Research Problem
Early childhood development (ECD) is crucial for overall human development, as it lays the foundation for lifelong growth through epigenetic, immunological, physiological, and psychological adaptations to the environment (Young, 2002) Research indicates that children in low- and middle-income countries who participated in early childhood educational programs experienced a 25% greater increase in cognitive development over the past 25 years compared to those who did not (Glewwe, 2005).
Early Childhood Development (ECD) is recognized as a crucial element for sustainable development in developing countries The significance of child development was highlighted in 2007 with the publication of The Lancet's landmark series, which focused on the challenges and opportunities for children's growth in these regions.
2011, the number of scientific publications on a core topic of Early Childhood
Recent research highlights that early childhood development significantly influences overall life outcomes (Britto et al., 2017) Consequently, there has been a notable rise in funding programs aimed at supporting early childhood development initiatives.
Early childhood development has seen significant improvements over the past decades, largely due to the support from various development agencies These efforts align with the pursuit of the Millennium Development Goals established by the UNDP.
1990, so that there has been a great improvement in child survival while mortality of child under five is dramatically dropped
Numerous studies have established a significant link between a mother's education and various aspects of child development For instance, Barrera (1990b) found a positive correlation between maternal education levels and the health and nutritional status of children Additionally, Hill and King (1995) explained that higher educational attainment in mothers leads to smaller family sizes, enabling families to invest more resources in each child's upbringing.
Some fact on Lao social, economic Status
Government policy on gender
The Lao Constitution, adopted in 1991, guarantees gender equality in politics, economy, culture, and society, with specific provisions in family law In 2003, the National Assembly revised the family law to emphasize the state's commitment to promoting women's advancement and protecting the rights and benefits of women and children This highlights the Lao government's focus on the importance of women and children The law also ensures that all Lao citizens, regardless of gender or ethnicity, enjoy equal legal rights and access to economic and social opportunities.
The principle of equality between men and women is enshrined not only in the constitution but also in various legal documents, such as the Labor Law of 1994, which mandates non-discrimination in employment and equal pay for both genders, considering both quantity and quality of work Additionally, female workers are entitled to a minimum of ninety days of maternity leave with normal pay, funded by their employers or the social security system, with the possibility of an additional thirty days for any illness related to pregnancy.
On October 2004, the National Assembly passed the Law on Development and
The President of the Lao PDR has issued a decree to enhance the role of women by establishing legal measures for their protection This decree outlines the state's, society's, and family's responsibilities towards women, aiming to promote their knowledge, skills, and gender equality It seeks to eliminate discrimination against women, combat trafficking and domestic violence, and create conditions that enable women's participation in national protection and development.
The law also indicated the responsibility of the state, society and family towards women is to encourage knowledge, capacity and gender quality
Laos is committed to implementing various international conventions, including the Convention on the Political Rights of Women, in addition to adhering to national laws and regulations.
1969, and ratifies the convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW) and the convention on the Right of Child (CRC) in 1981 and
In 1990, CEDAW was established to prohibit discrimination against women and safeguard their rights, while the CRC mandates that governments protect the rights of all children, ensuring their basic needs are met, including safe motherhood The government's dedication to gender equality is reflected in various policy documents related to population, health, and human resources.
Lao PDR has incorporated the main ideas of these conventions in its constitution
There is a pressing need to enhance the Lao legal framework, which currently faces challenges due to a lack of experience, human resources, and public awareness The Ministry of Justice is actively working to improve awareness of women's rights and issues Plans are underway to incorporate gender training into the legal education curriculum for law students at the Faculty of Law.
The National University of Laos is implementing gender training for crime investigators and judges of the Supreme Court to enhance awareness of human rights, particularly for women, ethnic minorities, children, and other disadvantaged groups.
Mechanism
To improve the women’s status and gender equality, the Lao government assigned the
Lao Women’s Union and Lao National Commission for Advancement of Women
(NCAW) as machineries to implement their functions
The Lao Women’s Union, established in 1995 as the Lao Patriotic Women’s Union, is a mass organization recognized by article 7 of the 1991 constitution Its primary mission is to mobilize and safeguard the rights and benefits of all Lao women and children.
