Essential Methods for Planning Practitioners: Skills and Techniques for Data Analysis, Visualization, and Communication

Introduction

Planning is a future-oriented activity where individuals and groups organize their current understanding to prepare for what lies ahead It is an inherent part of human behavior, transcending age and specific activities However, in the United States, there is significant skepticism regarding the role of planning in the public sphere, with many viewing it as an infringement on property rights or as a source of burdensome regulations that hinder growth In resource-poor communities, planning is often perceived as serving only the interests of the wealthy Elected officials discussing planning face mixed reactions from the electorate, which creates a challenging environment for new professional planners This context is what inspires the writing of this book.

Our society's mixed feelings about planning restrict the types of projects and policies local governments can implement Once ambitious planning initiatives from the late 19th and early 20th centuries now appear unrealistic, with Roosevelt Island serving as one of the last examples of such grand visions The current local government planning process has become cumbersome and bureaucratic, often stifling innovation due to budget constraints and the fear of litigation Despite this, planners continue to play a crucial role in shaping our built environment, influencing the design of our streets, parks, and public spaces.

Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd 77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.77.99.44.45.67.22.55.77.C.37.99.44.45.67.22.55.77t@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn

2 places, our transit stations, and our airports are in a process of transformation to address present-day urban problems and challenges.

Scope and Purpose

This book highlights the integrative and syncretic nature of planning practice, featuring two case studies that illustrate the complexities of real-world projects We view planning as a craft that develops over time, emphasizing that effective planners are not merely technocrats or demagogues, but skilled communicators who engage the public as allies in addressing complex issues Our approach advocates for a visionary reimagining of the profession, encouraging collaboration with citizens from diverse backgrounds By embracing diversity and complexity, we propose that planners and citizens can work together creatively and proactively, focusing on problem-solving rather than creating divisions in engagement.

With over 20 years of experience in planning education and practice, we have discovered that effective planners excel at creating accurate and dynamic socio-spatial narratives that enhance the understanding of places and experiences Our book offers essential tools, methods, and techniques designed to help aspiring planners and professionals improve their skills and become more proficient in their craft.

"Essential Methods for Planning Practitioners" is designed for aspiring planners, including graduate students and those seeking their first job in the field This book serves as a valuable desk reference for professionals in business, government, or nonprofit sectors engaged in various planning activities Junior planners may need to conduct literature reviews, design surveys, develop community engagement plans, analyze data, create maps, and manage projects While many topics are covered in-depth in existing literature and required methods classes, this book uniquely focuses on the application of these methods within their social and institutional contexts, aiming for future-oriented problem solving.

What Do Planners Do?

The role of professional planners in the United States has evolved significantly over the past 50 years, as illustrated by the changing planning paradigms Modern urban planners tackle issues at various spatial scales, balancing local and regional interests, as seen in the Hunts Point case study The complexity of planning has led to increased specialization, with planners collaborating with diverse professionals, including architects, engineers, and public health experts Engaging the public in participatory planning has become essential, yet many methods still reflect outdated practices from the 1960s Our book offers a unique perspective by linking planning methods to the sociopolitical and ethical context, rather than serving as a traditional reference New planners often feel overwhelmed by the vast amount of data and methods available, necessitating guidance on selecting effective techniques As technology and analytical methods evolve rapidly, it is crucial to provide practitioners with a framework for choosing appropriate methods based on the specific context, available expertise, budget, and time constraints.

In today's context, there is considerable ambiguity regarding the roles of planners They are responsible for spatial planning and land use, ensuring compliance with zoning laws and height restrictions Planners also act as facilitators, bridging the gap between experts and the general public, while addressing quality-of-life issues such as traffic, air quality, and noise Additionally, they serve as technicians and play a crucial role in policy setting This multifaceted nature of planning will be further explored in the following chapter.

Planners play a crucial role in shaping community visions by researching, designing, and developing programs while leading public processes and effecting social change (American Planning Association 2017) They address significant issues such as public health, natural resource management, and climate change, which have socio-spatial impacts on neighborhoods However, planners often encounter challenges as the problems they address may stem from different authorities, complicating traditional decision-making Additionally, the geographic scale and institutional contexts in which planners operate are continually evolving, making their work both exciting and complex (Hoch 2011).

Future-Oriented Problem Solving: The Climate Change

Climate change is an undeniable reality, with a scientific consensus indicating that human activities, especially over the past century, are significant contributors to this phenomenon (IPCC 2001) While data supporting climate change is abundant in both scientific literature and mainstream media, there remains a surprising lack of agreement on its scale, scope, and impacts Researchers often call for more studies (Wilby and Wigley 1997), yet they struggle to provide clear guidance for the public on practical decisions, such as whether to build in certain locations Additionally, scientists are hesitant to advise policymakers on the ethical implications of relocating communities to mitigate future climate change effects, like rising sea levels (Stern and Taylor 2007), preferring instead to present data for interpretation by those facing tough choices.

Alarmists and anxiety-prone activists often criticize international climate treaties, arguing that the political consensus in setting emissions targets prioritizes politics over scientific evidence These activist groups advocate for strong government interventions, suggesting that regulations and mandates are necessary to ensure present generations act responsibly to protect the planet for future generations They believe that any hardships imposed by such regulations are justified by the long-term environmental benefits for humanity.

