INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Research background
Human resources are the most crucial asset for an organization's success, surpassing reputation, customers, technology, and physical resources Effective manpower is essential for business development, making talent retention a significant challenge for organizations According to Berry (1997), enhancing employee job satisfaction is vital for success Robbins & Judge (2007) found that organizations with higher employee satisfaction tend to be more effective Furthermore, satisfied employees are generally more productive Therefore, improving employee satisfaction is a key strategy for organizational success.
Leadership has been a fundamental practice for millennia, with over 50 years of research dedicated to understanding its impact within organizations (Bass, 1990) Effective leaders are crucial for fostering successful teamwork, high morale, and strong performance, while ineffective leadership can lead to job dissatisfaction, low commitment, and poor performance (Avolio & Bass, 2002; Bass, 1998; 1999).
We also have seen some big scandals in ethical leadership in the world as well as in Vietnam In Vietnam, according to Thuc (2011), some big organizations such as Hàng
Hải Đông Đô, Masan Group, and Quoc Cuong Gia Lai reported significant profits to investors, yet they faced substantial losses This trend mirrors the decline in ethical leadership seen in major corporations like WorldCom, Enron, General Motors, and Lehman Brothers Coupled with societal challenges such as terrorism, an aging population, and environmental pollution, these issues have eroded investor trust According to the National Leadership Index 2009, 63% of Americans distrust business leaders, and 83% believe they prioritize their own interests or those of a select few over the broader society In light of these challenges, there is an urgent need for more positive and authentic leadership.
Gardner, 2005) Reliability, integrity and authenticity are the essential characteristics of the business leaders in this situation (Blausten, 2009)
In today's global business landscape, authentic leadership has emerged as a vital construct It emphasizes openness and clarity in leaders' behaviors, encouraging them to share essential information for decision-making, welcome input from others, and reveal their personal values and motives This transparency allows followers to better evaluate the leader's competence and ethical standards Business professionals are increasingly seeking leaders who prioritize purpose, values, and integrity, fostering enduring organizations, motivating employees to enhance customer service, and generating long-term value for shareholders.
Research objectives
This study explores how authentic leadership behaviors influence followers' job satisfaction, while also considering the moderating effects of self-efficacy and optimism on the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction.
This study seeks to explore the impact of authentic leadership on follower job satisfaction and to examine the moderating effects of self-efficacy and optimism in this relationship.
In order to answer to this research question, the following four sub-questions are addressed in this research:
1 What is the relationship between authentic leadership and follower job satisfaction?
2 How does self-efficacy play a moderating role in the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction?
3 How does optimism play a moderating role in the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction?
4 Is job satisfaction level different between male and female?
Research scope and approach
First, this study is conducted in Ho Chi Minh City, the biggest city in Vietnam
The study focuses on respondents who have collaborated with their leaders for a minimum of three months, allowing sufficient time for followers to observe and be influenced by their leaders' behaviors.
Third, the research only focuses on employees who are graduated from high- school or higher This choice of population and sample frame makes the study feasible
(given time and resource limitation) by facilitating online survey method and helps address the research questions in the simplest way possible
Forth, this study considers self-efficacy and optimism as the moderating variables
Self-efficacy, optimism are two of 4 components of psychological capital However, 2 other components of psychological capital which are resilience and hope are not considered in this study
The research is organized into two primary phases: a pilot study, which includes two sub-phases, and the main study The pilot study aims to evaluate the content and assess the measurement scales, while the main study is designed to validate these scales, test the hypotheses, and confirm the research model.
Research structure
The structure of study includes 5 chapters as following:
Chapter 1: Introduction will provide the research background, research objectives, as well as research scope and approach
Chapter 2: Literature review provides theoretical and empirical background behind the hypothesized research model
Chapter 3: Methodology details the methodologies the author use to conduct this research
Chapter 4: Analysis is conducted based on the collected data to test the hypotheses and answer the research questions
Chapter 5: The author discusses the results; provide practical implication and possible directions for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW, THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES
Authentic leadership
The modern concept of authenticity has developed over the last 80 years, as noted by Erickson (1995) The Concise Oxford English Dictionary defines authenticity as "genuine, original, not a fake." Harter (2002) traces the history of this term back to Greek philosophy, encapsulated in the phrase "to thine own self be true."
Authenticity is defined as acting in accordance with one's true self, which involves expressing thoughts and feelings that align with personal values and beliefs (Harter, 2002) It encompasses the integration of individual experiences and the genuine expression of one's inner self Kernis (2003) further describes authenticity as the unobstructed functioning of one's core self in daily activities.
Authenticity and sincerity are often confused, but they have distinct meanings According to Linonel Trilling (as cited by Avolio & Gardner, 2005), sincerity refers to the alignment between one's expressed feelings and actual emotions, while authenticity is about being true to oneself Sincerity involves accurately representing oneself to others, emphasizing interpersonal relationships, whereas authenticity focuses on self-truth In essence, sincerity is about being genuine with others, while authenticity is about being genuine with oneself (Erickson, 1995 & Trilling, 1972).
The history of authenticity’s research focuses on the level of inauthenticity instead of authenticity A scale to measure inauthenticity which is developed by sociologist
Seeman (1960) find that an inauthentic leader is a leader who was overly compliant to the stereotypical roles and demands related to the leader role In that same period, Hill and
Stone (1960) highlighted the significance of positive thinking, emphasizing that success can be achieved through a positive mental attitude Contemporary scholars exploring authentic leadership now link it to positive psychology, prioritizing the positive dimensions of authenticity This research adopts a definition of authenticity grounded in the principles of positive psychology.
Authenticity, as defined by Harter et al (2002), encompasses the ownership of one's thoughts, beliefs, and emotions, along with the alignment of actions with one's true self This means expressing genuine feelings and thoughts while behaving in a manner that reflects one's true identity.