Association, initially acted as a uniting front for all Lao women of all ethnic groups and all social strata in the struggle for the liberation of the country
Following the liberation and the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic on December 2, 1975, the organization was renamed the Lao Women’s Union (LWU) This change allowed the LWU to broaden its role and mandate to align with the socioeconomic development of the new era Operating at a ministerial level, the LWU has a structured organization that extends from the central level down to grassroots communities The IV National Lao Women’s Congress endorsed the objectives of the LWU.
Women’s Slogan: “Three goods” meaning: “being a good citizen, being good in development, having a good cultural family”
The LWU is dedicated to educating women from all ethnic backgrounds about their rights and benefits as outlined in the constitution, laws, and international conventions It aims to protect the rights of Lao women and children while encouraging their active participation in socio-economic development Additionally, the LWU plays a vital role in preserving the rich culture and traditions of Lao women across various ethnic groups.
The Lao Women’s Union serves as the national body dedicated to promoting equal rights and advancing women's status It is tasked with overseeing the implementation of government policies and programs that focus on women's development and gender-related issues.
Over the past three decades, the Lao Women’s Union has significantly enhanced its initiatives to empower ethnic minority and rural women through skill training, income generation, and financial support It has promoted good health practices, family planning, and raised awareness about women's rights, particularly in the workplace and regarding land registration The Union has also facilitated the formation of women's professional associations and supported women's representation in the civil service and National Assembly Recently, the LWU has begun tackling critical issues such as domestic violence, HIV/AIDS, and human trafficking, while maintaining its primary focus on the political mobilization of Lao women.
Since 1997 the LWU has been playing a prominent role in advocating for gender equality and women’s empowerment through the Gender Resource Information and
The Development Center (GRID) promotes gender awareness and provides gender analysis to government officials at all levels, facilitating effective gender mainstreaming As a technical body, GRID has achieved significant accomplishments, including coordination with various stakeholders.
The National Statistic Center is committed to enhancing the use of sex-disaggregated statistics and is collaborating with the CPI to develop guidelines and conduct training on gender-sensitive planning This initiative includes gender awareness and skill training for government staff at both central and local levels, as well as media personnel The center will undertake quantitative and qualitative research on various topics, including the status of Lao women, their participation in village decision-making, and issues related to gender and land, energy, and women entrepreneurs Additionally, consultations with the CPI and relevant ministries will focus on integrating gender into the National Growth and Poverty Eradication Strategy (NGPES) Efforts will also include the preparation of a comprehensive country gender analysis and profile, alongside the creation of a dedicated website and the production of newsletters, information sheets, brochures, posters, calendars, and videos to disseminate this information.
In early 2002, the Lao government decided to create the Lao National Commission for the Advancement of Women (NCAW) to enhance gender equality and women's advancement, drawing inspiration from the experiences of Vietnam and the Philippines Consequently, in April 2003, the Prime Minister officially established the Lao NCAW through Decree No 37, distinguishing it from the Lao Women's Union (LWU).
Lao NCAW is a state organization dedicated to safeguarding the rights and interests of Lao women, with a strong commitment to achieving gender equality across all facets of life.
The Lao National Commission for the Advancement of Women (NCAW) plays a crucial role in promoting gender equality and combating discrimination against women across various ethnic groups in Lao society To enhance its effectiveness, the Prime Minister of Lao PDR has mandated the establishment of sub-Commissions on the Advancement of Women within local authorities and organizations These sub-Commissions are tasked with coordinating the implementation of national laws, policies, and plans aimed at advancing women's rights and opportunities.
The National Stategy for the Advancement of Women for the year 2005-2010 that are in conformity with the Beijin Platform for Action which focus on five main goals: (1)
To enhance the implementation of the National Gender Policy and Economic Strategy (NGPES), it is crucial to increase women's participation, promote their education, and improve their access to healthcare services Additionally, efforts should focus on increasing the representation of women in decision-making positions across all levels and strengthening organizations dedicated to protecting and advancing women's rights.
Despite the achievements of Lao women through various initiatives, they continue to encounter significant challenges that hinder their progress These include insufficient human capacity for effective gender mainstreaming in programs and training for ministry staff, a lack of accurate sex-disaggregated and relevant gender data for informed policy-making, limited budgets and resources to support gender mainstreaming efforts, and inadequate coordination of activities among government ministries, international donors, and INGOs.
