of each section All items were assessed on Likert-type scales on which 1 represents “strongly disagree” and 7 represents “strongly agree”

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

Figure 3-1: The Research Process

LITERATURE REVIEW

(Develop research model and hypotheses)

PILOT STUDY USING THE INITIAL MEASUREMENT

The initial measurement scales

THE MAIN STUDY USING THE FINAL MEASUREMENT SCALES

(Online survey: n=271)

REPORT WRITING

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), Regression

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

3.2.3 Power distance orientation

Following previous individual-level research (Kirkman et al., 2009), the author assessed power distance orientation with an eight-item individual-level measure taken from Earley and Erez (1997)

The author would exclude years of working from analysis if age and years of working were found to be strongly correlated Sex was measured as dichotomous variable (male and female) Company tenure was measured as the number of years tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

an employee had been in the company Time with leader was measured as number

of months that a follower had been working with his/ her current leader in the current company Besides being positioned as a moderating variable, this variable was only used as a screening criterion, which was led by the assumption that an employee could not observe and assess the leader’s leadership behavior if they had not spent enough time working with each other On top of that, the author also measured nationality of leader (measured as dichotomous variable i.e Vietnamese

or other) and type of company (measured as dichotomous variable i.e companies with foreign ownership and company without foreign ownership)

3.3 Translation of the questionnaire

Surveys were translated and back-translated into Vietnamese in line with cross cultural translation procedures (Harkness & Schoua-Glusberg, 1998)

Committee approaches were used for translation Committee or parallel translation involved several translators who made independent translations of the same questionnaire as recommendation from Brislin (1980) (as cited in Harkness &

Schoua-Glusberg, 1998) At a reconciliation (consensus, revision) meeting, translators compared the translations, reconciled discrepancies and agreed on a final version which taped the best of the independent translations or, alternatively, appeared in the course of discussion In this study, author used the committee of two translators

According to Harkness & Schoua-Glusberg (1998), the term back translation referred to the translation of a translation back into the source language The purpose of back translation was to compare, contrast the back translation with the source text with a view to assessing the quality of a translation For survey translation, back translation is seen as offering a solution to the fact that researchers often need information about the quality of translations without being able to read and evaluate these themselves

The basic steps involved were as follows:

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

1 A source text in one language (Source Language Text One, SLT1) was translated into another language (Target Language Text, TLT) using committee approach

2 The TLT was translated back into the language of SLT1 by a second translator, unfamiliar with the SLT1 and uninformed that there was an SLT1 This second translation, the back translation, was SLT2

3.4 The pilot study

3.4.1 Pilot study phase 1

The questionnaire was pre-tested using 5 respondents who were working at Fonterra Brands Vietnam (n = 2), Nielsen Vietnam (n = 2), and Coca Cola Vietnam (n = 1) The individuals were not included in the final sample The qualitative comments received were mostly regarding wording and repetitions of the items

Since all comments on repetitions were due to reverse score items, no revision on the questionnaire was made All modifications were for wording to make the translation clearer and closer to Vietnamese e.g “kiên quyết yêu cầu” replaced by

“chỉ chấp nhận” (item 5), “nghĩ về những vấn đề” replaced by “xem xét những vấn đề” (item 11), “tạo ra những qui trình làm việc” replaced by “xây dựng những qui trình làm việc” (item 31)

3.4.2 Pilot study phase 2

In pilot study phase 2, the author asked help from the 5 respondents in pilot study phase 1 to distribute the survey link to their friends and colleagues 45 responses were received Out of the 45 returned questionnaire, there were 5 missing-answer questionnaires which were eliminated This was due to the fact that tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

the author did not put the condition “required” in the survey form, some respondents submitted the response without fully completed the form Given this result, the author put “required” for all questions in main survey to ensure that all responses received were completely filled in

Reliability test were run based on 40 fully-completed questionnaires The Cronbach Alphas were all above 70 for all variables, with exception of Contingent Reward and Power Distance Orientation In detail, Transformational Leadership’s 4 dimensions (1) Core Behavior (2) High Performance Expectation (3) Providing Individualized Support (4) Intellectual Stimulation had Cronbach Alphas of 880, 736, 813, 893 respectively Transactional Leadership’s 2 dimensions (1) Contingent Reward (2) Contingent Punishment had Cronbach Alphas of 922, 480 respectively Power Distance Orientation measure had Cronbach Alpha of 631