The overwhelming volume of information often leads the public to ignore significant issues, particularly regarding climate change (NORC 2016) Various interest groups, including research centers and advocacy organizations, play a crucial role in bridging the gap between public concerns and policy discussions These groups focus on different aspects of climate change, addressing the unique challenges faced by homeowners, renters, and the economic implications of mitigation and adaptation measures In this landscape, planners act as educators and facilitators, clarifying the short- and long-term effects of human-induced climate change to diverse audiences (Ramasubramanian 2016) They also offer guidance on balancing competing interests to develop effective strategies for preparing and planning for climate change impacts.

Climate change mitigation and adaptation planning must be tailored to the unique characteristics of each city or region, considering factors such as geography, transportation infrastructure, housing quality, and population density Planners need to develop expertise in various subjects to create effective strategies for their communities Their role is often defined by the institutional context in which they operate, as they typically collaborate with community organizations, research groups, and government agencies As key representatives of government, planners are tasked with communicating scientific knowledge about climate change to the public and establishing practical guidelines to enhance public safety They employ diverse analytical methods to gather information that informs programs and projects, ultimately holding a collective responsibility to protect the public interest Additionally, planners have a crucial mandate to advocate for vulnerable populations, including children, the elderly, and future generations.

In the past five decades, it has become evident that planning is a transformative process that necessitates diverse expertise Many emerging professionals lack the formal title associated with this critical field.

Planners today collaborate closely with elected officials, leaders of NGOs, community activists, and the public, reflecting the multifaceted nature of their role beyond mere planning.

Engagement with stakeholders and the public is crucial in modern planning processes, as highlighted by Geertman and Stillwell (2009) The evolution of digital technologies significantly impacts all facets of planning (Batty et al 2000; Couclelis 2004; Aurigi 2007; Mandarano et al 2011) Successful contemporary planners navigate the complexities of city and regional politics, recognizing how influential interests shape discussions on social issues They must rely on persuasion rather than enforcement to drive change Preparing urban planners for these challenges necessitates innovative educational and assessment strategies This book aims to equip planners for their evolving role as educators and guides, enabling them to create actionable knowledge and become effective digital storytellers.

Why This Book, Why Now?

As educators, we struggled to find a suitable book for our classes, prompting us to create one ourselves The field of planning education is not keeping pace with the evolving workplace, necessitating that early-career planners become adept in a variety of methods and skills It is crucial for them to apply these tools thoughtfully, considering the sociopolitical contexts involved Our book integrates techniques from various academic disciplines, such as behavioral geography, urban design, geographic information science, and public policy analysis.

Our book serves as a comprehensive guide for planning practitioners, particularly aimed at recent graduates in the early stages of their careers It is designed to be a valuable resource on their bookshelves, offering curated methods and techniques essential for their diverse responsibilities across various sectors, including government and community organizations Many of these new professionals face challenges in establishing relationships with supervisors and mentors, making this guide crucial for navigating their roles The book equips them with the necessary expertise and flexibility to tackle tasks such as designing surveys or conducting GIS analyses, which they may have learned in a classroom but now need to apply in real-world scenarios.

In real-world scenarios, safety protections often diminish, causing planners to feel insecure and hindering their confidence in decision-making Our comprehensive guidebook offers curated content on effective methods and techniques, empowering planners to execute their tasks with competence and assurance.

The authors were influenced by the "little green books on research methods" during their academic journeys, which proved invaluable for their dissertations and research projects This inspiration led them to create a comprehensive book that compiles various research methods, interconnected by a narrative that emphasizes societal issues such as access, equity, transparency, engagement, and accountability.

Currently, individuals with limited knowledge of planning principles are influencing discussions on planning and policymaking, often driven by their commitment to various causes like climate change mitigation and government transparency We believe that these advocates would greatly benefit from understanding diverse research methods, which could enhance their advocacy efforts and reduce the misuse of statistical and mapping techniques, ultimately leading to a more productive public policy discourse.

Overview of Upcoming Chapters

Chapter 2: Planning Challenges and the Challenges

The landscape of planning has evolved significantly in recent years, necessitating a reflection on its historical foundations The profession faces challenges in distinguishing data from information in today's data-driven world This chapter explores the tension between traditional planning models and the contemporary belief that everyone can be a planner, emphasizing the importance of valuing individual experiences while upholding professional expertise It addresses the political nature of discussions around change and advocates for practitioners to recognize the historical strengths and limitations of planning to enhance future effectiveness Furthermore, it posits that every planning issue, regardless of its complexity or scale, demands tailored tools and strategies, particularly in light of pressing challenges such as climate change, demographic shifts, urbanization, migration, environmental health, and security The subsequent chapters will delve into these essential tools and methodologies.

