INTRODUCTION
Background to the research and research problem
In the trend of transitioning and developing Vietnam’s economy, the service sector, consisting of tourism and hospitality industry, has always played an important role According to
The World Travel & Tourism Council (2014), the direct contribution of Travel & Tourism to
GDP is determined based on the output of tourism-related sectors, including hotels, airlines, airports, travel agents, and leisure services that directly engage with tourists The overall impact of travel and tourism on the economy is significant.
In 2013, tourism contributed VND311,117.0bn, accounting for 9.6% of Vietnam's GDP and supporting 1,899,000 jobs, or 3.7% of total employment However, projections indicate a decline to VND299,846.0bn (4.7% of GDP) by 2024, with a growth rate of only 6.3% per annum A recent survey by an EU-funded program revealed that only 6% of international tourists would choose to return to Vietnam, citing poor tourism services, inconvenient transport, and inadequate investment as key factors The survey identified an unprofessional workforce as a major contributor to these service deficiencies, posing a significant challenge to Vietnam's tourism sector and its future goals Consequently, there is an urgent need for the tourism and hospitality industry to enhance workforce efficiency and service quality.
According to Zeithaml et al (as cited in Tsaur et al., 2003), providing high-quality service is a crucial strategy for achieving success and ensuring survival in today's competitive environment.
2 businesses Additionally, the special feature of a service industry is “the contact and interaction between service providers (employees) and service acceptors (customers)” (Tsaur et al., 2003, p
In the tourism and hospitality industry, services are the primary offerings, and employees serve as essential service providers Their outstanding performance not only enhances the customer experience but also significantly contributes to shaping the organization's image.
2003) But then again International Labor Organization (2015) mentioned that Viet Nam’s labor productivity level is still near the bottom among ASEAN countries due to low-skill labor forces
According to the ILO (2015), if current productivity growth rates persist, Viet Nam is projected to catch up with the Philippines by 2038 and Thailand by 2069, while taking significantly longer to match many other nations Additionally, Tran highlights that Viet Nam's tourism workforce is deficient in experience, skills, and professionalism, which hampers the delivery of high-quality services.
Vietnamese tourism and hospitality organizations face significant challenges in human resource management that must be addressed to enhance their competitive position in the industry.
Significant changes in the workplace are driven by advanced technology in the early 21st century, enabling tourism and hospitality workers to operate from virtual offices and connect with global businesses This shift fosters greater individualism, freedom, responsibility, and autonomy among employees Organizations are increasingly focused on competitive efficiency through cost reduction, employee self-management, and continuous improvement in work efficiency.
Effective self-management among service employees is crucial for success in tourism and hospitality organizations These companies recognize that employees prefer to collaborate with organizations rather than merely work for them Therefore, traditional hierarchical control should be replaced by internal motivation Building a trusting environment is essential for subordinates, managers, and teams to become self-managing.
Human resource development is essential for gaining a competitive edge in the new economy, as highlighted by Silva (1997) Many affluent Asian economies have successfully adapted to foster creative and self-managing individuals who enhance organizational competitiveness However, there are concerns about whether transitioning countries like Vietnam can leverage employee self-management to improve competitiveness This challenge has led local organizations to focus on empowering employees at all levels to lead themselves through self-management (Chaijukul, 2010) The concept of self-management has been further explored in various managerial literature, encouraging executives and managers to implement this approach and cultivate their subordinates effectively.
Sims, 1980; Cohen et al., 1997; Castaneda et al., 1999; Neck & Houghton, 2006) Allred et al
Self-management is essential for successful careers in the 21st-century business landscape (Castaneda et al., 1999) In the tourism and hospitality industry, management styles that are directive, arbitrary, and despotic can negatively impact organizational performance, highlighting the need for effective leadership approaches.
Kusluvan (as cited in Kusluvan et al., 2003) proposed that individuals who are self-managed, independent, well-adjusted, and likable are considered "service-oriented people."
Four key skills, along with an individual's willingness to adhere to rules, significantly enhance employee performance and the efficiency of HR functions Karoly (1993) emphasizes that strong self-management, interpersonal awareness, and the capacity to collaborate effectively are crucial for success Nevertheless, it is important to note that Vietnam is characterized by a relatively high power distance culture.
The tourism and hospitality industry, as noted by Hofstede (cited in Swierczek & Thai, 2003), is marked by hierarchical and autocratic management styles, which create a clear distinction between subordinates and managers Job performance evaluations adhere to strict bureaucratic criteria, limiting workers' ability to exercise leadership and self-management (Quang & Vuong, 2002) Consequently, both Asian and Vietnamese tourism and hospitality organizations face the challenge of fostering employee autonomy to enhance their potential and improve overall performance outcomes.
Numerous studies have explored subordinates' perceptions regarding self-management, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance, highlighting the intricate relationships among these factors (Kusluvan, 2003; Seibert et al., 2004; Neck & Houghton).