Intrinsic Motivation had Cronbach Alpha of 853 According to Nunnally (1978), a Cronbach Alpha of bigger than 70 suggested acceptable level of internal consistency Contingent reward (item X19-X21) was the only subscale with Cronbach Alpha far below the 70 threshold Item X19 has Corrected Item-Total Correlation of 058, which was far below the acceptable value (.3) Deletion of this item leads to an increase of Cronbach Alpha of the subscale from 480 to 885

However the author decided to keep item X19 in the main study to monitor the Cronbach Alpha of this variable when sample size is much larger If Cronbach Alpha remains to be low, then the author may make decision to remove this item at

Table 3-1: Survey Item Used in the Study Transformation Leadership

Core transformational leader behavior (Cronbach alpha = 880 )

X01 My current leader articulates a vision X02 My current leader provides an appropriate model X03 My current leader facilitates the acceptance of group goals

High performance expectation (Cronbach alpha = 736)

X04 My current leader makes it clear that he/she expects a lot from us all of the time X05 My current leader insists on only the best performance

X06 My current leader will not settle for second best

Individualized Support (Cronbach alpha = 813)

X07 My current leader acts without considering my feelings (R)

X08 My current leader shows respect for my personal feelings

X09 My current leader treats me without considering my personal feelings (R)

X10 My current leader considers my personal feelings before acting

Intellectual stimulation (Cronbach alpha = 893)

X11 My current leader challenges me to think about old problems in new ways X12 My current leader asks questions that prompt me to think about the way I do things X13 My current leader has stimulated me to rethink the way I do things

X14 My current leader has ideas that have challenged me to reexamine some of my basic assumptions about my work

Transactional leadership

Contingent reward behavior (Cronbach alpha = 922)

X15 My current leader always gives me positive feedback when I perform well X16 My current leader gives me special recognition when I produce at a high level X17 My current leader commends me when I exceed my productivity goals

X18 My current leader frequently does not acknowledge my good performance (R)

Contingent punishment behavior (Cronbach alpha = 480)

X19 My current leader would indicate his or her disapproval if I performed at a low level X20 My current leader lets me know about it when I perform poorly

X21 My current leader points it out to me when my productivity is not up to par

Power distance orientation (Cronbach alpha = 631)

X22 In most situations, managers should make decisions without consulting their followers X23 In work-related matters, managers have a right to expect obedience from their followers X24 Employees who often question authority sometimes keep their managers from being effective

X25 Once a top-level executive makes a decision, people working for the company should not question it

X26 Employees should not express disagreements with their managers X27 Managers should be able to make the right decisions without consulting with others X28 Managers who let their employees participate in decisions lose power

X29 A company’s rules should not be broken–not even when the employee thinks it is in the company’s best interest

Intrinsic motivation (Cronbach alpha = 853)

X30 I enjoy finding solutions to complex problems X31 I enjoy creating new procedures for work tasks X32 I enjoy improving existing processes or products

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

Univariate distribution was assessed by looking at the value of skewness and kurtosis statistics associated with each of the items (Field, 2005; Kline, 2005) The values of skewness and kurtosis are zero in a normal distribution The further the value is from zero, the more likely the data is not normally distributed (Field, 2005)

Extreme univariate nonnormality exists when absolute value of skewness index is greater than 3 and absolute value of kurtosis index is greater than 5 (Kline, 2005)

The test showed that skewness and kurtosis values for all items are below 3 and 5 respectively, indicating no major problem for the normality of variables Therefore the data met the requirements for CFA and regression analysis

3.5 Target population

The target population for this study was highly educated employees in HoChiMinh city Highly educated employees are defined as those who have university degree or above The choice of HoChiMinh city was expected to further support the study in the sense that, given its increasingly diversified workforce, respondents in HoChiMinh city may provide significant differences in cultural values orientation (power distance orientation) The inclusion of only highly educated employees into study was led by the assumption that there are possible significant differences in the value at which followers at different educational level place on intrinsic outcomes than less educated employees (Schuler, 2006)