Education policy toward women empowerment
Despite significant advancements in education over the past few decades, Lao PDR still faces some of the lowest education indicators in East Asia, highlighting stark disparities between urban and rural areas, as well as between genders and socioeconomic statuses While the gender gap in urban education has nearly closed, rural areas continue to struggle with poor educational outcomes, and the gap is widening A considerable number of children, particularly girls and those from ethnic minority groups in remote regions, remain out of school, contributing to a higher illiteracy rate among women compared to men.
Illiteracy and low attendance among girls and women are influenced by various factors, including poverty, traditional beliefs, language preferences, and geographical remoteness Additionally, issues such as dropping out of school due to household responsibilities, early marriage, or pregnancy contribute to the problem Many impoverished families fail to recognize the value of formal education in enhancing their livelihoods, and parental disinterest further discourages children from pursuing their education.
Government policy on education
The Lao Constitution and Education law recognize the right of all citizens to education
The promotion of compulsory primary education emphasizes the importance of developing educational opportunities, particularly for ethnic minority groups, impoverished women, and both disabled and exceptionally talented children A key document guiding these efforts is the Strategic Plan for 20 years to 2020, alongside the five-year development plan.
Government-wide policies have significantly influenced education, particularly through the Prime Minister's Decree on Decentralization of the Education Sector, the five-year socio-economic plan, and the National Poverty Reduction Plan.
The Lao Government has also ratified international agreement on and related to education, for instance, CEDAW, CRC, and has agreed to the eight Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) More specifically, it has committed to Education for All”
(EFA) Under this, the aim is for the overall net enrollment rate (NER) of 95% for
By 2015, the net enrollment rate (NER) for primary education and lower secondary school is targeted to reach 74% In 2004, education expenditure accounted for 11.8% of GDP The Ministry of Education (MOE) is currently executing a $55 million project aimed at providing seven years of basic education for girls, along with a school feeding program in remote areas, which supports poor children, particularly girls and ethnic minority groups, in gaining better access to education.
Literacy status of Lao people
Approximately 40% of the population in Laos lives below the poverty line, significantly impacting access to primary education in terms of duration and outcomes Additionally, the adult illiteracy rate in Laos is around 34%, with women experiencing higher rates of illiteracy compared to men.
The gender gap remains significant, especially in rural, impoverished, and ethnic minority households However, urban areas have seen notable improvements over the past few decades, with the literacy gap between men and women narrowing rapidly The most substantial progress has been observed among poor urban females, whose advancements in recent years have outpaced those of boys (King and Van de Walle 2005).
Gender disparities in literacy are particularly pronounced in highland regions inhabited by numerous ethnic minorities The literacy rate for poor rural non-Lao-Tai women stands at a mere 29%, significantly lower than the 66% literacy rate for their poor rural Lao-Tai counterparts, highlighting the stark inequalities in education access.
Bank 2006) Indicators vary even among the various ethno-linguistic groups, with only
20% of Chine-Tibet women reporting they can read and write a figure that is lower than the 29% quoted for the overall rural poor non Lao-Tai female population
The widening gender gap in education becomes more pronounced as educational levels rise, particularly at the university level Despite the Ministry of Education's efforts to address this issue, significant disparities in school participation between boys and girls persist and need to be addressed.
Table1.1: Attendance of students by Education Level in 2014-2015
Primary enrollment rates in Laos are notably low compared to other East Asian countries, particularly among ethnic minority girls in rural regions (UNESCO 2003) While 80% of villages have access to a primary school, only 36% of these schools offer a complete five-grade curriculum (National Census 2015).
North region is of particular concern nationwide, 90 percent of schools in the poorest districts are incomplete, and more than 40% of students attend an incomplete school
The net intake has doubled during the last five years in the 46 poorest districts
However, in those districts with high concentrations of ethnic minorities, three of five children attend school at some period, but only half of these complete a basic education
The vast majority of ethnic minority children never make it past second grade
In rural regions, over 40% of girls and 30% of boys are likely to drop out before completing the fifth grade Among non Lao-Tai students in these areas, the dropout rate at the end of primary school approaches 50%.
Primary school enrollment rates are lowest for non-Lao-Tai girls in rural areas, while Lao-Tai men from urban areas have the highest enrollment rates Significant disparities exist among different demographic groups, particularly among the Hmong-Lu.