Gardner et al (2005) suggests the 4 core components of authentic leadership including self-awareness, the self-regulatory processes of balanced processing, authentic behavior and relational transparency
Self-awareness is one of the most important characteristics of an authentic leader
To develop authentic leadership, it is necessary to develop self-awareness (Avolio and
Self-awareness, as defined by Bill George (2011), is the ability to recognize one's emotions and their effects This concept is closely linked to self-reflection, which allows authentic leaders to gain a deeper understanding of themselves By reflecting on their core values, identity, emotions, motives, and goals, leaders can achieve clarity about who they truly are.
In the field of authenticity, Kernis (2003) also defines self-awareness as “having awareness of, and trust in, one’s motives, feelings, desires, and self-relevant cognition.”
An authentic leader with a high level of self-awareness understands their strengths, weaknesses, and complex nature Self-awareness involves recognizing one's unique values, identity, emotions, and goals A deeper examination of these four components will be provided.
According to Erickson (1995), individuals who remain authentic to themselves also adhere to their core values Schwartz defines these values as "conceptions of the desirable that guide the way social actors—such as organizational leaders, policy-makers, and individuals—select actions, evaluate people and events, and explain their actions and evaluations."
Values serve as trans-situational, normative standards that guide behavior and evaluation, forming the foundation for actions aligned with the needs of both the leader's community and the organizational unit These values are acquired through socialization processes.
Understanding oneself involves not only recognizing personal values but also achieving a high level of emotional awareness This self-knowledge includes being aware of one's emotions and comprehending their causes and effects on cognitive processes and decision-making Emotional awareness is a fundamental aspect of emotional intelligence, which is crucial for effective leadership Authentic leaders are attuned to their own emotions and those of others, allowing them to make decisions that are not solely influenced by momentary emotional triggers.
Identity, as defined by Schlenker (1985), is a theoretical framework that encompasses an individual's relevant features, characteristics, and experiences The process of self-identification involves both private reflection and public expression, allowing individuals to articulate and project their identity through self-disclosures and presentations to various audiences.
(Schlenker, 1985) Through interaction authentic leaders will incorporate the role of the leader into their interpersonal identity and achieve high person-role merger According to
Authentic leaders do not feign their leadership roles, as they naturally embody their positions For them, leadership is an expression of their true selves George Borst, CEO of Toyota Financial Services, highlights the significance of self-awareness in leadership, stating that a common error among leaders is to adopt a "podium persona" that differs from their genuine identity, which people can easily recognize.
Goals are contextualized schemas that guide information processing, particularly in the realm of self-awareness (Lord, Brown & Freiberg, 1999) In leadership, the distinction between self-view and possible selves is crucial; goals linked to self-views promote self-enhancement motives, while those associated with possible selves foster self-verification motives Authentic leaders, driven by self-verification, focus on self-development and provide genuine self-presentations to obtain accurate feedback They align their aspirations (ideal self) and obligations (ought self), resulting in minimal discrepancies between their desired and perceived selves (Gardner et al., 2005).
Balanced processing, also known as unbiased processing, is a key component of authenticity as defined by Kernis (2003) It involves the ability to acknowledge and evaluate private knowledge, internal experiences, and external feedback without distortion or exaggeration Authentic leaders excel in processing self-relevant information objectively and accurately However, achieving true unbiased and objective processing of such information is quite challenging, as highlighted in social psychology research by Tice and Wallace.
(2003) find that people are inherently imperfect in processing (self-relevant) information
Individuals often perceive themselves based on their beliefs about how others view them, rather than the actual perceptions of others (Tice & Wallace, 2003) Those with high self-esteem, in particular, may resist or undervalue external feedback, making it challenging for them to acknowledge their flaws or negative traits.
Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is one of the most widely discussed and studied construct in industrial-organizational psychology, social psychology, organizational behavior, personnel and human resource management, and organizational management (Cranny,
Smith, & Stone, 1992) Hence, there are many definition of job satisfaction because different authors have different approaches towards defining job satisfaction
Job satisfaction, as defined by Hoppock (1935), is a combination of psychological, physiological, and environmental factors that lead an individual to genuinely express satisfaction with their job This definition highlights the influence of both external and internal elements on an employee's feelings Ivancevich and Donnelly (1968) describe job satisfaction as a positive perspective that a worker holds towards their current role, while Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969) characterize it as emotional responses to various aspects of the work environment.
Job satisfaction, as defined by Statt (2004), is the degree to which employees feel content with the rewards they receive from their jobs, especially regarding intrinsic motivation This concept encompasses the attitudes and feelings that workers have about their work Positive attitudes reflect job satisfaction, while negative attitudes signify job dissatisfaction (Armstrong, 2006).
Job satisfaction is commonly defined as an employee's attitude towards their job, influenced by various factors in the work environment It reflects how well an employee perceives their job in meeting their personal needs and values.
Job satisfaction influences on various aspects of organizational life such as organizational commitment, loyalty and absenteeism
Recent studies have established a significant connection between job satisfaction and organizational commitment, despite ongoing debates about whether satisfaction drives performance or vice versa (Luthans, 1998).
Employees who are satisfied with their jobs are less likely to be absent, while dissatisfaction can lead to higher absenteeism rates This absenteeism can result in significant costs for companies, making it essential for managers to implement strategies to minimize it Increasing job satisfaction is one of the most effective ways to reduce employee absenteeism.
The reason behind this approach is that the higher the degree of job satisfaction is, the lower employee absenteeism should be
Employee loyalty is a crucial focus for human resource managers, encompassing three main types: affective, normative, and continuity loyalty Affective loyalty reflects an emotional connection to the company, while normative loyalty arises when employees feel a sense of obligation to the organization Continuity loyalty occurs when employees remain with a company due to a lack of alternative job opportunities.
A study by Vanderberg and Lance (1992) involving 100 employees in the information services sector over five months revealed a significant correlation between job satisfaction and employee loyalty, indicating that higher job satisfaction leads to increased employee loyalty.
Research indicates that several factors positively influence job satisfaction, with a significant focus on personal variables and work-related elements in the existing literature.
Personal variables such as age, gender, and education significantly influence job satisfaction Waskiewicz (1999) describes a U-shaped relationship between age and job satisfaction, where younger employees initially report high satisfaction that declines over time, only to rise again as they age Older employees tend to exhibit higher job satisfaction levels compared to their younger counterparts (Wangphanich, 1984) However, Coll and Rice (1990) argue that age may not be directly related to job satisfaction Additionally, research on the impact of gender on job satisfaction remains inconclusive, as noted by Hollen and Gemmell.
A study by Wangphanich (1984) indicated that male community-college professors reported higher overall job satisfaction compared to their female counterparts In contrast, Sagol Jariyavidyanont's research at NIDA in 1978 revealed no significant differences in job satisfaction based on gender, age, education, or work experience among faculty members.
Education plays a significant role in influencing job satisfaction, with studies showing both negative and positive correlations Carrel and Elbert (1974) found that employees with higher education levels often experience dissatisfaction due to the routine nature of many jobs Conversely, Quinn and Baldi de Mandilovitch (1980) identified a positive relationship between educational attainment and overall job satisfaction, suggesting that higher education can enhance job fulfillment.
Work-related factors were also considered as the determinant of job satisfaction
The work plays a major role in determining how employees are satisfied with their jobs
Employees tend to prefer challenging jobs that give them chances to show and apply their abilities and skills and embody a diversity of tasks, freedom, and performance feedback
Research indicates that engaging and challenging work can significantly boost job satisfaction (Locke, 1976) Additionally, having friendly and cooperative colleagues contributes positively to this satisfaction Ducharme and Martin (2000) found that emotional support from coworkers plays a crucial role in enhancing employee job satisfaction (DeMato, 2001).
Salary is a crucial factor in job satisfaction, as it meets both basic and higher-level employee needs, reflecting management's assessment of their contributions (Luthans, 2001) While fringe benefits also enhance job satisfaction, they are generally less significant than salary Research by Derlin and Schneider (1994) highlights the importance of both salary and benefits in understanding job satisfaction Opportunities for personal and professional development have a varied impact on job satisfaction, with a focus on intellectual growth and skill enhancement becoming more valued than traditional promotions Employees who can expand their knowledge and skills report higher job satisfaction (Waskiewicz, 1999; Luthans, 2001) Additionally, the style and quality of supervision significantly influence job satisfaction, with studies indicating a direct link between employee attitudes and the quality of supervision received (DeMato, 2001).
Brunetto (2002) found that there was a positive relationship between the satisfaction with organizational communication and employee commitment.
The influence of authentic leadership on job satisfaction
Research by Gardner et al (2005) highlights a positive correlation between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, as noted in the academic literature on leadership However, this connection was not extensively explored until early 2008, when the concept of Authentic Leadership began to gain traction.
The Leadership Questionnaire by Walumbwa, Avolio et al (2008) demonstrates that authentic leaders are positively associated with followers' job satisfaction Avolio (1999) suggests that working with authentic leaders fosters trust among followers over time, which in turn enhances their job satisfaction (Dirks and Ferrin, 2002) Additionally, the positive moods of authentic leaders can influence followers' emotional states through social contagion processes, further increasing job satisfaction Based on this theory, the following hypothesis is proposed.
Hypothesis 1: Authentic leadership is positively related to follower’ job satisfaction.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy, rooted in Bandura’s social cognitive theory, highlights the development and exercise of human agency, allowing individuals to influence their actions (Bandura, 2006) Defined by Bandura (1977) as the belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations, self-efficacy significantly impacts how individuals approach their goals, tasks, and challenges.
Self-efficacy plays a crucial role in shaping individual goals and behaviors, as it is influenced by personal actions and environmental conditions According to Schunk and Meece (2006), individuals are characterized by their self-organizing, proactive, self-regulating, and self-reflecting nature Furthermore, Bandura highlights that self-efficacy can significantly impact how people perceive both opportunities and challenges in their surroundings.
2006) and affect choice of activities, how much effort is used on an activity, and how long people will persist when facing obstacles (Pajares, 1997) Stajkovic and Luthans
(1998) also provide another definition of self-efficacy used in this context of positive organizational behavior They define self-efficacy in the workplace as “one’s conviction
Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their ability to mobilize the necessary motivation, cognitive resources, and actions to successfully complete a specific task in a particular context As noted by Bandura (1982), self-efficacy is a variable that depends on the situation and can evolve with ongoing experience, making it adaptable over time.
There are some reports which show the mediating roles of self-efficacy between authentic leadership and job satisfaction
Authentic leaders are characterized by their genuine approach to leadership, prioritizing values and convictions over personal rewards or status (Shamir and Eilam, 2005) They enhance their followers' confidence by helping them recognize their own capabilities, which in turn boosts self-efficacy By modeling confident verbal expressions, authentic leaders facilitate vicarious learning and verbal persuasion, both of which are essential sources of self-efficacy identified by Bandura.
Self-efficacy is a key predictor of job satisfaction, as highlighted in various studies (Judge et al., 1998; Judge & Bono, 2001) It refers to an individual's belief in their ability to cope, perform, and succeed, which fosters positive self-evaluations Consequently, individuals with high self-efficacy are better equipped to handle challenges, leading to greater job satisfaction Moreover, self-efficacy, along with hope, optimism, and resilience, constitutes essential components of psychological capacities (Luthans et al.).
2007) Research results obtained in the United States and China indicate that employee’s psychological capital is positively related to job satisfaction of followers (Luthans, Avey,
Clapp-Smith & Li, 2008; Luthans, Avolio et al., 2007; Luthans, Norman, Avolio & Avey,
2008) Moreover, on the research in educational section, recent findings have shown that self-efficacy beliefs have a crucial role in affecting and sustaining their job satisfaction
(Caprara, Barbaranelli, Borgogni, Petitta et al., 2003; Caprara, Barbaranelli, Borgogni, &
Steca, 2003) People who have high level of self-efficacy tend to work harder to achieve their setting goal, and will have higher level of job satisfaction (WK Lau, 2012)
While previous studies have documented the mediating effects of self-efficacy on the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, there is a notable lack of research examining the moderating roles in this context Therefore, the author proposes the following hypothesis.
Hypothesis 2: Self-efficacy moderates the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction: the relationship is stronger with higher level of self- efficacy.
Optimism
Optimism, as defined by Chang (2001), is the expectation that positive outcomes will occur, influencing an individual's emotional outlook and future orientation It plays a crucial role in personal agency (Hitlin and Elder, 2007) Optimistic individuals tend to credit their successes to internal, stable, and global factors, such as their abilities, while viewing failures as external, temporary, and specific to particular situations This mindset leads to greater expectations of future success and an increased experience of positive emotions (Gardner & Schermerhorn, 2004).
Research indicates that optimism plays a mediating role between authentic leadership and job satisfaction Authentic leaders possess a strong sense of self and self-confidence, which contributes to their high levels of optimism (Gardner et al., 2005) Furthermore, studies by Youssef & Luthans (2007) demonstrate a positive correlation between optimism and job satisfaction.
Research also suggests that the optimistic leader could make his followers optimistic
Optimistic employees tend to be more motivated, satisfied, and ambitious; however, excessive optimism can lead to a lack of accountability for failures and a disconnect from reality This can result in the pursuit of unattainable goals and ineffective strategies Consequently, literature emphasizes the importance of realistic optimism, which has been shown to enhance performance and satisfaction among both managers and employees.
While some studies have indicated that optimism mediates the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, there is currently no empirical evidence demonstrating a moderating role of optimism in this context Consequently, the author proposes the following hypothesis.
Hypothesis 3: optimism moderates the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction: the relationship is stronger with lower level of optimism.
Summary
This chapter explores the definition, history, and components of authentic leadership, along with job satisfaction, optimism, and self-efficacy It highlights the conceptual connections and previous research indicating relationships among these variables Notably, there is a lack of studies examining the moderating effects of optimism and self-efficacy on the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction Therefore, the author proposes to investigate these moderating roles in this research, with all hypotheses summarized in Figure 2-1.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research design
This quantitative study divided into 2 main phases: pilot study (including of 2 sub- phases) and main study
The first sub-phase of the pilot study involved in-depth interviews with a small group of five target participants to evaluate the clarity and significance of the terminology used in the measurement scales This feedback led to modifications in the draft questionnaire for the subsequent phase In the second phase, an online survey was administered to a larger group of 50 target participants to assess the internal consistency of the measurement scales, as well as the response rate and quality of the responses.
Following the pilot study, the main research was carried out through an online survey method via a web-based platform (https://docs.google.com) The objectives included validating the measurement scales, testing the hypotheses, and confirming the research model The author opted for the online survey due to its numerous advantages, including speed, cost-effectiveness, accuracy, ease of analysis, participant convenience, honesty, and flexibility.
The process of this research is shown in figure 3-1:
Questionnaire development
The survey contained 4 sections, including authentic leadership questions, self- efficacy questions, optimism questions and job satisfaction questions According to
Babbie (1998) suggested providing brief instructions at the start of each section Participants evaluated all items using a Likert-type scale, where 1 indicated "never" (or disagreement) and 7 signified "always" (or strong agreement).
Authentic leadership was measured by the recently developed 16-item Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) (Avolio, Gardner & Walumbwa, 2007) The four
Define research problem; identify research objectives and scope
Review literature; Adapt conceptual framework
Pilot Study 1: Conduct qualitative study (in-depth interviews) to check the content and meaning of words
Pilot Study 2: Examine the internal consistency questionnaire
Main survey: Conduct data collection
Analyze data: Validate scales using Cronbach alpha, Confirmatory Factor
Give conclusion, recommendations and implications theoretically related substantive factors of authentic leadership were confirmed by
Walumbwa, Avolio et al (2008) These four factors include self-awareness (4 items), balanced processing (3 items), authentic behaviour (4 items) and relational transparency
Core higher order authentic leadership constructs include key items such as self-awareness, where a leader demonstrates an understanding of how their actions affect others Balanced processing is reflected in a leader's ability to listen carefully to various perspectives before reaching conclusions Authentic behavior is exemplified by making tough decisions grounded in high ethical standards Additionally, relational transparency is shown when a leader communicates difficult truths openly.
Job satisfaction was assessed using a reliable short form of the Brayfield Rothe scale, consisting of five items, as established by Brayfield and Rothe in 1951 This scale has been widely utilized in various research studies, including those by Bono and Judge in 2003, and Walumbwa et al.
The response scale for the survey ranged from 1 (Strongly agree) to 7 (Strongly disagree), assessing five key statements about job satisfaction These statements include: “Most days I am enthusiastic about my work,” “I feel fairly satisfied with my present job,” and “I find real enjoyment in my work.” Additionally, the items “Each day at work seems like it will never end” and “I consider my job rather unpleasant” are reverse-scored to provide a comprehensive evaluation of employee sentiment.
Optimism and Self-Efficacy were measured by 12 items extracted from Psychological Capital Questionnaire including 24-item Psychological Capital by Luthans,
Youssef and Avey (2007) identified six key items of Self-Efficacy, which include confidence in analyzing long-term problems to find solutions, representing one's work area in management meetings, contributing to discussions about company strategy, assisting in setting targets and goals, contacting external parties like suppliers and customers to address issues, and presenting information to colleagues.
Optimism in the workplace is reflected in several key attitudes: expecting the best even in uncertain situations, maintaining a positive outlook on job-related challenges, and believing in a favorable future regarding career prospects Embracing the idea that every cloud has a silver lining can help individuals navigate difficulties, while recognizing that not everything will go as planned serves as a reminder to stay resilient Overall, a hopeful perspective can significantly influence one's work experience and outcomes.
Translation of the questionnaire
Surveys were translated into Vietnamese following established cross-cultural translation procedures, as outlined by Harkness and Schoua-Glusberg (1998) The translation process utilized a committee approach, where multiple translators independently translated the same questionnaire, in accordance with Brislin's (1980) recommendations During a reconciliation meeting, the translators compared their translations, resolved discrepancies, and agreed on a final version that incorporated the best elements from each independent translation In this study, a committee of two translators was employed.
Back translation, as defined by Harkness & Schoua-Glusberg (1998), involves translating a translated text back into its original language This process allows for a comparison between the back-translated text and the source text, facilitating an assessment of translation quality In the context of survey translation, back translation serves as a valuable method for researchers who require insights into the quality of translations but lack the ability to read and evaluate them directly.