Population in HoChiMinh city is 7,165,200 (Vietnam General Statistics Office, 2009) 70% of those are aged from 20 years old or above (based on the Vietnam urban rate) Within that 70%, it is estimated that 22% have completed either university or vocational education (Nielsen, 2009) If the assumption is that 40% of that 22% are those who have completed a university, then the population for this study is roughly 441,376

3.6 Sample size

Review of literature on sample size for regression analysis indicates that part

of researchers have determined sample size by rules of thumb (Green, S B., 1991)

Green (1991) also noted that rules-of-thumb come in various form One form tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

indicates that the number of subject, N, should always be equal to or greater than some constant A (i.e., N ≥ A), while a second form stipulates a recommended minimum ratio B of subjects-to-predictors (i.e., N ≥ B m where m is the number of predictors) Finally, a third form is a more general rule that encompasses the 2 mentioned forms (i.e., N ≥ A + B m)

In this study, the author used Tabachnick & Fidell’s (1989) (as cited in Green, 1991) suggestion that number of subjects for each predictor or independent variable in regression analysis should be 5-to-1 In this study, due to the fact that there were a total of 32 items in the questionnaires (14 items for transformational leadership, 7 items for transactional leadership, 8 items for power distance orientation, and 3 items for intrinsic motivation), the ideal sample size of this study was 160 The author targeted to have at least 250 responses

3.7 Selecting the sample and collecting data

Since the study drew on a quantitative research design, the ideal sampling strategy was probabilistic (stratified systematic random) sampling as this allowed making statistical inferences from sample to the defined population and provided greater external validity for the findings In this study, it was not possible to use probabilistic sampling as a complete list with full details (name, age, sex, and years

of working) of the defined population could not be obtained Without any other way

of attaining a list of all students, samples were selected based on non-probability snowball sampling method Snowball sampling was defined as building a sample through referrals (O’Leary, 2004) Faugier & Sargeant (1997) asserted that whilst recognizing the personal bias and distortion inherent in snowball sampling as a price which must be paid in order to gain an understanding of these hidden populations and their particular circumstances, the confidence that develops in a relationship over a period of time is perhaps the best guarantee of sincerity (Foote Whyte 1982) and should increase the validity of the data

Main study’s fieldwork was conducted from April 7, 2012 to April 18, 2012

by the author and an assistant The author and his assistant sent the survey link to tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

217 personal contacts who were working at Fonterra Brands, Unilever, MindShare, MarineTime Bank, Unza, Nielsen, Biersdorf, Vinasoy, FPT, Sacombank, Truong Hai Group, J&J, Kinh Do etc In the same email, the author and his assistant also asked for key contacts’ help to forward the link to their friends

Within 12 days of fieldwork, the author received in total 271 responses, which would then go through the cleaning process before being included into analysis

3.8 Sample characteristics

Participants fulfilling the following criteria were selected and included in the analysis:

1 The participants had university degree

2 The participants had a full time job

3 The participants had been working with his/ her direct leader in the current company for at least 3 months to ensure that they had enough time to observe and to be influenced by their leaders’ behaviors

3.9 Methods of data analysis

3.9.1 Data cleaning

As the initial step, the author filtered qualified respondents, who met the predefined criteria (having university degree, having full time job, and having been working with leader for at least 3 months) Next the author cleaned the data Web-based surveys require the least amount of data cleaning (Sue & Ritter, 2004)

Except for 4 socio-demographic questions, the rest of questions were pre-defined multiple choice questions, where the respondents had to select the predefined answers Therefore, data cleaning was mainly done for those 4 socio-demographic questions The author also reviewed the reverse-scored questions to double check if they were logically answered Due to the fact that the author put “required” option for all questions, the respondent could not submit the survey if all questions had not been fully answered, meaning there were no possible missing-answer response

3.9.2 Reliability

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

The author used Cronbach Alpha to test the measurements’ internal consistency The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient is traditionally reported in statistics as the measure of internal consistency of responses across the set of items (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004) It calculated the average of all possible split-half reliability coefficients and a computed alpha coefficient varies between 1, denoting perfect internal reliability, and 0, denoting no internal reliability According to Nunnally (1978), a scale with with Cronbach alpha of 7 or more is accepted in terms of internal consistency