Mien, 48% of rural girls are enrolled in primary school compared to 66% of boys As for the Mong-Khmer, 57% and 61% of rural girls and boys are attending primary school
The gender gap in primary school enrollment among the Chine-Tibet ethnic group is relatively small, with only 33% of girls and 39% of boys in rural areas attending school Additionally, for all three non Lao-Tai groups, urban areas exhibit a smaller gender gap in primary enrollment compared to rural regions.
Table 1.2: Mean primary school enrollment rates (in %) for children aged 6-12 (2012-
Mon-Khmer 80.1 75.0 61.4 75.4 tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
Source: King and Van de Walle 2015 based on LECS3
The transition from primary to secondary education poses significant challenges, with only 35% of students enrolling in secondary schools Of these, merely 5% manage to complete the full six-year program, and less than 5% pursue higher education at the university level.
Nationally, female enrollment in lower secondary education remains low, with a net enrollment rate of 32 percent for females compared to 38 percent for males in the 11-16 age group This reflects a significant drop of 42% for females and 48% for males Additionally, while the overall net enrollment for urban students stands at 48%, it plummets to just 25% for rural children.
To address the issue of illiteracy and the existing gender disparities in education sector, government of Lao has the strategic plan as follows:
The universalization of quality basic education at the primary level, along with the ongoing expansion of participation in lower secondary education, ensures that everyone has the opportunity to utilize their education in support of socio-economic programs.
Eradication of illiteracy, thus providing poor people with a means of helping to improve their quality of life;
Expansion of vocational, technical and higher education to meet the demands of the new labor market and to improve economic rates of return on human capital investment;
The training of skilled workers, technicians, professionals, and intellectual to have the capacity to apply modern science and technology to serve development needs; and
Gradually upgrade the quality of national education to the international standard
In Laos, there is a noticeable disconnect between public policy and its implementation, as public investment primarily targets urban infrastructure and business subsidies, which are thought to stimulate economic growth However, expenditures on healthcare significantly declined from 2014 to 2016.
In Laos, the fluctuation in maternal and child health status may be attributed to the fact that health care for children is primarily the responsibility of the Ministry of Health, which allocates only 3 to 2.4% of GDP to this sector.
According to the LSIS 2012 and 2017 ECD index, Laos achieved scores of 81.3% and 89.1%, respectively However, early childhood development (ECD) in the northern region of Laos is significantly poorer compared to the central and southern areas, as highlighted by a survey conducted by the World Bank.
7.520 children from 5 Northern provinces, reveals that only 25% of children attended some form of early childhood education, 22% received some form of health services,
Limited scientific studies on early childhood development (ECD) in Laos have resulted in restricted public awareness of its significance Therefore, this study is essential to explore and scientifically validate the connection between maternal education levels and ECD The findings are expected to encourage policymakers to invest in human capital for long-term socio-economic development Additionally, this research aims to contribute to existing literature and promote sustainable development in Laos by highlighting the critical roles of education, health, and information sectors.
Research objective and Research question
This desertion is mainly to examine the relationship between maternal education level and early childhood development as a holistic view of child health status in Laos during
2000-2016 By controlling other variables such as the family wealth quintile, and some other’s characters of mother the main objective and consideration of the dissertation are as below:
Maternal education plays a significant role in early childhood development in Lao PDR Research indicates that higher levels of maternal education are associated with improved developmental outcomes for children This connection highlights the importance of educational initiatives aimed at mothers to enhance the well-being and growth of young children in the region.
Second, how does the access to information of women affect the development of children in Laos?
And finally, are there any big differences in terms of ECD among different regions of Laos?
Scope of the Study
This thesis analyses and calculates the interaction among level of education of mothers and early childhood development.
Contribution
To achieve the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) and sustainable development in Laos, recognizing the significance of early childhood development is crucial Identifying the key determinants of development allows for targeted and scientifically informed policymaking.
The finding of this research may provide scientific evidence for policy makers to recognize the role of Child development, maternal education and women access to information.
Thesis structure
This thesis is organized into 5 chapters, above section is first chapter, and sections hereafter are:
Literature review
Theoretical background
Early childhood development is a complex, multi-dimensional concept influenced by various theoretical frameworks Key theories include psycho-analytical, behavioral, social learning, biological, cognitive development, and systems theory These frameworks enable researchers to identify determinants and understand the relationships among socio-economic factors that impact a child's development.