Research on management concepts in Vietnam, a culture characterized by high power distance, has been limited, with most studies focusing on identifying these concepts separately Few scholars have explored this issue comprehensively.
Research objectives
This study aims to explore how self-management influences psychological empowerment and self-efficacy, ultimately affecting the job performance of employees in the tourism and hospitality sector in Ho Chi Minh City.
- The relationship between self-management and psychological empowerment;
- The relationship between self-management and self-efficacy;
- The relationship between psychological empowerment and job performance;
- The relationship between self-efficacy and job performance;
- The relationship between self-management and job performance.
Research methodology and research scope
This research involved two phases: a qualitative study and a quantitative study The questionnaire was translated from English to Vietnamese, and in-depth interviews with six participants were conducted during the qualitative phase to tailor the items to Vietnamese cultural characteristics and enhance the official questionnaire In the quantitative phase, data was gathered using a convenience sampling method through a self-administered survey.
SPSS 16 and Amos 22 were used to test the model For the reliability and validity, the researcher used CFA Then, SEM was used to test the hypothesized model tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
This research focuses on Vietnamese employees in the tourism and hospitality industry in Ho Chi Minh City, one of Vietnam's largest cities, where many travel agencies and hotels are concentrated The study's respondents include tour guides, tour operators, and hotel staff.
Research significance
The research findings offer valuable managerial insights for Vietnamese organizations, emphasizing the importance of positioning strategies that focus not only on managers but also on subordinates Additionally, it encourages the adoption of effective human resource management (HRM) strategies to improve employee self-management and job performance within the tourism and hospitality sector.
Research structure
This thesis comprises five chapters, beginning with an introduction that outlines the research background, problem, objectives, significance to management practice, scope, and methodology The second chapter reviews relevant theories related to job performance, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and self-management, while also presenting the conceptual model and hypotheses The third chapter details the research methodology employed to empirically test the model Chapter four discusses the results of the data analysis and their relevance to the research questions and hypotheses Finally, the concluding chapter summarizes the research findings, addresses the hypotheses and problems, and offers implications for theory, policy, and practice, along with identifying limitations for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Job performance
Job performance is a crucial dependent construct defined as the overall expected value derived from an employee's behaviors over a specific period (Motowidlo et al., 1997) It encompasses not only the ability to perform tasks as outlined in job descriptions but also the behaviors that enhance organizational effectiveness Job performance is categorized into task performance and contextual performance, forming a process that transforms employee behavior into valuable outcomes for the organization.
According to George (as cited in Huang & Hsuch, 2014), service organizations should evaluate performance by considering both work-related outcomes and performance-related behaviors Additionally, Newman and Maylor (as cited in Huang & Hsuch, 2004) created job performance measurement scales that categorize performance into behavioral aspects, such as employee attendance and service quality, and service performance metrics, including customer satisfaction and return rates A key characteristic of tourism and hospitality services is the interaction between service providers and customers.
Employee capability, motivation, and commitment to meeting customer needs are crucial for ensuring customer satisfaction The effectiveness of services provided is directly linked to these factors, which significantly influence organizational outcomes in a service-oriented environment.
Effective management of employee attitudes and behaviors is crucial for the success of tourism and hospitality organizations, as highlighted by Fulford & Enz (cited in Patah et al., 2009) and supported by Kusluvan (2003).
To ensure high-quality service delivery, tourism and hospitality organizations in Vietnam must establish appropriate criteria that promote employee behaviors aligned with desired outcomes This study will concentrate on behavioral performance.
According to Becker et al (1996), understanding specific subordinate behaviors is crucial for researchers, as these behaviors significantly influence employee engagement and contribute to key organizational outcomes, including productivity, efficiency, and quality.
Psychological empowerment
The concept of general empowerment refers to the social stages that enable individuals to gain control over their lives (Page & Czuba, 1999) Research indicates that when managers share power and control with their subordinates, it leads to increased organizational effectiveness and productivity (Kanter, 1979) As a result, many scholars equate empowerment with the delegation or sharing of power among individuals.
Empowerment is a broad concept that extends beyond management practices and structural power sharing Researchers argue that it fundamentally relates to the individual psychological experience of empowerment (Conger & Kanungo, 1988, p 471).
Research indicates that subordinates' internal behaviors play a crucial role in helping employees feel empowered, which is considered one of the primary benefits of empowerment (Kanugo, 1988; Thomas & Velthouse, 1990; Wilkinson, 1998; Siegal & Gardner, 2000).
Expectancy theory suggests that motivation is driven by the belief that increased effort will lead to better performance and desired outcomes This theory emphasizes the importance of understanding how individuals perceive their ability to achieve goals and the rewards associated with their efforts By fostering an environment that enhances these perceptions, leaders can effectively motivate their subordinates to enhance their performance.