3.9.3 Confirmatory factor analysis

Prior to conducting hypotheses test, the author conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to test the model fit or whether the data fit the hypothesized measurement model The goal of EFA is to identify factors based on data and to maximize the amount of variance explained The researcher is not required to have any specific hypotheses about how many factors will emerge, and what items or variables these factors will comprise If these hypotheses exist, they are not incorporated into and do not affect the results of the statistical analyses By contrast, CFA evaluates a priori hypotheses, and is largely driven by theory Every aspects of the CFA model is specified in advance (Brown, 2006) The specification of CFA is strongly driven by theory or prior research evidence In this study, the author developed the hypothesized model based on solid literature review and examination

of related theories Therefore, CFA proves to be more suitable for this study as compated to EFA analysis

To gauge the model fit, chi-square (χ²) values are reported as the index of absolute fit, which assesses the extent to which the covariances estimated in the model match the covariances in the measured variables (Kline, 2011) In addition, the author also report the comparative fix index (CFI; Bentler, 1990), Jo¨reskog- So¨rbom goodness-of-fit index (GFI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Steiger, 1990) to gauge model fit These indexes indicate the extent to which a research model provides an improved overall fit relative to a tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

null model or independence model in which the correlations among observed variables are assumed to be zero The CFI and GFI have been considered the best approximations of the population value for a single model The RMSEA is a measure of the average standardized residual per degree of freedom Reported fit indices and their desired range are summarized in table 3-2

Table 3-2: Assessing Fit Indices

Goodness-of-fit indices Desired range of

values for a good fit

Absolute Fit Indices

Minimum Fit Function Chi-Square χ² p>.05

Chi-Square/Degrees of Freedom ratio χ²/df 2 to 5

Root Mean Square Error of Approximation RMSEA ≤.08

Incremental Fit Indices

Parsimonious Fit Indices

Parsimony Goodness of Fit Index PGFI ≥.50

Source: Hair et al., 2006; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007; Kline, 2011; Hu & Bentler, 1999

3.9.4 Analysis of Variance (one-way and two-way ANOVA)

Analysis of Variance (one-way ANOVA) was used to test the equality of means among groups of followers with different age range in intrinsic motivation

After that the author followed up with a two-way ANOVA analysis to confirm whether the effect of age on intrinsic motivation was true between gender groups

3.9.5 Regression analysis

Multiple regression was used to test the effects of leadership behaviours on follower’s intrinsic motivation Hierarchical regression was used to examine the role of power distance orientation and time with leader as moderators of the relationship between transformational, transactional leadership behaviours and employee’s intrinsic motivation

A moderator is a variable that affects the direction/ strength of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable (Baron &

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

Kenny, 1986) The most common procedure to test two-way interaction statistically

is to regress the dependent variable (Y) on the dependent variable (X) and the moderating variable (M), then in the next step, add the interaction XM into the equation In this study, the moderating relationship was tested using hierarchical regression procedures

Before conducting regression, each predictor was centred by its mean to maximize interpretability and to minimize problems of multicollinearity (Aiken &

West, 1991) Then, enter the centered independent variable (X center) and the

moderator variable (M center) in the first regression model In the second model, enter

the interaction (X center x M center) into the equation If the adjusted R2 in the second model is significantly higher than the adjusted R2 in the first model and the coefficient for the interaction is significant, there is evidence that the moderator variable moderates the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg

CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS

This chapter presents sample demographic, statistical analysis, tests of hypotheses, answers to research questions and other findings from this study The data collected from the survey were analyzed using EXCEL, SPSS 16.0, and AMOS 16.0 software Data analysis included descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and regression analysis The reliability and validity of survey instruments were also examined

Table 4-1: Variables Included in the Analyses

Variables Description TL_COR Core Transformational Leadership TL_HPE High Performance Expectation TL_PIS Providing Individualized Support TL_IS Intellectual Stimulation

TS_CP Contingent Punishment PDO Power Distance Orientation

4.1 Data cleaning

A total of 271 responses were received All responses were fully completed

18 responses (6.6%) were not qualified 7 respondents (2.6%) did not meet the

“education” criteria (i.e university graduate) 12 respondents (4.4%) did not meet the “time with leader” criteria (≥3 months) 1 respondent (0.4%) did not meet both criteria Checking data of the 4 open socio-demographic questions and reverse-scores items did not revealed illogical or unclear answers A total of 253 responses were used in the data analysis procedures

4.2 Profiles of qualified respondents

tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg