INTRODUCTION
Alcohol consumption among college students remains a significant concern in both academic research and American media, highlighting its prevalence in higher education Recent news has underscored the seriousness of collegiate drinking, with tragic incidents such as the deaths of two students at Rider University in 2007 due to alcohol abuse and a freshman fraternity pledge at Wabash College in Indiana who died from binge drinking in 2008.
In 2008, a tragic incident occurred when a sophomore at the State University of New York at Geneseo consumed excessive alcohol over three days to gain membership in an off-campus club, which ultimately resulted in his death (Dobbin, 2009).
Alcohol-related incidents among college-aged students highlight a significant public health issue, with over 1,700 unintentional deaths reported in 2001 alone Additionally, more than 500,000 students in this age group suffered injuries due to alcohol In 2002, over 43% of college students admitted to binge drinking, translating to nearly 4 million individuals Alarmingly, nearly 3 million students drove under the influence of alcohol in the past year These statistics underscore the widespread nature of alcohol abuse among college students, indicating that it is not merely a series of isolated incidents.
The use of alcohol among college students in the United States can be traced back to colonial days, when students were provided alcohol with dinner
By the early 20th century, alcohol transitioned from a normal aspect of college life to a concern for campus administrators It gradually moved off campus to nearby bars and saloons Following the national Prohibition, only a minority of institutions viewed drinking on campus as an issue (Warner, 1938).
Alcohol education in colleges and universities has emerged only in recent years, with early curricula largely neglecting the topics of alcohol and drinking (Straus & Bacon, 1953) A 1976 study by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) found that only 15% of postsecondary institutions offered activities or services related to alcohol education It wasn't until the Department of Education's Drug and Alcohol Abuse Prevention Rule in 1990, which threatened to revoke federal funding for institutions lacking minimum drug and alcohol information for students, that alcohol education became a significant component of the college experience.
Alcohol education has expanded significantly at American colleges and universities, encompassing a variety of interventions such as educational programs, alcohol awareness weeks, social-norms marketing, brief motivational interventions, policy changes, environmental strategies, protective behavioral techniques, and online resources A key challenge for campus administrators is balancing abstinence and harm reduction approaches, aiming to promote student safety without inadvertently encouraging alcohol consumption Research indicates that abstinence-only strategies are ineffective (Beck, 1998; Marlatt & Witkiewitz).
The ongoing debate about student drinking, which began in 2002, remains relevant today Administrators universally acknowledge that excessive and dangerous drinking among students persists, and this issue is likely to worsen unless appropriate measures are implemented.
Dangerous drinking remains a significant concern among college students across the nation, despite federal requirements for educational programs aimed at reducing this behavior.
Despite receiving substantial alcohol education, many college students engage in heavy binge drinking Research indicates that abstinence-only approaches have been largely ineffective, prompting postsecondary institutions to adopt harm-reduction models With nearly 40% of 12th graders underestimating the risks of heavy daily drinking, colleges face significant challenges in promoting safe drinking behaviors among incoming freshmen who may view irresponsible drinking as acceptable.
Colleges have acknowledged the presence of alcoholics among their students and the need for treatment Recently, there has been a shift towards implementing mandatory interventions for students facing disciplinary actions due to alcohol-related violations However, many at-risk students often do not develop better self-control until they experience negative consequences By adopting population-level strategies for alcohol education, institutions can equip incoming freshmen with essential skills and attitudes, ultimately reducing their risk of future health and academic challenges.
Recent advancements in alcohol intervention strategies have shifted from an abstinence-only approach to incorporating personalized feedback systems (PBS), which help drinkers mitigate the negative effects of alcohol consumption (Araas & Adams, 2008; Martens et al., 2004, 2005; Martens, Pedersen, LaBrie, Ferrier, & Cimini, 2007) A notable example of this is the AlcoholEdu program, an online platform designed to deliver PBS-based interventions effectively, demonstrating success in reducing adverse outcomes (Outside the Classroom, 2008) However, existing research on the program has primarily examined its overall impact on populations or specific demographic groups, such as gender and residence status, rather than directly focusing on drinking behaviors (Lovecchio, Wyatt, & DeJong, in press; Wall, 2005, 2007).