9 task would lead to the expected performance and that expected performance would lead to desired outcomes
This study emphasizes the importance of psychological empowerment, a concept that has been less explored compared to its structural counterpart According to Spreitzer (1995), psychological empowerment consists of motivational cognitions influenced by the work environment, reflecting an individual's active engagement in their role The research validates scales measuring four key constructs of psychological empowerment: impact, meaning, competence, and self-determination In the tourism and hospitality industry, meaning pertains to the significance of work goals for employees, while competence relates to their confidence in feeling empowered Self-determination assesses employees' autonomy in initiating and sustaining work behaviors, and impact measures their ability to influence various outcomes within the workplace.
The findings suggest that components contributing to an individual's perceived control, competence, and goal internalization are linked to managerial effectiveness and innovative behaviors Research highlights the importance of psychological empowerment in the tourism and hospitality industry, acknowledging that customers come from diverse backgrounds, leading to varying expectations of service quality Despite standardized processes, predicting customer responses during service delivery remains challenging for travel and hospitality organizations Psychological empowerment reflects the extent to which employees can influence customer experiences.
In the tourism and hospitality sectors, empowering employees is crucial for enhancing service quality Managers should delegate more authority to their subordinates, enabling quicker decision-making and improved customer experiences The concept of psychological empowerment may be new to many, but it plays a vital role in fostering a responsive and effective service environment.
Vietnamese managers and is still at an early stage of consideration, but with efforts to improve employee’s performance, psychological empowerment is a very important concept to explore
(Quang & Vuong, 2002) Thus, the four dimensional constructs of psychological empowerment by Spreitzer (1995) are suitable in the service industry setting such as tourism & hospitality in
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to organize and execute behaviors necessary for achieving specific goals (Bandura, 1982) It reflects confidence in handling tasks and environmental challenges The determinants of self-efficacy influence how individuals think, behave, and feel (Bandura, 1982) Researchers have identified two key expectancies that impact behavior: outcome expectancies, which are beliefs about the results of certain actions, and self-efficacy expectancy, which is the belief in one's capability to perform those actions successfully To measure self-efficacy, Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995) developed a ten-item generalized self-efficacy scale that assesses an individual's optimistic self-belief and successful coping strategies, emphasizing an internal and stable attribution of success.
Karatepe et al (as cited in Kusluvan, 2003) identify that key personality traits such as competitiveness, self-efficacy, and effort play a crucial role in predicting the performance of frontline employees.
In the hospitality industry, employees interact directly with customers, making personal confidence crucial for effectively addressing their needs and concerns Therefore, the self-efficacy of subordinates is an important aspect to explore in this study.
Self-management
Self-management, also known as self-control or self-leadership, refers to the proactive regulation of one's work environment and personal behaviors, leading to productive, goal-oriented actions (Cohen et al., 1997) This concept emphasizes the use of behavior change strategies by individuals to achieve desired outcomes, highlighting the importance of employees taking responsibility for their own decisions and actions.
Self-management is a crucial process that empowers individuals to achieve personal goals and effectively influence others As noted by Aldag et al (1983), it involves the ability to proactively shape situations and manage one's own destiny This process encourages individuals to employ appropriate behavioral and cognitive strategies for self-guidance and motivation, leading to successful task completion (Manz & Sims, 1980; Manz & Neck, 2004) Essentially, self-management embodies the concept of personal accountability and the retention of self-directed, talented individuals to foster a stimulating and enjoyable work environment (Gapp, 2004).
According to Covey (as cited in Bergen et al., 2002), self-management should be practices as
The "principle-centered, character-based" agenda encompasses seven essential habits: (1) choose the right means and ends in life while taking personal responsibility for your actions; (2) maintain a goal-oriented mindset; (3) prioritize effectively by putting first things first; (4) adopt a win/win mentality; (5) strive to become a better listener; and (6) continuously seek personal improvement.
12 generate teamwork among individuals with unique abilities and potential Value differences; (7) have self-renewal (mental, spiritual, social/emotional, and physical)
Increasing employee self-management can significantly reduce organizational costs in both time and money compared to traditional management approaches Self-management is essential for effective management, and a lack of it can lead to poor task performance and diminished employee ownership of their roles Therefore, developing self-management strategies presents potential benefits for both individual employees and organizations.
Self-management, a term evolved from the self-control concept by Thoresen & Mahoney and Mills, has been extensively developed over the past fifty years In self-managing environments, responsibilities traditionally held by managers shift to subordinates, empowering them to engage in desirable behaviors, follow personal instructions, and control performance outcomes Individuals actively participate in selecting, hiring, socializing, developing, and rewarding within their roles Manz & Sims propose a self-management model consisting of six components, measured by a 22-item scale that includes self-observation, self-goal setting, self-reinforcement, self-criticism, self-expectation, and self-rehearsal In the tourism and hospitality industry, self-observation is crucial as it provides insights into individual performance and activities.
Self-goal setting defines specific objectives for tasks, while self-reinforcement and self-criticism involve employees managing their own rewards and critiques to enhance positive behaviors and diminish negative ones Self-expectation aligns employees' actions with their projected self-image and social identity Additionally, self-rehearsal prepares employees in advance for tasks These dimensions are innovatively applied across various management sectors, including services and manufacturing, and are essential for fostering autonomy, self-motivation, and self-leadership among individuals and teams.
Self-management is increasingly vital for employees in the tourism and hospitality industry, as highlighted by Kusluwan (2003) This modern approach to management is more effective than traditional hierarchical styles, especially in dynamic work environments In Vietnam's cultural context, where managers often provide limited opportunities for subordinates to develop their self-management skills, fostering these competencies becomes even more essential.
(Quang & Vuong, 2002) Therefore, this study attempts to investigate the effects of self- management of employees on their job performance in the tourism and hospitality industry in
Self-management, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance
Numerous studies have explored the connections between self-management, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance at individual, team, and organizational levels (Manz & Sims, 1980; Cohen et al., 1997; Karoly, 1993; Luthans & David, 1979).
Self-management by individual employees plays a crucial role in enhancing their own capabilities (Manz & Sims, 1980) This concept has been supported by various studies, including those by Neck & Houghton (2006) and Chaijukul (2010).
(1979), and Bergen et al (2002) state that by taking an active role of self-regulating, subordinates can set their own goals, monitor confident behaviors and self-rewarding for goal achievement
Neck and Houghton (2006) introduced the self-leadership performance mechanism model, which illustrates how self-leadership strategies, such as self-management and natural reward strategies, positively influence performance outcomes like psychological empowerment, trust, creativity, and self-efficacy across all organizational levels Additionally, behavior-oriented strategies, particularly self-management, play a crucial role in predicting individuals' psychological empowerment.
Research by Seibert et al (2011) highlights that managerial practices and self-management are key factors that foster psychological empowerment among employees Historically, self-management has been recognized as a significant contributor to psychological empowerment (Spreitzer, 1995; Ryles, 1999) Additionally, a study by Reynolds (2002) in the tourism and hospitality sector found that employee self-management serves as a predictor of psychological empowerment.
According to Sarkar et al (2006), self-efficacy strongly associates with self-management across both race/ethnicity and health literacy levels Self-efficacy is believed by Lorig et al
Self-management significantly influences an individual's self-confidence and self-control, impacting their ability to manage their own capabilities and actions According to Bandura (1982), a person's belief in their capacity to perform a behavior enhances their self-efficacy Research by Chaijukul (2010) in Thai private organizations, similar to those in Vietnam, demonstrates that self-management directly affects self-efficacy Therefore, it is hypothesized that self-management plays a crucial role in enhancing individual self-efficacy.
H1 Employee self-management has a positive impact on psychological empowerment
H2 Employee self-management has a positive impact on self-efficacy
Job performance reflects an individual's direct and indirect contributions to organizational goals, influenced by various factors (Covey, as cited in Bergen et al., 2002) The relationship between self-management and job performance highlights the significant positive effects of self-management on performance, as noted by Neck and Houghton (2006) Research by Kolz et al (1998) and Latham et al (2008) further establishes a positive correlation between cognitive abilities, including self-management skills, and job performance In the tourism and hospitality industry, self-management is considered an essential internal competency that enhances employees' ability to perform their jobs effectively (Kusluvan, as cited in Kusluvan et al., 2003).
Psychological empowerment is defined as a set of cognitions that foster intrinsic motivation, significantly influencing employee job satisfaction and performance (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990) Each dimension of empowerment correlates positively with high performance, as empowered individuals experience a sense of self-efficacy, which encourages innovation and a strong expectation of success (Redmon et al.).
Research indicates a positive correlation between psychological empowerment and work unit performance Employees who experience a high level of empowerment tend to exhibit enhanced self-esteem and achieve greater professional success (Spreitzer, 1995) Additionally, Seibert et al (2004) found a modest significance linking psychological empowerment to individual performance.
16 considered as the antecedents of job performance Feelings of being empowered are conclusively correlated to loyalty and perceived productivity (Fulford & Enz, 1995; Kirkman & Rosen, 1999)
Psychological empowerment can be understood as motivational cognitions which reflect the employee’s active experience to promote individual performance
Conger et al (1988) and Block highlight that employees who boost their self-efficacy are likely to improve their performance outcomes Bandura (1982) supports this by demonstrating that higher perceived self-efficacy leads to greater performance accomplishments Additionally, research by Stajkovic et al (1998) and Locke et al (1984) reveals a strong correlation between self-efficacy and work-related performance.
Seibert et al (2004) highlight the significant roles of psychological empowerment and self-efficacy in linking contextual factors, such as leadership and work design, to behavioral outcomes like job performance and employee commitment Prussia et al (1998) demonstrate a strong correlation between self-leadership behaviors and self-efficacy, with self-efficacy fully mediating the relationship between self-leadership and work performance Chaijukul (2010), based on the conceptual model by Neck and Houghton, also finds that self-leadership, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job satisfaction collectively influence job performance, with psychological empowerment and self-efficacy fully mediating the relationship between self-leadership and job performance Therefore, this study will not consider the mediating roles of psychological empowerment and self-efficacy Consequently, tourism and hospitality organizations should acknowledge and leverage employees' self-management competencies to enhance psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance Given these varied findings, the current study proposes and tests several hypotheses.
H3 Psychological empowerment has a positive impact on job performance
H4 Self-efficacy has a positive impact on job performance.
Conceptual model
The conceptual model illustrated in Figure 1 highlights the significance of self-management in enhancing psychological empowerment and self-efficacy, which in turn positively influences job performance among employees in the tourism and hospitality industry This model suggests that effective self-management directly contributes to improved job performance by fostering greater psychological empowerment and self-efficacy among employees.
Job performance tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
These are all hypotheses that were proposed in the study:
H1 Employee self-management has a positive impact on psychological empowerment
H2 Employee self-management has a positive impact on self-efficacy
H3 Psychological empowerment has a positive impact on job performance
H4 Self-efficacy has a positive impact on job performance
H5 Self-management has a positive impact on job performance
In summary, this chapter presents theoretical background of each concept in the model
The literature review indicates that psychological empowerment and self-efficacy are influenced by six dimensions of self-management: self-observation, self-goal setting, self-reinforcement, self-criticism, self-expectation, and self-rehearsal Additionally, the impact of these factors on job performance is examined, with previous research validating their interrelationships This study proposes five hypotheses to explore these connections further The subsequent chapter will outline the methodology employed to analyze the data and test the research model's hypotheses.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
The tourism and hospitality industry is characterized by unique features such as intangibility, inseparability, variability, and perishability These characteristics necessitate that employees possess strong self-management competencies to effectively navigate the market and perform their roles successfully.
In 2006, a study conducted in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, involved two phases: a qualitative study and a main survey, focusing on the city's prominence as a hub for travel agencies and hotels The survey questionnaire was initially crafted in English and subsequently translated into Vietnamese with assistance from language experts The qualitative phase included in-depth interviews over a week with six employees from various sectors of the tourism and hospitality industry, such as hotels, restaurants, and travel agencies Each interview was conducted in convenient locations, including offices, cafés, and schools, where the researcher read each item of the measurement scale to the interviewees, ensuring their understanding and addressing any misunderstandings with follow-up questions and suggestions.
20 interviewee The in-depth interviews followed by one by one until the researcher got no more suggestions
Based on respondent feedback, the survey questionnaire was revised for clarity and comprehension (refer to Appendices A, B, and C) Following these modifications, a self-administered quantitative survey utilizing convenience sampling was carried out to gather data for testing the research hypotheses.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
Participants self-completed a survey with all items were measured by seven-point Likert scale, anchor points including “strongly disagree” (= 1), “disagree” (= 2), “somewhat disagree”
The questionnaire utilized a Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" (1) to "strongly agree" (7) to gauge respondents' opinions It was distributed through electronic mail, Google surveys, and hard copies, as detailed in Table 3.1 The data analysis was conducted using SPSS and AMOS to evaluate both the measurement and structural models.
As mentioned above, the final questionnaires consisted of four measurement scales: self- management, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance
Job performance was measured by five items, accessing quality, productivity, and quality of work life, costs, & safety (Becker et al., 1996)
Job Performance (adapted from Becker et al., 1996) Coding
1 I completed work in a timely and effective manner JobP1
2 I completed tasks in an unsatisfactory manner (reverse-coded) JobP2
3 I feel happy with my quality of work JobP3
4 I did my job better than others JobP4
5 Overall, I satisfied with my job performance JobP5
The data collection instrument for psychological empowerment was the Psychological Empowerment Instrument (PEI) developed by Spreitzer in 1995, which was adapted for the Vietnamese context by removing unsuitable items and adding clarifying language for respondents The measurement scale for psychological empowerment consists of four key components: meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact Specifically, the meaning component was assessed using three items that reflect the value of work.
The study assessed employees' goal orientation and purpose, measuring competence through individual beliefs in their capabilities It also evaluated autonomy by examining self-determination in initiating and sustaining work behaviors Additionally, the impact was gauged by the extent to which individuals can influence strategic, administrative, or operational outcomes in the workplace.
Psychological Empowerment (adapted from Spreitzer, 1995) Coding Meaning
1 The work I do very important to me PEMean1
2 My job activities are personally meaningful to me PEMean2
3 In general, the work I do is meaningful to me PEMean3
1 I am confident about my ability to do my job PECom1
2 I am self-assured that I am well trained to perform my work activities PECom2
3 I have mastered the skills necessary for my job PECom3
1 I have significant autonomy in determining how I do my job PESelfD1
2 I can decide my own how to go about doing my work PESelfD2
3 I have considerable opportunity for independence and freedom in how I do my job
1 My impact about hierarchical structure & information on what happens on my department is large
2 I have a great deal of control about hierarchical structure & information over what happens in my department
3 I have significant influences about hierarchical structure & information over what happens in my department
PEImpa3 tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
The scale items, which were adapted from the ten scales of Schwarzer and Jerusalem
In 1995, self-efficacy was measured using items that assessed a general sense of perceived self-efficacy, reflecting an optimistic self-belief Each item focused on successful coping strategies and suggested an internal and stable attribution of success.
Self-efficacy (adapted from Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995) Coding
1 It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals SelfE1
2 I am confident about my abilities to deal with unexpected events SelfE2
3 When I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several solutions SelfE3
4 If I am in trouble, I can usually think of a solution SelfE4
The measurement scales for self-management, based on the framework by Manz and Sims (1987), include six key components: self-expectation, self-rehearsal, self-goal setting, self-criticism, self-reinforcement, and self-observation/evaluation These scales have been tailored to align with the characteristics of Vietnamese culture.
Self-observation was assessed through three items that reflect an individual's performance and activities, enabling corrective actions Self-goal setting was evaluated with three items to establish specific task-related goals Self-reinforcement and self-criticism were measured by six items, with three items dedicated to each component, focusing on the self-administration of rewards and criticism to enhance desirable behaviors and diminish undesirable ones Lastly, self-expectation was gauged through three items, aligning employees' actions with the self-image and social identity they aim to project.
Self-rehearsal was assessed through three additional items, which assist employees in preparing themselves in advance for specific tasks.
Self-management (adapted from Manz & Sims, 1987) Coding
1 I am aware of level of my performance SMObserv1
2 I know how my performance stands SMObserv2
3 I judge how well I am performing SMObserv3
1 I can define organization goals SMGoal1
2 I can establish task goals SMGoal2
3 I can set goals for personal performance SMGoal3
1 My colleagues praise each other if we have done a job well SMReinf1
2 My colleagues praise each other for good job SMReinf2
3 I feel good about myself if I do a good job SMReinf3
1 If my performance on a job is below par, I am critical of myself SECritic1
2 I am tough of myself if my performance is not up to standard SECritic2
3 I am critical when I do poorly SECritic3
1 I think I can do very well in my job SEExpect1
2 I expect high performance from myself SEExpect2
3 I expect a lot from myself SEExpect3
1 I always go over activity before I attempt it SERehears1
2 I always practice new task before I do it the first time SERehears2
3 I always think how to do a job before I do a job SERehears3
The completed questionnaires in both English and Vietnamese versions are included in Appendices D and E.
Quantitative study
The study will evaluate the model and hypotheses using a dataset gathered from employees in the tourism and hospitality sector Given the time constraints, a convenience sampling method will be employed, utilizing self-administered questionnaires distributed in Ho Chi Minh City.
To ensure statistical significance, the sample size must be sufficiently large According to Hair et al (2009), the minimum sample size for effective statistical analysis should be at least five times the number of variables, with a minimum threshold that should not be overlooked.
The study's model included thirty-nine variables, necessitating a sample size of approximately 195 observations To achieve this, the author distributed 397 questionnaires to participants Ultimately, 371 responses were gathered from 62 travel agencies and hotels, resulting in a high response rate of about 93.45 percent.
Table 3.1 Source of data collection Source Distributed Collected Response rate Eliminated Valid
A total of 35 questionnaires were deemed invalid, with 17 respondents not belonging to the tourism and hospitality industry, 8 respondents selecting the same option for all questions, and 10 surveys returned unanswered Ultimately, 336 valid questionnaires were utilized for this research, which is considered satisfactory compared to the minimum sample size required.
The author utilized SPSS 16 to calculate Cronbach’s alpha and Amos 20 for conducting Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to assess the reliability of each measurement component and the validity of all scales The measurement scale’s reliability among constructs was evaluated using composite reliability (CR) CFA results indicated that average variance extracted (AVE) was employed to determine convergent validity, while correlation between items (r) was used to assess discriminant validity For the measurement to be considered adequate, Cronbach’s alpha for each construct should be at least 0.6, factor loading should be a minimum of 0.5, AVE should not fall below 0.5, and composite reliability should exceed 0.7, as recommended by relevant literature.
Considering the convergent and discriminated validity, the inappropriate items would be removed if necessity Moreover, the CFA would indicate the model fit if CMIN/DF was less than
The analysis revealed a p-value greater than 5%, indicating a lack of statistical significance The comparative fit index (CFI) assessed the model fit by evaluating the discrepancy between the observed data and the proposed model, while also addressing sample size issues inherent in the chi-squared test of model fit, alongside the normed fit index.