The basic steps involved were as follows:
1 A source text in one language (Source Language Text One, SLT1) was translated into another language (Target Language Text, TLT) using committee approach
2 The TLT was translated back into the language of SLT1 by a second translator, unfamiliar with the SLT1 and uninformed that there was an SLT1 This second translation, the back translation, was SLT2
3 SLT1 was compared to SLT2
4 On the basis of differences or similarities between SLT1 and SLT2, conclusions were drawn about the equivalence of TLT to SLT1
In this study, SLT1 and SLT2 were found identical or close in meaning across translated items Therefore the author decided to us the original questionnaire for the pilot study.
The pilot study
A pilot study was conducted to reduce misinterpretation of questionnaire items, incorporating feedback from five participants Consequently, several questions were revised or eliminated, and the overall format was adjusted for clarity.
The questionnaire was pre-tested using 5 respondents who were working at HSBC Vietnam Bank (n = 1), VietJet Air (n = 1), and VAECO (Vietnam Airlines Engineering
The qualitative feedback primarily focused on the wording and meaning of the items All suggested modifications aimed to enhance clarity in translation and ensure it aligns more closely with Vietnamese language nuances This was necessary due to the original content's lack of comprehensibility and appropriateness.
In the context of the Vietnamese environment, authentic leadership is characterized by five key elements One crucial aspect is self-awareness, exemplified by leaders who demonstrate an understanding of how their specific actions affect others Additionally, balanced processing plays a significant role in effective leadership.
Effective decision-making involves listening to diverse perspectives before reaching conclusions, demonstrating authentic behavior by making choices aligned with core values and encouraging others to do the same Relational transparency is crucial, as it entails delivering difficult truths Job satisfaction is assessed through five specific items, while self-efficacy is measured by two key statements: confidence in setting work-related goals and presenting information to colleagues Additionally, optimism is evaluated through three statements, including a recognition of potential challenges and a positive outlook on future work-related outcomes.
The phrase "every cloud has a silver lining" emphasizes the importance of finding positivity in challenging situations To enhance understanding, the author replaced the term "Giá trị" (Value) with "Nguyên tắc sống" to ensure clarity for respondents Additionally, recognizing that some participants had experience with multiple leaders, the author advised them to select the leader who had the most significant influence on them for the study The finalized questionnaires, available in both English and Vietnamese, were published on Google Docs and can be found in Appendix 1.
In the second phase of the pilot study, the author enlisted the assistance of five respondents from the first phase to share the survey link with their friends and colleagues, resulting in 50 fully completed questionnaires According to Nunnally (1978), a Cronbach Alpha greater than 70 indicates an acceptable level of internal consistency.
Cronbach Alphas were all above 70 for all variables In detail, Cronbach Alpha of
The Authentic Leader construct achieved a reliability score of 89, while the Self-Efficacy construct had a Cronbach Alpha of 911, and the Optimism construct reached an impressive 98 These strong results from the pilot study instilled confidence in the author to proceed with the subsequent steps.
Target population
In research, the population is defined as the complete set of cases from which a sample is drawn (Saunders et al., 2003) Malhotra (1996) further describes the population as a collection of elements that contain the necessary information sought by the researcher Accordingly, this study's target population consists of employees from firms located in Ho Chi Minh City.
Sample size
Sample size refers to the number of cases or elements included in a research study, as defined by Malhotra & Birks (2000) An element is an object that possesses the data sought in the study, allowing for inferences to be made Most research studies utilize samples due to constraints such as limited cost and time (Saunders et al., 2003) According to Bouma & Atkinson (1995), the required sample size is influenced by the accuracy of the desired generalization; a larger sample size is necessary for greater accuracy regarding population parameters.
According to Hair et al (2006), the minimum sample size should be 50, with a recommended observation-to-item ratio of 5:1, leading to an ideal sample of 75 employees for this research The author aimed to collect at least 150 responses, with the samples categorized accordingly.
Age Position (managers/non-manager) Organizational tenure
Selecting the sample and collecting data
According to Saunders et al (2000), there were 2 kinds of sampling: probability and non-probability
Probability sampling, characterized by the random selection of samples, is primarily associated with survey-based research aimed at drawing conclusions about a population to address research questions or objectives (Saunders et al., 2000) When executed properly, probability sampling guarantees that the sample accurately represents the population (Hair et al., 2003).
Non-probability sampling, as described by Saunders et al (2000), involves selecting sample elements based on the researcher's subjective judgment rather than aiming for statistical representation of the population This approach allows researchers to utilize methods such as personal experience, convenience, and expert judgment in their selection process Consequently, the likelihood of any specific population element being chosen remains unknown.
Convenience sampling is the most widely used non-probability sampling method, as it involves selecting participants who are readily available and can provide the necessary information for the study (Samuel et al., 2003).
Convenience sampling allows researchers to conduct numerous interviews quickly and at a low cost However, this method has a significant drawback: it can introduce bias in the selection process due to variations within the target population (Hair et al., 2003).
Based on above theory, the convenience non-probability sampling method was chosen in this study.
Sample characteristics
Participants fulfilling the following criteria were selected and included in the analysis:
1 The participants had at least high school degree
2 The participants had a full time job
3 The participants had been working with his/ her direct leader in the current organization for at least 3 months to ensure that they had enough time to observe and to be influenced by their leaders’ behaviors.
Methods of data analysis
Questionnaires would be reviewed, and the wrong answers would be rejected after collecting Then, data screening will be carried out by using SPSS for window version
The author began by filtering qualified respondents based on specific criteria, including a minimum of a high school diploma, full-time employment, and at least three months of experience working with their leader Following this, the author proceeded to screen the collected data.
Web-based surveys require the least amount of data cleaning
The author meticulously examined the reverse-scored questions in the job satisfaction section to ensure they were answered logically By designating all questions as "required," the survey prevented respondents from submitting incomplete answers, eliminating the possibility of missing responses.
The reliability of scales is assessed using the Cronbach Alpha factor, which aids in eliminating unsatisfactory variables during the research process and validating the scale's reliability Variables with an item-total correlation of less than 0.3 should be excluded.