Chapter 3: Case Studies

To avoid the pitfalls of traditional textbooks, we introduce essential building blocks within a contextual framework, focusing on two real-world planning scenarios: Roosevelt Island and Hunts Point in New York City These case studies begin with an exploration of the historical and geographical context, along with a description of the local population We then analyze local needs and resources, leading to the identification of planning challenges and opportunities, guided by the framework from Chapter 2 While these case studies can stand alone as vignettes, their primary role is to enhance the discussions in subsequent chapters, where they will be frequently referenced Throughout the book, we stress the importance of a comprehensive perspective, cautioning against applying the methods from Chapters 4 and 5 in isolation.

Chapter 4: Planning Grand

The initial chapter on "methods" explores strategies pertinent to the early phases of the planning process, emphasizing the significance of communication We begin with the Delphi method, highlighting its role as a foundational element in the development of e-democracy initiatives (Rotondo 2012).

The Delphi method has evolved from a tool for expert planning and forecasting to a means of connecting experts with non-experts, prompting a discussion on top-down versus bottom-up approaches and the biases inherent in each community While traditional analog and face-to-face methods still hold value, modern planning occurs within a diverse digital landscape, accommodating varying levels of digital competency among citizens Consequently, our envisioning techniques focus on engaging larger, often disparate groups To capture a wide array of perspectives, we explore citizen science, crowdsourcing, and participatory mapping, alongside digital storytelling and photovoice, which are instrumental in shaping research questions and guiding plan implementation.

Chapter 5: Placemaking: Why Everything Is Local

Chapter five focuses on the "data and needs assessment," emphasizing the importance of diverse data in avoiding reliance solely on instincts, which can sometimes mislead It explores various methods for obtaining data essential for rational planning, contrasting traditional outsider perspectives, like demographic profiles, with community-based techniques such as behavior maps, participant observation, and modern survey methods The chapter highlights the necessity of critically assessing this data for effective use in scenarios or simulations, while also discussing the opportunities and constraints of these techniques Additionally, it reflects on the challenges planners face in a landscape where technically skilled, nonprofessional citizens are increasingly influencing decision-making with their data expertise.

Chapter 6: Civic Engagement

This chapter posits that modern planning must evolve beyond mere public outreach and participation, introducing civic engagement as a crucial third phase following advocacy planning and citizen involvement.

In this article, we introduce four key principles of civic engagement that assess effective community involvement and categorize various techniques within a stakeholder involvement matrix The strategies discussed have been rigorously tested over the past decade across diverse special populations We conclude with insights on the dynamic relationship between these techniques and emphasize the importance for planners to creatively integrate them based on specific situational needs.

Chapter 6 focuses exclusively on the complexities of civic engagement Most planning projects or policies engage a range of state and non-state actors, and it is useful to acknowledge that all projects are highly reliant on successful engagement

Civic engagement plays a crucial role in determining the success or failure of projects and programs In the twenty-first century, it is evident that even the best ideas can be undermined by ineffective management of civic engagement processes.

Civic engagement encompasses a philosophy, core value, approach, and a collection of methods with measurable indicators and outcomes (Hawkes 2001; Madera 2010; Gough 2015) It highlights the intricate role of planners in society, irrespective of their specific job titles or functions Therefore, we dedicate a separate chapter to civic engagement, as the methods explored in Chapters 4 and 5 may need to be evaluated through the lens of civic engagement.

“test” in order to determine how these methods and approaches can and should be used within a planning process.

In this book, the authors prioritize the term "civic engagement" over commonly used phrases like public outreach, public involvement, or public participation, which are often used interchangeably in planning discussions but lack the same depth of meaning Civic engagement signifies a true commitment to informed deliberation and debate on various planning issues over time Transitioning from public involvement to civic engagement is a crucial lesson for successful planning practitioners, as effective leadership in the field requires mastery of civic engagement principles.

Chapter 7: Implementation and Sustainability

In this chapter, we revisit the significance of communication in decision-making, emphasizing the influence of ideologies and political agendas We highlight the critical role of policy in ensuring effective implementation and sustainability for future generations The discussion focuses on the relationship between planning and policy-making, particularly in identifying and assessing various policy options that must be formalized through legislation or societal changes In our media-driven era, effective internal communication and outreach via digital platforms, meetups, and civic engagement are essential Securing funding and building alliances, while educating stakeholders about modern planning practices, are vital steps This includes fostering data fluency and effective communication with data to engage diverse audiences, as illustrated by the Roosevelt Island case study, ultimately contributing to a sustainable planning environment.

Effective planning management is crucial for success, and understanding institutional constraints can transform challenges into opportunities It is never too early to start learning how to navigate these limitations to achieve better outcomes.

This chapter helps planning students and practitioners distinguish between process-oriented, analysis-centric, and macroscale policymaking It emphasizes the importance of identifying and evaluating various policies and their impacts on diverse population groups, focusing on equity considerations and the prevention of unintended consequences Many planning students, particularly those from technical backgrounds such as engineering and architecture, often assume their responsibilities conclude with the submission of technical studies and reports.

Elected officials, referred to as "bosses," represent the public, while planners and practitioners, who are unelected decision-makers, play a crucial role in ensuring the continuity of long-term projects funded by public resources Engaging in research or planning studies that fail to yield concrete results not only incurs significant costs but also risks eroding public trust in the research process.

Chapter 8: Epilogue

This concluding chapter emphasizes the collective use of methods and techniques from the book to foster transformational interventions It highlights the essential skills planners should develop to enhance their effectiveness, akin to artists refining their craft while remaining aware of societal, institutional, and political contexts Planners in the twenty-first century must address three significant global challenges: urbanization, demographic shifts, and climate change, which directly impact their work The chapter advocates for a balance between technical skills, political insight, and ethical considerations to build sustainable neighborhoods and communities Acknowledging the rapid obsolescence of printed material, the chapter encourages the use of the companion website, allthingsplanning.org, for up-to-date resources.

Alexander E (1981) If planning isn’t everything, maybe it’s something Town Plan Rev 52(2):131–142

American Planning Association (APA) (2017) Where do planners work? Online resource, https:// www.planning.org/onthejob/where.htm Last accessed 5/7/2017

Aurigi A (2007) New technologies, same dilemmas: policy and design issues for the Augmented City J Urban Technol 13(3):5–28 https://doi.org/10.1080/10630730601145989

The article by Batty et al (2000) discusses the importance of visualizing urban design to effectively communicate with planners and decision-makers It emphasizes the role of visualization tools in enhancing understanding and facilitating informed decision-making in urban planning The research is part of the CASA working papers series from the Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis at University College London.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) provides detailed information on occupational employment and wages for Urban and Regional Planners, as of May 2016 This data is published by the US Department of Labor and is accessible online For the most current statistics and insights into this profession, refer to the BLS website.

Campbell-Lendrum D, Corvalán C (2007) J Urban Health 84 (Suppl 1):109–117 https://doi org/10.1007/s11524-007-9170-x

Cohen (2002) presents a comprehensive toolkit for assessing community food security, published by the USDA Food Assistance & Nutrition Research Program Couclelis (2004) explores the concept of the Digital City, highlighting its implications for urban analysis and planning in the journal Environmental Planning B.

Friedmann J (1987) Planning in the public domain: from knowledge to action Princeton University Press, Princeton

Geertman S, Stillwell J (eds) (2009) Planning support systems best practice and new methods, Vol, vol 95 Dordrecht, Springer Science & Business Media

Gillard R, Gouldson A, Paavola J, Van Alstine J (2016) Transformational responses to climate change: beyond a systems perspective of social change in mitigation and adaptation WIREs Clim Change 7:251–265 https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.384

Gough (2015) discusses the integration of livability and sustainability in planning, highlighting both conceptual and practical implications This work emphasizes the need for a balanced approach to urban development that considers environmental, social, and economic factors Additionally, Hawkes (2001) identifies culture as a crucial element in public planning, advocating for its recognition as the fourth pillar of sustainability Together, these perspectives underscore the importance of holistic planning strategies that incorporate cultural values to enhance community well-being and sustainable development.

Civic engagement plays a crucial role in enhancing the quality of urban spaces and is integral to spatial planning and democracy The work of Healey et al (2008) emphasizes the importance of active participation in shaping urban environments, while Hoch (2011) provides insights into the responsibilities and actions of planners Together, these sources highlight the interconnectedness of civic involvement and effective urban planning, underscoring the need for collaborative approaches to foster vibrant communities.

Holman, Devane, and Cady (2007) edited "The Change Handbook," published by Berret-Koehler in San Francisco, which serves as a comprehensive resource on change management Additionally, Hurlimann and March (2012) discuss the significance of spatial planning in addressing climate change in their article published in WIREs Climate Change, emphasizing the need for strategic adaptation measures.

The Information and Communications Technology Authority (ICTA) developed an e-Government master plan for Mongolia in 2005 This plan was published by the United Nations Public Administration Network in New York The document is available online, although access to the resource may be limited as of the last check on May 7, 2017.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2001) Climate change 2001: the scientific basis Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

Kerski and Clark (2012) provide a comprehensive guide to public domain data in GIS, published by ESRI Press Madera (2010) discusses the importance of fostering civic engagement in transportation politics, highlighting strategies for community involvement The article emphasizes the need for accessible resources to encourage public participation in civic matters.

Malik K, Wagle S (2002) Civic engagement and development In: Fukuda-Parr S, Lopes C, Malik K (eds) Capacity for development New solutions to old problems United Nations Development Programme, New York, pp 85–100

Mandarano L, Meenar M, Steins C (2011) Building social capital in the digital age of civic engagement J Plan Lit 25(2):123–135 https://doi.org/10.1177/0885412210394102

Sidelining urban planners leads to ineffective urban policies, ultimately impacting future generations negatively The importance of including planners in decision-making processes is crucial for sustainable urban development Ignoring their expertise can result in long-term consequences that society will have to face.

NORC (2016) Investigating how Americans navigate the modern information environment NORC at the University of Chicago, Chicago

O*NET (2017) Quick search for urban planning U.S Department of Labor, Employment & Training Administration, Online resource, https://www.onetonline.org/find/quick?s=urban+planning Last accessed 5/7/2017

Otto-Zimmermann K (2011) Embarking on global environmental governance International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), Bonn

Ramasubramanian et al (2016) explore the perspectives of neighborhoods and communities regarding resilience within the Jamaica Bay watershed, highlighting the importance of local insights in understanding environmental challenges This work is featured in "Prospects for Resilience: Insights from New York City’s Jamaica Bay," edited by Sanderson, Solecki, Waldman, and Parris, and published by Island Press Additionally, Rotondo (2012) discusses the U-City paradigm, examining the opportunities and risks associated with E-democracy in collaborative planning, as presented in the journal Futur Intern.

Sarkissian W, Hurford D, Wenman C (2010) Creative community planning Earthscan, Washington, DC

Showstack R (2014) Floods, climate change, and urban resilience: one policy Maker’s perspective Eos Trans AGU 95(24):201–203

Stern N, Taylor C (2007) Climate change: risk, ethics, and the stern review Science 317(5835):203–

I don't know!

Planning Challenges and the Challenges of Planning

Introduction

Making the Simple Complex

Human beings universally desire essential needs such as good jobs, clean water, and safe streets, which politicians often address through abstract language However, public planners focus on concrete issues, prompting questions like, "What constitutes a good job?" The definition of a good job varies; some may define it as one that pays a living wage, while others may include benefits like guaranteed health care and additional societal advantages.

A good job not only offers flexible working hours but also values and respects diversity in the workplace This approach fosters an inclusive environment where all employees feel valued and empowered Additionally, organizations that prioritize these aspects tend to attract a wider range of talent, enhancing overall productivity and employee satisfaction Emphasizing flexibility and diversity is essential for creating a positive workplace culture that benefits both employees and employers.

Undoubtedly, there are basic needs – many, especially those without work, would claim that having a job without health benefits is better than not having a job at all

A good job is defined as one that ensures a safe workplace, provides a livable wage, and includes benefits like paid sick leave Planners must then consider how many of these good jobs are necessary and whether the educational and skill levels of workers align with employer expectations in a specific area They also need to evaluate the availability of buildable land for factories or offices and the supporting infrastructure for workers' families, including schools and hospitals This initial inquiry evolves into a complex discussion as planners address various factors, particularly the cost implications for the public While the public generally supports initiatives, concerns about the financial burden often arise, prompting planners to carefully consider how to address these detailed questions.

Data, Historical Trends, and Best Practices

Planners, unlike traditional scientists, face externally imposed deadlines and unpredictable decision-making processes, often feeling that every decision is urgent They must learn project management and prioritization, as time is consistently limited To make informed decisions, planners rely on data, historical trends, and best practices from similar contexts Understanding the strengths and limitations of past planning is crucial for effective future strategies This article outlines significant planning shifts over recent decades and anticipates demographic and societal challenges in the coming years, offering practitioners strategies to navigate the evolving planning landscape Section 2.2 highlights global historical and social trends that will vary across regions, emphasizing the importance of linking these trends to specific situational contexts.

In Chapter 3, we explore two case study neighborhoods in New York, highlighting the significance of data and best practices within their specific contexts Reviewing this material can provide valuable insights into the 17 approach.

Planning Through the Ages

Twentieth-Century Settlement Patterns

In the early twentieth century, cities in the United States and Western Europe faced the challenges of industrialization, leading to the development of various settlements such as mercantile and port cities, industrial towns, and state capitals While industrialization posed health risks, it also spurred innovations in materials and construction techniques that shaped recognizable building styles today As these settlements evolved in response to demographic changes, transportation technologies played a crucial role in their growth, benefiting some cities while hindering others The post-World War II era saw the rise of the automobile and extensive road networks, which facilitated suburbanization and transformed urban development Suburban neighborhoods emerged, characterized by spacious single-family homes with private open spaces, promoting a sense of security The social structure was dominated by hetero-normative households, with men commuting from suburban homes to urban workplaces, reflecting broader societal attitudes and structural forces that influenced this new social order.

The planning field is a multidisciplinary community comprising architects, landscape architects, engineers, and social scientists As early as 1917, planning practitioners formed the American City Planning Institute, which later evolved into the American Institute of Planners in 1939, now known as the American Planning Association.

1 American Planning Association: History Available at: https://www.planning.org/apaataglance/ history.htm Retrieved March 1, 2017.

Over the past century, American planning practices have been significantly influenced by technological and political developments, showcasing a variety of ideas and philosophies that reflect the intellectual diversity of each era This evolution of thought is ongoing, and it is important to recognize that planning practices have consistently integrated a broad spectrum of political and social ideologies, both historically and in contemporary contexts.

A prominent theme in international planning is the aspiration to develop settlements from a clean slate, known as a tabula rasa While this ideal is often unattainable, it remains a guiding principle for architects and planners Historically, there have been numerous proposals for "ideal" settlements or "planned communities," with Roosevelt Island serving as a notable case study discussed in Chapter 3.

Changing Morphologies, Urban Sprawl,

The suburban landscape established in the 1950s and 1960s has evolved, revealing two distinct types of development The earlier, modest suburban growth has transitioned to larger, more exclusive developments, often characterized by gated communities Additionally, the 1980s marked the rise of Edge Cities, which diminished the traditional central city's significance These Edge Cities offer urban-like amenities, seamless connections to suburban residential areas, and proximity to major airports, enabling residents to bypass the central city entirely Each Edge City is recognized by a unique identity that designates it as a business hub.

Young planning professionals should critically analyze suburbanization trends in the U.S and globally, as American suburbs warrant the same level of study and enthusiasm typically given to cities With nearly half of all Americans residing in suburban communities, it is likely that their choice reflects a balance of trade-offs, including housing prices and commuting costs.

2 Beijing’s new annex: A plan to build a city from scratch that will dwarf New York, The Economist,

April 6, 2017, Available at: http://www.economist.com/news/china/21720318-will-xi-jinpings- dream-come-true-plan-build-city-scratch-will-dwarf-new-york Retrieved April 6, 2017.

3 Don, K 2010 Frank Lloyd Wright’s Utopian Dystopia, April 8, 2010, Available at: https://nextc- ity.org/daily/entry/frank-lloyd-wrights-utopian-dystopia Retrieved Feb 2, 2017.

4 The Economist Essay: A Planet of Suburbs Not Dated Available at: http://www.economist.com/ suburbs Retrieved March 2, 2017.

5 US Census Bureau, 2002 Demographic Trends in the Twentieth Century, Census 2000 Special 2.2 Planning Through the Ages

American suburbs exhibit significant economic disparities, with some areas marked by poverty, declining housing, and high crime rates Urban planners should focus on the challenges confronting older suburbs near major cities in the Northeast and Midwest Following the 2008 financial crisis, many newly developed suburban areas quickly fell into disrepair However, by 2017, there are signs that this trend may be reversing.

A significant trend in urban development is the emergence of neighborhoods designed according to new urbanist principles, which aim to bridge the gap between cities and suburbs This approach, rooted in traditional neighborhood design that predates the automobile era, has prompted American urban planners to rethink the relationship between form and function New urbanism advocates for walkable, pedestrian-friendly communities that foster social interaction and feature a clearly defined center and edge within a 10-minute walking distance These neighborhoods prioritize a mix of residential and compatible nonresidential uses, emphasizing the thoughtful placement of buildings and their relationship to the street, while promoting human-scale design and reducing reliance on private automobiles.

Some scholars argue that New Urbanism is not a novel concept, as its principles reflect the settlement patterns of pre-automobile small villages and towns Many practical implementations of New Urbanism are evident in planned residential communities, while some critics view it as a form of social engineering The movement gained political backing when the US Department of Housing and Urban Development, led by Henry Cisneros, embraced its ideals.

Reports Available at: https://www.census.gov/history/pdf/1970suburbs.pdf Retrieved March 2, 2017.

6 Puentes, R and D Warren, 2006 One-Fifth of America: A Comprehensive Guide to America’s

First Suburbs Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Survey Series Available at: https://www. brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/20060215_FirstSuburbs.pdf Retrieved March 2, 2017.

7 Kilston, L 2013 Economic collapse seen through aerial photos of abandoned mansions Available at: https://www.wired.com/2013/09/michael-light-aerial-photos/ Retrieved March 2, 2017.

8 Cox, W 2017 Flight from urban cores accelerates: 2016 census metropolitan area estimates Available at: http://www.newgeography.com/content/005570-flight-urban-cores-accelerates- 2016-census-metropolitan-area-estimates Retrieved on March 26, 2017.

9 Attributed to American architect, Louis Sullivan.

10 Dunham-Jones, E 1998 Academics take a hard look at the New Urbanism, Public Square, November 1, 1998 Available at: https://www.cnu.org/publicsquare/academics-take-hard-look- new-urbanism Retrieved March 1, 2017.

In the early 1990s, the planning and revitalization of inner-city communities aimed to tackle persistent issues linked to public housing developments (Cisneros and Engdahl 2009) While some critics challenge the theory, it is important to recognize that since the rise of New Urbanism, no innovative or radical theories have emerged to effectively guide urban settlement development.

Planning Challenges

Urbanization

Urbanization involves the transformation of land for urban purposes such as housing, infrastructure, and transportation, moving away from non-urban uses like agriculture or natural landscapes This phenomenon is driven by population growth, either through natural reproduction or migration from rural to urban areas Globally, cities are expanding, with the number of megacities—defined as those with populations exceeding ten million—growing from 10 in 1990 to 28 in 2014 Additionally, smaller towns and cities are also experiencing steady urbanization The United States is expected to align with these global urbanization trends, blurring the traditional distinctions between cities and suburbs.

11 World Urbanization Prospects 2014 Revision, United Nations Available at: https://esa.un.org/ unpd/wup/publications/files/wup2014-highlights.Pdf Retrieved on February 1, 2017.

The United Nations published a data booklet titled "The World’s Cities in 2016," which provides comprehensive insights into urbanization trends This document is accessible online and serves as a valuable resource for understanding the dynamics of cities worldwide The information was retrieved on February 1, 2017, highlighting the importance of urban studies in addressing global challenges.