A Comparative Fit Index (CFI) value of 0.90 or higher is typically seen as indicative of an acceptable model fit The Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI), also known as the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), addresses some negative bias issues, although NNFI values can occasionally exceed the 0 to 1 range Both the Normed Fit Index (NFI) and NNFI should ideally fall between 0 and 1, with a threshold of 0.95 or above signifying a good model fit The Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) mitigates sample size concerns by evaluating the discrepancy between the hypothesized model with optimally selected parameter estimates and the population covariance matrix, with a value of 0.06 or less indicating a favorable fit.
The model demonstrated an acceptable fit with an RMSEA of less than 8% (Tho & Trang, 2008) Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to evaluate the hypothesized model and estimate the path coefficients for each proposed relationship Additionally, bootstrap methods were utilized to reassess the model's suitability and reliability.
Four measurement scales were adequate for assessing convergent and discriminant validity, which were analyzed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis prior to testing the hypothesized model with Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) The primary constructs examined were self-efficacy and job performance.
The second-order construct of self-management includes six key sub-components: self-observation, self-goal setting, self-reinforcement, self-criticism, self-expectation, and self-rehearsal Additionally, psychological empowerment is defined by four essential sub-components: meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact.
This chapter outlines the research process, including the construction of measurement scales, sample size calculation, and the methods used to analyze the data The study was conducted in two stages: a qualitative phase involving in-depth interviews to refine the measurement scale, followed by a quantitative phase with a main survey The main survey yielded 336 valid questionnaires for data analysis using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) The subsequent chapter will focus on the data analysis from the main survey.
DATA ANALYSIS
Respondents’ demographics
The data collected from 62 travel agencies and hotels in Ho Chi Minh City were analyzed using SPSS – Statistical Software Package The demographic analysis results, summarized in Table 4.1, revealed that 19 travel agencies, accounting for 30.1%, contributed to a total of 138 respondents.
In a study involving 198 respondents from 43 hotels, the gender distribution was nearly balanced, with females representing 55.4% and males 44.6% Notably, a significant portion of participants, 64.6%, were young individuals aged 24 to 30, highlighting that the current labor force in the tourism and hospitality industry is predominantly youthful The age range of respondents varied from 19 years to over 30.
51 years old, with 7.4% respondents were between 19 and 23 years old, 25.9% people were from
Among the respondents, 1.2% were aged 41 to 50 years, while only 0.9% were older than 50 The monthly income of most participants was relatively low, ranging from 6 million VND to over 13.99 million VND.
The survey revealed that 32.4% of respondents earn between 9 and 13.99 million VND, while 29.5% earn less than 6 million VND Additionally, 32.4% of participants reported an income ranging from 6 to 8.99 million VND The smallest group consists of those earning over 14 million VND per month.
18.2% of sample size Almost people in these groups graduated the university and reflected their understanding about self-management skills
Demographic profile Category Frequency Percentage (%)
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4.2.1 CFA for the first-order constructs
Self-efficacy was assessed using four items, and the initial confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated a good fit for the model However, the factor loading for SelfE1 was not significant (\$0.33 < 0.5\$), which contributed to the average variance extracted (AVE) for self-efficacy being below the acceptable threshold of 0.5 (see Table 4.2) Consequently, the author removed SelfE1 and re-evaluated the construct, resulting in a model fit as illustrated in Figure 4.1, with the following statistics: Chi-square = 3.122, degrees of freedom = 2, Chi-square/df = 1.561, p = 0.210, CFI = 0.996, and TLI = 0.989.
The CFA model of Self-Efficacy is illustrated in Figure 4.1, highlighting its key components and relationships For the latest version of the thesis, please download the full document For inquiries, you can reach out via the provided email.
Table 4.2 The first run of CFA (of Self-efficacy and Job performance)
In the initial confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for the job performance construct, the standardized regression weights for JobP1, JobP2, JobP3, and JobP5 were all above 0.5, specifically 0.83, 0.81, 0.85, and 0.82, respectively Despite these strong estimates, JobP4's factor loading was not significant, measuring only 0.28 Consequently, JobP4 was removed from the model, resulting in job performance being assessed through the four items: JobP1, JobP2, JobP3, and JobP5 The findings of the CFA analysis are illustrated in Figure 4.2.
The author assessed the reliability and convergent validity of each construct in the CFA model of Job Performance by calculating Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability, ensuring that the standardized loadings for performance exceeded the acceptable threshold of 0.7 for first-order constructs.