No studies have yet examined the effectiveness of the AlcoholEdu program among first-time in college (FTIC) students while considering key demographic factors related to alcohol consumption, protective behavioral strategies, and negative consequences Specifically, there is a lack of research on how this program influences the behaviors and attitudes of students across various drinking risk categories—light, moderate, heavy episodic, and problematic drinkers Understanding whether the AlcoholEdu program can enhance students' willingness to adopt protective behavioral strategies and reduce negative drinking-related outcomes will enable institutions to develop more effective alcohol intervention strategies tailored to the diverse needs of their student populations.
Addressing irresponsible drinking among college students requires more than a single intervention; it necessitates a multifaceted approach Colleges are recognizing the limitations of abstinence-only alcohol education and are exploring alternatives that provide students with practical strategies for safe drinking The AlcoholEdu program, which has reached 36% of freshmen nationwide, exemplifies a growing effort to educate students on alcohol use In light of economic challenges in higher education, assessing the program's effectiveness is crucial to ensure it effectively targets its audience Recommendations from this analysis can enhance future iterations of AlcoholEdu, particularly for less receptive freshmen Additionally, this study enriches the understanding of behavioral change in high-risk college students, contributing valuable insights to the field.
In 1998, many students faced a significant transition to a new environment with reduced parental supervision, impacting their alcohol consumption and related behaviors This research examined freshmen's behavioral changes regarding alcohol use before and during their critical first semester at college, highlighting differences in consumption, adverse alcohol-related consequences, and the use of protective behavioral strategies The findings provided valuable insights for campus alcohol and other drug (AOD) administrators, emphasizing the importance of understanding these realities to enhance student well-being academically, socially, and medically.
This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of the AlcoholEdu program in promoting protective behaviors among incoming college freshmen across various drinking risk groups.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
To understand the current issues surrounding alcohol use among college students, it is essential to examine its historical context in society Alcohol has been a significant part of social life, oscillating between acceptance and controversy Notably, the recognition of alcohol abuse as a clinical issue emerged in the mid-20th century, despite the longstanding history of alcohol consumption.
Alcohol use is deeply ingrained in American culture, evident in both small towns and large cities where bars and liquor-serving establishments are prevalent Advertisements for alcoholic beverages are ubiquitous, encountered easily through television, magazines, and highways According to the Federal Trade Commission (2003), the alcohol industry's advertising spending largely complies with regulations targeting audiences aged 21 and older However, this compliance does not eliminate the risk of alcohol ads reaching a significant under-aged demographic, highlighting the widespread presence of alcohol in the United States.
The Federal Trade Commission's review of alcohol advertisements highlights the significant risks associated with alcohol consumption, as it can act as a cell poison that halts life functions (Ewing & Rouse, 1978) Despite the potential for fatal consequences, individuals often seek the euphoric feelings and tension relief that alcohol provides The DSM-IV-TR classifies alcohol abuse and dependence as psychiatric disorders, akin to other substance dependencies (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) Users typically aim to maximize the positive effects of alcohol while minimizing negative side effects, navigating a delicate balance between safety and danger, as well as control and dependence, in pursuit of pleasure.
The concept of alcohol abuse among some individuals is not new
However, the concept of alcohol abuse as a bona fide psychiatric disease is relatively recent In a review of over two centuries of drinking in America,
Howland and Howland (1978) found that societal attitudes towards alcoholism began to shift only after the conclusion of Prohibition in the United States, which was initiated by the ratification of the 18th Amendment.
Amendment to the U.S Constitution which banned alcohol from being produced, sold, or transported Prohibition in the United States lasted from 1920 through 1933 when the 21st Amendment repealed the 18th Amendment
Prior to Prohibition, alcoholism was largely viewed through a moral lens, leading to its eventual enactment and subsequent repeal, which sparked a search for scientific explanations for alcohol-related issues The establishment of the Center for Alcohol Studies at Yale University in 1940 marked a significant shift towards understanding alcoholism as a mental disease with potential physical complications Although this perspective gained traction slowly, by the 1950s, the public began to recognize alcoholism as a disease, albeit with limited understanding of its causes and symptoms The American Medical Association's official recognition of alcoholism as a disease in 1958, followed by the American College of Physicians in 1969, catalyzed a greater public demand for education and therapy, allowing public health funds to be allocated for those affected.
The reviewed literature highlights the extensive history of alcohol consumption among Americans The following sections will focus on the unique history and challenges of alcohol use among college students Additionally, we will examine various alcohol prevention and education programs that have been implemented for this demographic over the years.
Alcohol Use Among College Students
Collegiate drinking in America has roots dating back to the establishment of its first colleges and universities, where socializing with alcohol was a common practice Warner (1938) noted that liquor was considered essential at social events, akin to food and conversation Given the significant influence of English universities on American institutions, it is unsurprising that these colleges adopted certain English customs, including the consumption of alcoholic beverages Brubacher and Rudy (2006) supported Warner's observations, highlighting that while hard liquor faced restrictions, ale, beer, and wine were widely accepted in colonial college life.
Warner (1938) highlighted the existence of in-house breweries at Oxford and Cambridge, which influenced Harvard and Yale to create spaces for students to buy beer, cider, and hard liquor without venturing into town Throughout the 1800s, attitudes toward alcohol shifted towards temperance (Brubacher & Rudy, 2006), with Harvard initially serving wine and cider at dinner in 1837, but banning all alcoholic beverages in the student commons by 1898 (Warner) Despite similar bans at many colleges, these measures had little impact on college drinking habits (Brubacher & Rudy), illustrating that an abstinence-only approach to alcohol issues in American colleges often proves ineffective.
By the early 20th century, collegiate alcohol use transformed from a normative lifestyle to a recognized issue This shift led to regulations that moved student saloons farther from campuses, primarily due to concerns over disciplinary problems.
Between 1910 and 1920, post-football game riots fueled by alcohol were common, prompting some larger universities to initiate dry campaigns in response to a significant number of non-drinking students This shift mirrored the broader societal push towards Prohibition However, by the end of Prohibition, a survey revealed that college seniors opposed it by a two-to-one margin Despite a decrease in overall drinking among college students during the ban, the practice received increased attention By 1937, four years after Prohibition's conclusion, collegiate drinking was rising, although only 24 out of over 500 surveyed institutions considered it a problem.
Trends in Prevalence of Alcohol Use
Long-term statistics reveal that alcohol is a significant aspect of college life, with many students having consumed alcohol prior to their college years The Monitoring the Future study indicates that 39% of 8th graders, 58% of 10th graders, and 72% of 12th graders have tried alcohol, although trying alcohol does not equate to regular drinking Notably, 8% of 8th graders, 16% of 10th graders, and 25% of 12th graders reported binge drinking in the past two weeks Despite these figures, trends show a decline in drinking among high school students, with regular drinking rates dropping from 51% in 1991 to 45% in 2003 Additionally, studies of incoming freshmen reveal that 51% and 54% of students arrived at college as drinkers in two separate surveys.
Since the 1980s, alcohol use among college students has steadily declined In the early years, approximately 90% of students reported drinking at least once a year, but this figure gradually decreased to the upper 80% range by the early 1990s and further to the lower 80% range, with 81% recorded in 2007 A similar trend is observed in monthly alcohol consumption, which fell from 80% in the early 1980s to the upper 60% range by 2007, with a rate of 67% Overall, college drinking is less common now than it was nearly three decades ago, although the decline has been gradual.
Despite a gradual decline in overall drinking rates among college students over the past few decades, university leaders should continue to focus on this issue This is because, as highlighted in recent studies, the rates of dangerous high-quantity drinking and the perceived acceptability of heavy daily drinking have remained relatively stable.
Additionally, negative consequences for both drinkers and bystanders that will not disappear on their own still exist (Wechsler, Lee, Kuo et al., 2002; Wechsler, Moeykens, Davenport, Castillo, & Hansen, 1995)
Binge drinking rates among college students have remained relatively stable for over 25 years, with a peak of 45% in 1984 and a low of 38% in 1996, ultimately settling at 41% by 2007 (Johnston et al., 2008) This trend continues to be a significant concern for college officials.
Binge drinking among young adults has sparked debate regarding its causes, particularly whether it stems from the age group itself or the college environment Research indicates that around 40% of college students and 30% of their non-college peers in their early 20s participate in binge drinking behaviors (Johnston et al.).