(Pallant, 2007) Peterson (1994) and Slater (1995) suggest that 0.6 is the ‘criterion-in- use’ Generally, Cronbach Alpha factor which is between 0.8 and 1 shows that the scale is very good
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is utilized to assess the quality of measurement models by testing the fit of the data to the hypothesized model This study employs CFA to validate the factor structure of key variables, including authentic leadership, optimism, self-efficacy, and job satisfaction, thereby providing a confirmatory test of the underlying measurement theory.
To assess model fit, chi-square (χ²) values serve as an index of absolute fit, reflecting the difference between observed and expected covariance matrices, with values closer to zero indicating a better fit Additionally, the comparative fit index (CFI), goodness-of-fit index (GFI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) are reported to evaluate model fit These indices measure how well a research model improves overall fit compared to a null or independence model, where correlations among observed variables are assumed to be zero The CFI and GFI are regarded as the best approximations of the population value for a single model, while the RMSEA quantifies the average standardized residual per degree of freedom A summary of the reported fit indices and their desired ranges is provided in Table 3-2.
Goodness-of-fit indices abbreviation Desired range of values for a good fit
Minimum Fit Function Chi-Square χ² p>.05
Chi-Square/Degrees of Freedom ratio χ²/df 1 to 3
Goodness of Fit Index GFI ≥.9
Root Mean Square Error of
Non-Normed Fit Index TLI ≥.90
Parsimony Normed Fit Index PNFI ≥.50
Parsimony Goodness of Fit Index PGFI ≥.50
Source: Hair et al., 2006; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007; Kline, 2011; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Carmines & McIver 1981
Correlation analysis also plays a vital role in data analysis Correlation analysis was used to determine the relationship between two variables According to
According to Diamantopoulos & Schlegelmilch (1997), correlation analysis serves to identify the existence of a relationship between two variables, while also indicating the direction and strength of that relationship.
Correlations measure the degree to which variations in one variable are associated with changes in another, represented by the correlation coefficient (r), which ranges from -1.00 to +1.00 As noted by Welman & Kruger (1999), a correlation of
+1.00 indicates a perfectly positive relationship, a correlation of 0.00 indicates no relationship, and a correlation of -1.00 indicates a perfectly negative relationship
The significance level in hypothesis testing reflects the magnitude of the relationship between two variables and indicates the maximum risk of incorrectly rejecting a true null hypothesis It is essential to associate the significance level with the probability of making an error For instance, selecting a 5 percent significance level (p ≤ 0.05) means that the null hypothesis may be rejected incorrectly 5 times out of 100 Consequently, if a test result is less than or equal to the chosen significance level, it is considered significant.
Multiple regression analysis, a type of general linear modeling, is employed in this study to explore the relationship between job satisfaction, the dependent variable, and authentic leadership, the independent variable.
Moreover, hierarchical regression analysis is used to examine the moderating role of self- efficacy and optimism on job satisfaction
According to Baron & Kenny (1986), a moderator is a variable that influences both the direction and strength of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable To statistically test two-way interactions, the typical approach involves regressing the dependent variable (Y) on the independent variable (X) and the moderating variable (M), followed by incorporating the interaction term X*M into the equation This study employed hierarchical regression procedures to examine the moderating relationship.
Before conducting regression, each predictor was centred by its mean to maximize interpretability and to minimize problems of multicollinearity (Aiken & West, 1991)
Then, enter the centered independent variable (Xmean) and the moderator variable
In the first regression model, the variable Mmean is analyzed The second model incorporates the interaction term (Xmean x Mmean) If the adjusted R² in the second model shows a significant increase compared to the first model, and the coefficient for the interaction term is significant, this indicates that the moderator variable effectively moderates the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
The t-test is a statistical method used to determine if there is a significant difference between the means of two groups It is particularly useful for comparing the means of two distinct groups In this study, the author employed the t-test to investigate potential differences in job satisfaction levels between male and female participants.
In this chapter, overview of the methodology used for this study was provided
This chapter focused on confirmatory factor analysis to validate clear and interpretable factor structures for the measured constructs It also covered various data analysis techniques, including sampling, reliability analysis, correlation analysis, and regression analysis Additionally, it introduced the content of adjusted questionnaires and measurement scales for authentic leadership, job satisfaction, self-efficacy, and optimism Following the methodology outlined in this chapter, the author will analyze the survey data in the next chapter.
DATA ANALYSIS
Data cleaning
A total of 183 responses were collected, all of which were fully completed However, 3 responses (1.67%) were disqualified for not meeting the "time with leader" criterion of at least 3 months An examination of the 7 open socio-demographic questions and reverse-score items showed no illogical or unclear answers Consequently, 180 responses were utilized for the data analysis procedures.
Profiles of qualified respondents
Out of 180 qualified respondents, 35.6% were male and 64.4% were female, with the majority (57.8%) aged between 26 to 30 years In terms of education, 1.1% had completed high school, 10% held a college degree, 67.8% were university graduates, and 21.1% had attained higher university qualifications.
Working years with current organization was split into less than or equal to 12 months
(21.1%), 12-36 months (44.1%), 37-60 months (18.9%), more than 60 months (18.9%)
Working years with current leader was split into less than or equal to 1 year (25.6%), 1-2 years (34.4%), more than 2 years (40%) Most respondents were working with
Vietnamese leaders (85%) The gender of respondents’ leader was male (73.3%) and female (26.7%) Finally, income of respondents was split into VND 2- 5 million (12.2%),
VND 5-10 Million (41.1%), VND 10-15 Million (21.1%), VND 15-10 Million (14.4%) and above VND 20 Million (11.1%) The results of the participants’ characteristics are presented in Table 4-2
Table 4-1: Socio-demographic Characteristics of The Qualified Samples
Socio-demographic variables Frequency Percentage (%)
Reliability of the measurements
The scales for authentic leadership, self-efficacy, optimism, and job satisfaction demonstrated strong reliability, with Cronbach Alpha values exceeding 60 and corrected item-total correlations above 3 Table 4-2 provides a summary of the Cronbach Alpha measures across these variables, while additional details on the measurement reliability test results are available.