Figure 4.2 CFA model of Job Performance For each construct, the author tested the reliability and convergent validity by calculating composite reliability (CR) and averaged variance extracted (AVE)
Cronbach’α, composite reliability of self-efficacy and job performance were larger than 0.7 (0.78 and 0.90; 0.79 and 0.90 respectively) Thus, reliability of onstructs was acceptable
Summarized of CR, AVE and Cronbach’α (first order constructs)
JobP5 0.82 omposite reliability; AVE: averaged variance extracted
For each construct, the author tested the reliability and convergent validity by calculating
(AVE) values based on efficacy and job 0.79 and 0.90 respectively) Thus, reliability of
(first order constructs) Reliability (CR; AVE)
The reliability of the measurement was assessed using Cronbach's alpha, which yielded values of 0.78 and 0.90, indicating good internal consistency The Composite Reliability (CR) was found to be 0.79 and 0.90, further supporting the reliability of the constructs Additionally, the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values were 0.55 and 0.69, demonstrating adequate convergent validity.
In the initial run of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), the averaged variance extracted (AVE) value for self-efficacy was low at 0.49, falling below the acceptable threshold of 0.5 However, after removing the item SelfE1, the AVE value improved to above 0.5 in the second run Conversely, the AVE value for Job Performance was satisfactory at 0.69, exceeding the 0.5 benchmark Overall, the CFA model for the first-order constructs of self-efficacy and job performance demonstrated a good fit with the data, as detailed in Table 4.3.
4.2.2 CFA for second-order constructs
The second-order construct of self-management includes six key sub-components: self-observation, self-goal setting, self-reinforcement, self-criticism, self-expectation, and self-rehearsal In the initial run of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) model, the data demonstrated a good fit, with a Chi-square value of 41.836, degrees of freedom of 0, and a p-value of 000 The model's fit indices were also strong, with a Chi-square/df ratio of 2.849, CFI of 960, TLI of 949, and NFI of 940.
RMSEA=.074) and all of the items had significant factor loading (>0.5) (see Table 4.4 and
Figure 4.3) tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
Figure 4.3 CFA model of Self Examining the reliability of self
(CR) values of all sub-components were high (>0.80)
The CFA model of self-management demonstrates high reliability, with Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability exceeding 0.80 Additionally, the analysis confirms strong convergent validity, indicating that the components effectively measure the intended constructs.
35 averaged variance extracted (AVE) value of self-management’s sub-components were significant
The correlations among each pair of sub-components were found to be less than 0.8, with significance at 0.001, indicating strong reliability and convergent validity, as well as within-construct discriminant validity (Refer to Table 4.4 and Table 4.5 for details.)
Table 4.4 Summarized of CR, AVE and Cronbach’α (self-management)
The article discusses key concepts in research methodology, specifically focusing on composite reliability (CR) and averaged variance extracted (AVE) These metrics are essential for assessing the validity and reliability of measurement models in various studies For further insights and the latest updates, please refer to the provided contact information.
Table 4.5 Correlations (of Self-Management)
SMObserv SMGoal 0.75(0.036) SMObserv SMReinf 0.77(0.035) SMObserv SECritic 0.53(0.046) SMObserv SEExpect 0.61(0.043) SMObserv SERehears 0.61(0.044)
SMGoal SECritic 0.53(0.046) SMGoal SEExpect 0.63(0.043) SMGoal SERehears 0.61(0.043) SMReinf SECritic 0.61(0.043) SMReinf SEExpect 0.66(0.041) SMReinf SERehears 0.70(0.039) SECritic SEExpect 0.77(0.035) SECritic SERehears 0.77(0.035) SEExpect SERehears 0.78(0.034) Note: r(SE): correlations with standard errors
The same as self-management, the model of psychological empowerment fitted data well for the first run of CFA (Chi-square.368; dfH; Chi-square/df=1.966; P=.000; CFI=.987;
TLI=.982; NFI=.974; RMSEA=.054) tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
Figure 4.4 CFA model of Psychological Empowerment
The CFA model of Psychological Empowerment, illustrated in Figure 4.4, highlights the key components that contribute to an individual's sense of empowerment in psychological contexts This model serves as a framework for understanding how various factors interact to enhance psychological well-being and personal agency.
After testing the reliability of psychological empowerment, the author realized that cronbach’α and the composite reliability (CR) values of all sub-components were significant
Structural equation modeling (SEM)
The structural equation modeling results indicated that the theoretical model had a fit to the data: χ2 [406] = 1139.777 (p = 0.000); dfa4; chi-square/df= 1.856; CFI=.951; TLI=.946;
The study yielded a Normed Fit Index (NFI) of 0.899 and a Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) of 0.051, confirming support for all five hypotheses Positive regression weight values indicated that the data set effectively supported each hypothesis Detailed unstandardized estimates can be found in Table 4.11, while the standardized estimates are also provided.
Table 4.11 Unstandardized structural paths Hypotheses structural paths Testing result Est.(se) CR P-value H1 Employee self-management has a positive impact on psychological empowerment
H2 Employee self-management has a positive impact on self-efficacy
H3 Psychological empowerment has a positive impact on job performance
H4 Self-efficacy has a positive impact on job performance
H5 Self-management has a positive impact on job performance
Supported 0.366(0.070) 5.222 *** tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
Note: p