Early childhood development in psychoanalytical, base on 2 markable theories
Sigmund Freud emphasized that a child's personality development is shaped by parental management of sexual and aggressive drives In contrast, Erik Erikson expanded on Freud's theories by incorporating societal influences to explain personality formation Additionally, Behavioral and Social Learning theories focus on the relationship between environmental factors and nurturing in a child's growth.
Various indicators and measurement methods are used in literature to explain the factors affecting child development and health status According to Glewwe (1999), determinants of a child's health are influenced by parental education, household assets, the local health environment, and the child's inherent health endowment.
Ecological systems theory, now known as Bioecological systems theory, emphasizes the importance of a child's biology as a primary factor in their development within a complex system of relationships This theory outlines various "layers" of the environment, including immediate family, community, and societal influences, all of which interact to shape a child's growth Changes or conflicts in any one layer can impact the others, highlighting the need to consider both the child and their broader environment when studying development.
The microsystem is the closest structure to a child's health status, encompassing the relationships and interactions that influence their development within immediate surroundings such as family, school, neighborhood, and childcare environments At this level, relationships exert bi-directional influences, meaning that while parents can shape a child's beliefs and behaviors, children also impact their parents in return This concept, highlighted by Bronfenbrenner, emphasizes the significance of interactions both within the microsystem and between different environmental layers, with the strongest influences occurring at the microsystem level Nonetheless, interactions from outer layers can still affect the inner structures, underscoring the complexity of child development.
The mesosystem serves as the crucial link between various elements of a child's microsystem, such as the relationship between a child's teacher and their parents, as well as the connections between their church and neighborhood (Berk, 2000).
The exosystem represents the broader social environment that indirectly influences a child's development Structures within this layer, such as parental workplace schedules and community resources, interact with the child's microsystem Although the child may not engage directly with these external factors, they still experience the effects—both positive and negative—of these interactions on their immediate environment.
The macrosystem represents the outermost layer of a child's environment, encompassing cultural values, customs, and laws (Berk, 2000) Although it is not a specific framework, the macrosystem's broader principles exert a cascading influence on the interactions within all other layers of a child's development.
In cultures where the belief is that parents should bear full responsibility for raising their children, there tends to be a lack of resources available to support parents in this role.
The dynamics within a child's microsystem significantly influence how parents fulfill their responsibilities Consequently, the effectiveness of parents in nurturing their child is impacted by the surrounding structures and environments they operate within.
The chronosystem encompasses the dimension of time in relation to a child's environments, including both external factors like the timing of a parent's death and internal factors such as physiological changes during aging As children mature, their responses to environmental changes evolve, enabling them to better understand how these changes impact their lives.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory (1986), several key factors influence child development, including maternal education at the microsystem level, family involvement in home activities at the macrosystem level, participation in school activities at the mesosystem level, and social support at the exosystem level.
The ecological theory posits that child outcomes are influenced by various factors, including the child, parent, family, school, community, and society, along with their interactions However, some researchers critique this traditional framework for its inadequacy in addressing critical variables such as social position—encompassing social class, ethnicity, race, and gender—as well as social stratification issues like racism, prejudice, discrimination, and segregation Additionally, it overlooks the significance of adaptive culture, which includes traditions, cultural legacies, migration, acculturation, and the economic and political histories faced by families of color in the United States.
Coll et al (1996) introduced an integrative model to examine the development of competence in children of color, emphasizing the importance of social position and social stratification in understanding their growth This model highlights critical factors often overlooked in traditional ecological frameworks, including the impacts of racism and segregation, the diversity within minority families, and the influence of social stratification and acculturation on the developmental competencies of minority children.
Children are influenced by both family and childcare microsystems, which are interconnected Parents choose different types of childcare based on various factors such as family structure, parental characteristics, and geographical location Singer et al (1998) emphasized the importance of considering these selection effects in childcare research to accurately assess the impact of childcare on children's development over time The study highlights the significance of family-level and community-level factors in shaping childcare decisions.