Table 4-2: Summary of Cronbach Alpha Measures Across Variables
Variables corrected item-total correlation
Confirmatory factor analysis
The results of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) indicated that the model effectively fit the data, as all indices fell within the desired range (refer to Table 4-3) For further details on the CFA results, please see Appendix 3.
Table 4-3: Assessing Fit Indices – Hypothesized Model
Goodness-of-fit indices abbreviation
Desired range of values for a good fit
Minimum Fit Function Chi-Square χ² p>.05
Chi-Square/Degrees of Freedom ratio χ²/df 1 to 3 1.877
Goodness of Fit Index GFI ≥.9 901
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
Non-Normed Fit Index TLI ≥.90 956
Parsimony Normed Fit Index PNFI ≥.50 726
Parsimony Goodness of Fit Index PGFI ≥.50 616
Correlation analysis
The author defined Authentic Leadership as the average of five observed variables (Leader1 to Leader5), Optimism as the average of three observed variables (Optimism1 to Optimism3), Self-efficacy as the average of two observed variables (Selfefficacy1 and Selfefficacy2), and Job Satisfaction as the average of five observed variables (Jobsatis1 to Jobsatis5) Subsequently, a Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between demographic items and the variables of Job Satisfaction, Self-efficacy, Optimism, and Authentic Leadership.
Based on the below table, Authentic Leader clearly correlated with Job Satisfaction(r=0.418, p=0.000), Self-efficacy (r= 0.330, p=0.000), and Optimism
(r=0.249, p=0.000); Optimism clearly correlated with Education (r= -0.184, p=.013),
Income (of respondent) (r=-0.223, p=.003), Job Satisfaction (r=0.284, p=.001) and Self- efficacy (r=0.481, p=.000); Self-efficacy clearly correlated with Job Satisfaction
(r=0.398, p=0.000); Job Satisfaction clearly correlated with Education (r= -0.134, p=0.033) There was no inter-correlation above 0.8, therefore no any item must be removed
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) a Listwise N0
Hypotheses testing
4.6.1 Effects of authentic leadership, self-efficacy and optimism on job satisfaction:
To evaluate the hypotheses, multiple regression analysis was conducted, with Job Satisfaction as the dependent variable and Authentic Leadership, along with various demographic factors such as leader nationality, follower education, leader gender, and follower level, tenure, age, and income, as independent variables The coefficients and significance levels are presented in Table 4-5.
Table 4-5: result of regression analysis of authentic leadership on job satisfaction
Std Error of the Estimate
1 481 a 232 191 96482 a Predictors: (Constant), Lnationality, Education, GenderM, AuthenticLeader, Level, Tenure, GenderE, Income, Age
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig
Total 205.949 179 a Predictors: (Constant), Lnationality, Education, GenderM, AuthenticLeader, Level, Tenure, GenderE, Income, Age b Dependent Variable: JobSatis
The analysis of Table 4-5 reveals that the Adjusted R Square is 0.191, indicating that 19.1% of job satisfaction can be attributed to authentic leadership The standardized coefficient β is 0.402, with a significant p-value of 0.000, demonstrating a positive association between authentic leadership and job satisfaction Consequently, hypothesis H1 is supported.
4.6.2 Moderating effects of self-efficacy and optimism on the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction :
The author examined how self-efficacy and optimism moderate the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction Prior to performing regression analysis, each predictor was centered by its mean, as discussed in Chapter 3.
In their study, Aiken and West (1991) first incorporated authentic leadership as the independent variable and job satisfaction as the dependent variable in the initial regression model Subsequently, they introduced the interaction term, which consisted of the centered independent variable multiplied by the centered moderator variable, into the second regression model, as detailed in Table 4-6.
Table 4-6: result of regression analysis of moderating effect of self-efficacy and optimsm
Std Error of the Estimate
2 535 b 286 239 93548 a Predictors: (Constant), AuthenticLeader, Income, Tenure, GenderM, Lnationality, Education, GenderE, Level, Age b Predictors: (Constant), AuthenticLeader, Income, Tenure, GenderM, Lnationality, Education, GenderE, Level, Age, ALmeanxSEmean, ALmeanxOPmean
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig
Total 205.949 179 a Predictors: (Constant), AuthenticLeader, Income, Tenure, GenderM, Lnationality, Education, GenderE, Level, Age b Predictors: (Constant), AuthenticLeader, Income, Tenure, GenderM, Lnationality, Education, GenderE, Level, Age, ALmeanxSEmean, ALmeanxOPmean c Dependent Variable: JobSatis
The analysis presented in Table 4-6 indicates that the significance level of ALmean x SEmean was 093, exceeding the 05 threshold, suggesting that self-efficacy does not moderate the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction Additionally, the significance level of 013 meets the criteria of being less than 05 Furthermore, the Adjusted R Square for model 2 was 239, which is an improvement over the Adjusted R Square in model 1.
Optimism serves as a moderating factor in the connection between authentic leadership and job satisfaction The standardized coefficients indicate that the relationship is more pronounced when optimism levels are lower, with a coefficient of β = -2.516.
To be clearer in investigating the moderating role of optimism on relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, the author grouped the respondents into
The study categorizes respondents into three groups based on their levels of optimism: Group 1 consists of higher optimists, Group 2 includes lower optimists, and Group 3 combines both groups The author conducted a regression analysis to explore the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction for the separate groups (Group 1 and Group 2) as well as the mixed Group 3 The summarized results of this analysis are presented in Table 4-9, with additional details available in Appendix 4.
Table 4-7: result of regression analysis of authentic leadership on optimism in
In the analysis presented in Table 4-7, Group 1, consisting of higher optimists, showed an adjusted R square of 0.117, indicating that authentic leadership accounted for only 11.7% of job satisfaction, with standardized coefficients at 0.245 Conversely, Group 2, comprised of lower optimists, demonstrated a significantly higher adjusted R square of 0.401, suggesting that authentic leadership explained 40.1% of job satisfaction.
In group 3, which combined groups 1 and 2, the adjusted R square of 1.91 indicated a moderating effect of optimism on the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, revealing that this relationship was stronger at lower levels of optimism Consequently, hypothesis H3 was supported by the findings Figure 4-2 illustrates the interaction between authentic leadership and optimism in relation to job satisfaction.