13 Berube, A 2011 The State of Metropolitan America: Suburbs and the 2010 Census Available at: 2.3 Planning Challenges

Demography

The American population is projected to exceed 400 million by 2051, despite a declining birth rate since the 1950s While Americans are living longer, many young individuals are postponing marriage and parenthood, a trend expected to persist Additionally, the country is becoming increasingly diverse, with millennials aged 18–34 significantly contributing to this change By 2050, America is anticipated to evolve into a "majority-minority" nation.

Climate

Most scientists concur that the Earth's climate is changing rapidly due to human activities, including population growth, urban development, and environmental degradation These interventions have significantly accelerated natural fluctuations, leading to localized and varied consequences Coastal regions, in particular, are expected to face severe flooding as a result of rising sea levels.

Impacts and Consequences

Combat and Manage Sprawl

Urban development in the United States faces significant challenges due to sprawl, which is characterized by the swift expansion of low-rise, single-family housing developments The causes, extent, and issues related to sprawl are subjects of debate among both conservatives and liberals.

Fig 2.1 Springtime temperatures are predicted to increase significantly (Image credit: NASA)

Fig 2.2 Planning challenges and impacts

Efforts to limit urban sprawl face internal divisions on effective strategies, as public skepticism towards regulatory growth management hampers widespread implementation of proposed solutions Smart growth principles aim to counteract sprawl by promoting improved public transportation, new zoning regulations for increased density, and investments in mixed-use town centers within residential developments Additionally, these principles discourage sprawl by shifting some infrastructure development costs to end users and enforcing stricter development protocols.

Create and Maintain Infrastructure and Transportation

Planners face the significant challenge of managing America's deteriorating urban infrastructure, which urgently requires maintenance and upgrades This infrastructure encompasses essential systems such as road and rail networks, bridges, drinking water and sewer systems, flood management systems, and facilities vital for economic vitality, including aviation terminals and ports Public amenities like schools, hospitals, parks, and playgrounds are also integral to urban infrastructure As these facilities age, safety concerns often lead to system breakdowns or closures, resulting in lost lives and decreased productivity, ultimately hindering economic growth While older cities and neighborhoods are particularly affected, smaller communities often remain unnoticed until crises arise The complexity of managing urban infrastructure is further compounded by the invisibility of many systems, such as water and utility lines, and the division of oversight among various jurisdictional authorities, including rail networks.

19 Gordon, P & H.W Richardson,1998 Prove It: The Costs and Benefits of Sprawl Brookings Review, Fall 1998, Available at: https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/gor- don2.pdf Retrieved on June 12, 2016.

20 2017 Infrastructure Report Card, American Society of Civil Engineers, Available at: http://www infrastructurereportcard.org/ Retrieved April 2, 2017.

21 Fishbein, R 2014 NYC Infrastructure is crumbling, March 12th, 2014, Gothamist Available at: http://gothamist.com/2014/03/12/nyc_infrastructure_rip.php Retrieved September 1, 2016.

22 Dixon, J How Flint’s water crisis unfolded Detroit Free Press Available at: http://www.freep com/pages/interactives/flint-water-crisis-timeline/ Retrieved on April 30, 2017.

Plan for an Aging Society

The demographic shift in America is significantly marked by the aging population, with projections indicating that by 2060, approximately 98 million individuals will be 65 years or older As this elderly demographic grows, it is essential for planners to acquire expertise in various aspects of aging in place Key areas of focus include adapting existing housing to meet the needs of older homeowners and buyers, managing transportation services for individuals in low-density neighborhoods, and developing both residential healthcare facilities and nonresidential options like elder day-care.

Serve Diverse Populations

Diversity encompasses more than just racial and ethnic differences; it also includes factors such as age, gender, sexual orientation, marital status, and various physical and mental abilities For instance, the preferences of young adults for compact urban living arrangements highlight the need for planners to address their lifestyle choices, which often involve delaying major purchases like cars or homes This trend necessitates a closer examination of the expanding rental housing market and public transportation infrastructure To create accessible and inclusive environments, planners must navigate the complexities of designing for diverse populations.

23 United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2016 A Profile of Older Americans:

2016 Washington, D.C: Administration for Community Living Available at: https://aoa.acl.gov/ Aging_Statistics/Profile/index.aspx) Retrieved April 15, 2017.

24 American Planning Association: Aging in Community Policy Guide Available at: https://www planning.org/policy/guides/adopted/agingincommunity.htm Retrieved on March 12, 2017.

25 Aging in Place: facilitating choice and independence https://www.huduser.gov/portal/periodi- cals/em/fall13/highlight1.html.

Aging in Place: A Toolkit for Local Governments by M.S Ball provides essential resources for local governments to support aging populations The toolkit is accessible online at AARP's website and was retrieved on May 10, 2016 This document serves as a guide for implementing strategies that enable seniors to live independently in their communities.

27 Vespa, J 2017 The Changing Economics and Demographics of Young Adulthood: 1975-2016 Available at: https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2017/demo/p20- 579.pdf Retrieved on April 15, 2017.

Millennials are poised to significantly impact Wall Street and corporate America, as highlighted in the research by Winograd and Hais Their unique perspectives and values challenge traditional business practices, pushing for greater transparency, social responsibility, and innovation As this generation enters the workforce and gains economic power, their preferences will reshape industries, compelling companies to adapt or risk obsolescence Understanding the millennial mindset is crucial for businesses aiming to thrive in a rapidly evolving market landscape.