Empirical review
Many recent studies have examined the impact of the mother’s (and father) education on child health For comprehensive reviews of the literature, (Strauss and Thomas,
This thesis provides an overview of recent studies that examine the influence of a mother's education on early childhood development, emphasizing the comprehensive health status of children.
Research across various countries indicates that a mother's education positively influences her children's height and weight While most studies provide reduced form estimates, some delve into the mechanisms through which maternal education enhances child health For instance, Barrera (1990b) found in the Philippines that more educated mothers wean their children earlier but offset this by providing better care, resulting in healthier children, as evidenced by higher height-for-age z-scores.
Thomas et al (1991a) examined the "information processing" attributes of schooling using Braillian data, which included variables related to women's media consumption, such as reading newspapers, listening to the radio, and watching television The study found that mother's education was not significant when accounting for these activities In rural areas, both newspaper and radio consumption were significant, while in urban areas, only television viewing showed significance.
The Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey has been the foundation for numerous intriguing studies that explore how external factors affect child nutritional status and health outcomes Researchers have utilized this data to model the relationships between various exogenous variables and their impact on child morbidity and nutrition.
Research by Study Team (1991, 1992) indicates that a mother's education significantly enhances waste disposal practices and increases non-breastmilk calorie intake, both of which contribute to a lower incidence of diarrhea While maternal education may result in earlier weaning, potentially increasing diarrhea episodes, the overall impact of maternal education is a reduction in diarrhea incidence.
An important critique of finding that mother’s education improves child health is the hyphothesis that education simply reflects unobserved maternal characteristics
Behrman and Wolfe (1987) analyzed Nicaraguan data on mothers' siblings to account for unobserved family fixed effects Their findings indicated that, after applying these controls, there was no significant impact of a mother's education on her child's anthropometric status.
Strauss and Mundial (1988) discovered that maternal education significantly improves child health in rural Cote D’Ivoire, demonstrating a positive impact on children's height-for-age and weight-for-height, even after accounting for family fixed effects.
In Vietnam, research by Thu (2014) revealed that a mother's education significantly influences a child's health, while toilet usage does not have a notable impact on the health status of Vietnamese children Additionally, Cam (2018) highlighted that maternal education, along with household wealth, gender, and living area, plays a role in determining child health This study is pioneering in its use of quantile regression to assess the effects of maternal education on child health, contrasting with previous studies that relied on OLS or fixed effects Quantile regression allows for a nuanced analysis of how maternal education affects child health across different quantiles of the child's body index variable.
Dr Vo (2018) found a significant relationship between women's empowerment and child development in rural Vietnam Additionally, research by Thomas et al (1991b) demonstrated a positive effect of mother's education on children's height, with results showing a high level of statistical significance Schultz (1984) also explored the impact of household economics on child development.
Research on community variables affecting child mortality indicates that a mother's education level influences child health in five significant ways Firstly, education enables mothers to utilize a more effective mix of health resources that enhance their child's well-being Secondly, educated mothers tend to be more adept at optimizing child health outcomes with the available health goods Thirdly, schooling shapes mothers' preferences in systematic ways that can benefit their children's health Fourthly, increased years of education typically lead to higher incomes, better wages, and improved productivity, particularly in self-employment, which collectively contribute to better child health Lastly, the overall impact of maternal education on child health is profound and multifaceted.
Education increases the opportunity cost of time, allowing mothers to dedicate more time to caring for their children.
Maitra et al (2006) investigate how parental, household, and community characteristics influence child health in China, highlighting the critical role of parental education and unobserved maternal heterogeneity Their findings indicate that parental education significantly impacts child health, with maternal education having a more pronounced effect than paternal education This supports the notion that higher maternal educational levels lead to better health outcomes for children by enhancing the information available to mothers and households Additionally, the study notes that increased paternal educational attainment is associated with positive income effects, while addressing discrimination against girls also contributes to improved child health status.
The research on child’s stant status in Laos, done by Yusuke Kamiya, Marika Nomura,
Hina Ogino, Kanako Yoshikawa, Latsamy Siengsounthone and Phonepadith
Xangsayarath has highlighted the link between women's autonomy and childhood stunting, emphasizing the importance of understanding maternal autonomy in addressing this issue A study involving 100 mothers and their 115 children under five in semi-urban Lao PDR, a region with the highest childhood stunting rates in Indochina, utilized cross-sectional questionnaires and body scale measurements The research assessed various dimensions of women's autonomy, including self-esteem, self-efficacy, decision-making power, freedom of mobility, and control of finances, to analyze their impact on the likelihood of childhood stunting.