Independent Samples T-test
In Chapter 3, the author employed a t-test to analyze job satisfaction levels based on the gender of respondents The results presented in Table 4-8 indicate that Levene's Test significance was above 05, and the t-test for equality of means also yielded a significance above 05 Consequently, the study found no significant difference in job satisfaction levels between male and female respondents, indicating that gender did not influence job satisfaction in this research.
GenderE N Mean Std Deviation Std Error Mean
Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means
Summary
This chapter presents the results from the samples analyzed in Chapter 3, focusing on confirmatory factor analysis, correlation analysis, and regression analysis Notably, an interpretable factor structure was identified for each of the four constructs, demonstrating acceptable fit levels through confirmatory analysis The study revealed a significant relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, along with the moderating role of optimism in this relationship.
This research found no evidence that self-efficacy moderates the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction The implications of these findings will be analyzed in Chapter 5, which will also include recommendations for interventions and suggestions to enhance future research in positive organizational behavior.
DISCUSSION
Discussions of findings
The author examines the differences in job satisfaction levels between males and females, revealing that the research indicates no significant disparity This finding aligns with the work of Sagol Jariyavidyanont (1978), who also concluded that gender does not significantly affect job satisfaction.
The author explores the connection between authentic leadership and the job satisfaction of followers Regression analysis indicates a significant positive relationship, with a coefficient of β = 0.402 and a p-value of 0.000, supporting the notion that authentic leadership enhances job satisfaction.
Thửnissen (2009) and Andrei (2012) who also reported the significant relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction Moreover, according to Ilies et al
Authentic leadership significantly enhances job satisfaction among followers by prioritizing their well-being and emotions As highlighted in the literature review, the strong trust established between followers and their authentic leaders contributes to increased job satisfaction In summary, authentic leadership behaviors play a crucial role in fostering higher levels of job satisfaction among employees.
The article examines the moderating effect of self-efficacy on the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction It highlights that while self-efficacy is correlated with both job satisfaction and authentic leadership, its specific moderating roles within this context are also explored.
The study highlights the moderating effect of optimism on the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction, supporting hypothesis H3 It reveals that individuals with lower levels of optimism experience a stronger connection between authentic leadership and job satisfaction Optimists, who typically exhibit higher career planning and decision-making confidence, are less influenced by authentic leaders compared to pessimists Conversely, pessimists often feel helpless and view themselves as victims, which amplifies the importance of authentic leaders in enhancing their job satisfaction Authentic leaders empower their followers by providing essential knowledge, skills, and motivation, enabling them to take control of their own destinies.
Practical implications
Authentic leadership significantly influences job satisfaction among followers, particularly those with a pessimistic outlook When employees experience higher job satisfaction, they are more productive, have lower absenteeism, and demonstrate greater loyalty to their organization, ultimately contributing to the organization's growth and success.
Authentic leaders possess a deep self-awareness of their thoughts and behaviors, and they are recognized by others for their understanding of personal and collective values, knowledge, and strengths They operate with confidence, optimism, resilience, and a strong moral character According to Robin Sharma, authentic leaders consistently practice ten key principles: they speak the truth, lead with compassion, exhibit strong moral integrity, demonstrate courage, foster teamwork and community, engage in personal growth, dream big, prioritize self-care, strive for excellence over perfection, and aim to make the world a better place.
How can authentic leaders be developed? According to Cooper, Scandura &
Authentic leaders, such as Schriesheim (2005), Gandhi, Nelson Mandela, and Mother Teresa, exemplify the qualities of true leadership While some individuals naturally possess the traits of an authentic leader and require no guidance, others may have the potential to become authentic leaders but need support to uncover and develop their abilities.
Research on authentic leader development is still in its infancy, with no definitive conclusions on the trainability of authentic leaders (Cooper et al., 2005) Nevertheless, May, Chan, Hodge, and Avolio (2003) argue that most individuals possess the inherent potential to become authentic leaders, emphasizing the need for guidelines to enhance authentic moral leadership within organizations.
According to Sims and George (2007), individuals must rely on their internal compass to maintain focus on their True North and take charge of their leadership development By engaging in real-world experiences and reframing their life narratives, they can uncover their core identities, passions, and leadership purposes The values that underpin authentic leadership are tested in challenging situations, shaping the principles that guide authentic leaders Additionally, Cooper et al (2005) emphasize the necessity of actively reflecting on these experiences to enhance authenticity George, Sims, McLean, and Mayer (2007) further support this perspective.
“discovering your authentic leadership requires a commitment to developing yourself”
Therefore, one does not have to be born with specific characteristics or traits of a leader
Leadership potential exists within everyone, and through reflection, guidance, and dedication, individuals can uncover their authentic leadership qualities The process of becoming an authentic leader is not a final destination but rather a journey toward discovering one's true self and the purpose behind their life's work.
(George, 2003) this study and recommendation to the future research will be also discussed
First, the study was conducted in HoChiMinh city Future research should replicate the study in other cultures
This research employed hierarchical regression analysis to test the hypotheses, rather than using structural equation modeling (SEM) Unlike SEM, which evaluates the entire research model simultaneously, this study examined each hypothesized relationship individually It is noteworthy that most studies in the realm of authentic leadership and psychological capital have utilized SEM (Carsten et al., 2008; Luthans, Avolio et al., 2007).
Walumwa, 2008; Walumwa, Avolio et al., 2008; Walumbwa, Wang et al 2008), but this was beyond the scope of this research Future research should perform research with structural equation modeling (SEM)
This study focuses solely on the moderating effects of optimism and self-efficacy Future investigations should explore the moderating roles of additional psychological capital components, including hope and resilience.
The data collection method in this study has limitations, as it relied on a web-based survey that primarily reached internet users To enhance the accuracy of future research, it is recommended to incorporate paper-based surveys.
Finally, this research only performs analysis of variance on gender of employees
Future research should perform research ANOVA on the other demographic variables such as income, age of manager, age of respondents, gender of manager…
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