Fig 2.3 An aging society The percentages refer to percent of county population age 65 years or older2.4 Impacts and Consequences

Address Environmental Quality

The quality of the Earth's water, air, and soils is increasingly compromised due to human activities, as reported by various governmental and non-governmental agencies Urban air quality suffers from particulate matter, ozone, and greenhouse gases like methane and nitrous oxide Water bodies, including lakes and rivers, are polluted by agricultural runoff containing chemical fertilizers and pesticides, while heavy rainfall can lead to sewer overflows that further contaminate the environment Soil contamination arises from extractive activities such as mining and illegal waste dumping, which can also affect groundwater sources It is essential for practitioners to adopt strategies that ensure environmental quality and foster public trust in the safety of the environment for human habitation.

Design for Climate Resilience

Planners must prioritize climate change in their strategies to create resilient neighborhoods, cities, and regions, as its impacts are localized and can create disparities among communities (Bicknell, et.al 2009) To effectively develop climate resiliency plans, it is essential for planners to comprehend climate science and advocate for solutions that safeguard both private housing and public infrastructure, including transportation systems This approach extends beyond physical interventions to include necessary policy changes, such as revising city and state zoning codes Additionally, planners need to formulate response strategies to address the immediate and long-term effects of increasingly frequent extreme weather events anticipated over the next 50 to 100 years.

The IPCC's 2014 Synthesis Report, edited by R.K Pachauri and L.A Meyer, consolidates the contributions of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Fifth Assessment Report on climate change This comprehensive document, published in Geneva, Switzerland, spans 151 pages and is accessible online at the IPCC website.

30 Flint Water Crisis Fast Facts Available athttp://www.cnn.com/2016/03/04/us/flint-water-crisis- fast-facts/ Retrieved April 30, 2017.

I don't know!

Challenges of Planning

The Death of Expertise

Planners are professionals who consider themselves experts due to their specialized knowledge in areas such as housing, economic development, and transportation Their expertise is developed through rigorous education and practical experience, including internships However, the democratization of information through digital technologies has enabled the public to acquire knowledge quickly, often challenging planners' expertise As planners engage with the public, they face resistance to their reasoned approaches, as many seek immediate solutions to urban issues This raises questions about the role of planners: are they simply facilitators of public dialogue, or do they play a significant part in shaping the physical and social landscape of our communities? These questions will be explored further in subsequent chapters.

33 These ideas were first publicly presented by Dr Laxmi Ramasubramanian at a seminar at Virigina Tech in February 2017.

34 We encountered this idea explored in a different context in Tom Nichols blog post in The Federalist Available at http://thefederalist.com/2014/01/17/the-death-of-expertise/ Retrieved on June 25, 2016.

Planning with Diverse Populations

Planning has historically intertwined technical and political elements, with visions shaped by the political elite In many societies, planning is executed in a top-down manner, often leading to public acquiescence The implementation of planning is portrayed as efficient and orderly, yet this perception is misleading, especially in democratic contexts where multiple interest groups vie for influence Planners frequently negotiate among competing interests to create proposals that address the needs of a majority, fostering public engagement and support However, the increasing diversity in society complicates consensus-building, as differing perspectives among homeowners, renters, and various demographic groups make agreement challenging This complexity presents a unique challenge for planners, particularly in communities with large immigrant populations, where addressing issues like social services, education, and housing requires multilingual communication and inclusive strategies.

The Future of Participation

For over 50 years, planners have emphasized the importance of engaging the public in the planning process Public participation is a crucial element, deeply integrated into the planning framework established by the federal government, which often imposes strict participation guidelines tied to federal funding Additionally, many states and localities promote democratic involvement through information sharing and community consultations This focus on public participation has been a topic of extensive debate and reflection among academic planners, leading to the development of numerous best practices to enhance engagement in public planning.

Public participation processes have often been criticized for not enhancing outcomes, causing project delays, and serving as mere political theater Future planners must critically assess the necessary forms of public participation to tackle upcoming challenges It is essential to identify effective community engagement strategies that include marginalized individuals and groups in decision-making Additionally, ensuring that a consultative and collaborative planning process is financially sustainable is crucial to prevent burnout among both planners and the public These topics are explored in detail in Chapter 6.

Technologies and Planning Practices

Hunts Point

Roosevelt Island

Understanding What People Do by Observing Their Actions

Understanding People by Asking Them

GIS

Spatial Analysis

Geodesign

Geographic Constraints

Origins of Modern Civic Engagement

A Framework for Twenty-First Century Civic Engagement

Planning Skills

Tiêu đề	Essential Methods for Planning Practitioners: Skills and Techniques for Data Analysis, Visualization, and Communication
Tác giả	Laxmi Ramasubramanian, Jochen Albrecht
Trường học	City University of New York (CUNY) Hunter College
Chuyên ngành	Urban Studies, Geography, Planning
Thể loại	Book
Năm xuất bản	2018
Thành phố	New York

Định dạng
Số trang	170
Dung lượng	5,11 MB