Research indicates that a mother's higher self-efficacy in healthcare, self-esteem, and control is linked to a significantly lower likelihood of childhood stunting Conversely, factors such as a mother's decision-making power and freedom of mobility do not show a significant association with stunting levels in children.
Research indicates that a mother's education significantly enhances child health, with some insights into the mechanisms behind this improvement However, there is a lack of comprehensive studies examining how various maternal characteristics influence child health, particularly in relation to early childhood development metrics.
1.2.1 The impact of maternal education on early childhood development
Research Methodology and Data Resources
Model
According to (Glewwe, 1999) it is not necessary to estimate straightforward the pathways by which mother’s schooling affects child health The production function for early childhood development:
ECDi is the early childhood development score level, which has two values, 1 for properly developed and 0 for poorly developed
Hi is a vector of social, economic factor effects on children of each household
Ei is a vector summarizing the environmental condition surrounding child i
The model presented in equation (1) requires a diverse dataset; however, data availability is currently limited Consequently, the simplified version of the model illustrates the connection between a mother's education and child development.
Ms: Parental Characteristics: Mother’s age, Mother’s school year, Access information, age of mother, ethnicity of mother
A: Child’s endowment variables: Age and sex
E: Social, Economic environment variables: Wealth quintile, own land plot
H: Household characteristics: use clean water, number of family members, number of children under 5
P: Public health facilty provision tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
Table 2.1 The detail of variables:
ECD Early Childhood Development 0=poorly developed 1=Properly Developed DM1
MEDU Maternal Education Number of
School year attended ACINFOR Access to Information 0=not access
MAGE Age of mother Years-old
CHAGE Child’s Age Months tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
CLEANWT Used Clean water for drinking 0 = Not Clean
Water 1= Used clean water for drink HHMEM Number of Household
Ordinal number UNDER5 Number of Children Under5 Ordinal
Number ETNGROUP Ethnicity of the Household head
WINDEX Wealth Quintile Index 1 Poorest
OWNLPLOT Owned Land Plot 0=not own any land plot 1=own at least
Public health facility environment (Social support)*
REGION Region of the Household 1: Northern
Regional disparities in health facilities across Laos may influence children's developmental outcomes, as data limitations suggest varying access and quality of care in different areas.
Estimation method
Logit regression using maximum likelihood estimation with a robust option is employed due to the categorical nature of the dependent variable in our model The results of the regression will illustrate the trend of the impact, while the coefficients can be estimated through the marginal effects of each individual variable.
Variable definitions
Early childhood development (ECD) is crucial for assessing a child's health outcomes, which serve as indicators of their current and future well-being ECD can be classified into two categories: properly developed and poorly developed children Evaluating early childhood development is essential for population monitoring, program evaluation, and exploratory research.
UNICEF highlights that the early childhood period, specifically for children aged 2 to 5 years, is crucial for development across four key domains, laying a strong foundation for their future health and growth.
Figure 2.2 illustrates the various stages of life development, as referenced in the WD-ECD measurement toolkit.
2.3.4 The construction of the domain for measuring child development
In MICS, the type of survey is based on the Parent’s Evaluation of Developmental
The Status (PEDS) assessment evaluates each child across four key domains through a standardized set of ten questions These domains include: (1) Literacy and Numeracy, (2) Physical Development, (3) Social-Emotional Skills, and (4) Approaches to Learning.
Unlike developed countries, surveys in the US and EU utilize distinct methodologies, focusing on 9-12 domains These surveys encompass 18 questions that address various aspects, including cognitive development, social-emotional development, motor development, language and emergent literacy, health, hygiene, safety, cultural knowledge and participation, as well as approaches to learning.
In this research, The early childhood development which is the main measurement by
UNICEF are adopting the standard test by 4 domains, 10 questions to use as the key examine indication for the development of each child age between 2 and 5 years
Survey questions are as follows:
1 Can (he/she) identify or name at least ten letters of the alphabet?
2 Can (he/she) read at least four simple, popular words?
3 Does (he/she) know the name and recognize the symbol at all numbers from 1 to 10?
4 Can (he/she) pick up a small object with two fingers, like a stick or a rock from ground?
5 Is (he/she) sometimes too sick to play?
6 Does (he/she) be able to follow a simple direction on how to do something correctly?
7 When giving something to do, is (he/she) able to do it independently?
8 Does (he/she) get along well with other children?
9 Does (he/she) kick, bite, or hit other children?
10 Does (he/she) get distracted easily? tot nghiep down load thyj uyi pl aluan van full moi nhat z z vbhtj mk gmail.com Luan van retey thac si cdeg jg hg
The key indicators for ECD, however, in this paper adopts the UNICEF’s early childhood development’s indication which can be represented through 4 domains:
+ Literacy-numeracy: can be assessed from question number 1-2-3
+ Physical: can be assessed through question number 4 and 5 + Aproach to learning: can be assessed through question number 6-7 + Social-emotional can be assessed through question number 8-9-10
(1) Literacy-numeracy- Developmentally on tract if at least two of EC1-EC3;
Children who achieve EC1 can identify and name at least ten letters of the alphabet Those meeting EC2 can read a minimum of four simple, popular words Additionally, children who fulfill EC3 know the names and can recognize the symbols for all numbers from 1 to 10.
(2) Physical-Developmentally on tract if one or both of the following are true:
EC4=1 (Can pick up a small object with two fingers, like a stick or a rock from the ground), EC5=1 (is not sometimes too sick to play)
Effective learning approaches are developmentally on track when one or both of the following conditions are met: the individual can follow simple directions to perform tasks correctly (EC6=1), and they are capable of completing assigned tasks independently (EC7).
For a child to be considered on track in social-emotional development, at least two of the following criteria must be met: the child gets along well with other children, does not engage in aggressive behaviors such as kicking, biting, or hitting, and is not easily distracted.
To calculate the ECD for each individual child we test the score for each domain if at least 1 one domain is missing, the child is considered poorly developed
Children’s language development begins long before the emergence of the first word
Early signs of language development in infants include babbling, pointing, and gesturing During the first two years, children begin to say their first words and form simple sentences, leading to a significant increase in vocabulary between ages two and three As they enter preschool, indicators of language growth encompass their ability to produce and comprehend words, narrate stories, recognize letters, and engage comfortably with books.
Children's vocabulary under the age of three is a strong indicator of language development, particularly in cultures with a history of literacy In contrast, cultures lacking a long tradition of written language may rely on different criteria For instance, in certain African cultures, the ability to use alliteration and metaphor creatively and grammatically is a more suitable measure of linguistic advancement in older children.
Language development, much like cognitive and social-emotional growth, relies heavily on stimulating home environments and relationships Research indicates that children from low-income families in the United States develop their vocabularies at a slower pace compared to their higher-income peers, often speaking significantly fewer words by kindergarten (Hart and Risley, 1995) This disparity is partly due to low-income children receiving less infant-directed speech, which tends to have lower lexical richness and sentence complexity, both crucial for vocabulary expansion (Hoff, 2003; Hart and Risley, 1992) Furthermore, in low-income households, adult speech is often less responsive to children's cues, less directed towards infants, and utilized less during shared attention and communication (Tamis-LeMonda).
Early reading to children fosters language development, as their exposure to words and books at home is crucial Children with illiterate parents may experience slower speech and vocabulary growth.
Large motor development involves acquiring movements that enhance mobility, such as scooting and walking While the timing and order of motor milestones can differ among children, most healthy children will ultimately learn to walk and engage in more complex activities like running and jumping Initially, it was believed that motor skill advancement was solely linked to brain and neuromuscular maturation However, recent studies reveal that factors like physical growth, caregiving practices, and opportunities for skill practice also play significant roles in motor development.
Adolph, Vereijken, and Shrout 2003; Kariger et al 2005; Kuklina et al 2004)
Large motor skills in infants and young children encompass essential activities such as walking and running, while preschoolers develop skills like walking on a line, controlling movements in games, and jumping Although the timing of these skills typically does not predict future cognitive development, a lack of these abilities may signal a developmental delay For instance, a child who has not started walking by age two may require intervention for a potential developmental disorder Assessments of gross motor skills are designed to identify children whose development significantly lags behind typical expectations.