Background of the research
The significance of autonomy in second language learning has gained considerable attention, as it empowers learners to set their own goals and take responsibility for their educational journey Learner autonomy (LA) enhances critical skills such as detachment, reflection, decision-making, and independent action (Little, 1991) Originating from European education (Benson, 2006), the applicability of LA to Asian learning styles remains a topic of debate among educators (Pennycook, 1997) Consequently, fostering autonomous practices among Vietnamese university students presents a challenge for the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) and educators alike.
In the rapidly evolving landscape of 21st-century education, fostering learner autonomy has become a vital objective in the teaching and learning process The Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) is actively supporting the Law of Higher Education to enhance the quality of the higher education system in line with international standards Recent initiatives have focused on integrating learner autonomy (LA) into the credit education system, with new policies being introduced Article 40 of the Vietnamese Education Law emphasizes the importance of educational content and methods that promote active learning, self-study, practical skills, self-motivation, creative thinking, and ambition among students Consequently, higher education teaching methods must aim to cultivate students' ability to learn autonomously and engage in self-research.
The Vietnamese education system must undergo a complete transformation to enhance students' creativity, promote autonomous learning, and support lifelong learning This includes fostering creative thinking, developing practical skills, and encouraging participation in scientific research and its applications.
Additionally, accompanying the Decision No.1400/QĐ-TTg, 30 September
In 2008, the Vietnamese Prime Minister launched the National Foreign Language Project 2020 to innovate foreign language teaching and learning within the national education system, aiming to equip graduates with the necessary language skills for independent communication and work in a multicultural, global environment The Ministry of Education and Training's 2010 directive emphasized that university graduates should possess updated knowledge, creativity, and a commitment to lifelong learning As technology advances, the traditional role of teachers must evolve from merely transmitting knowledge to fostering students' autonomous learning abilities, guiding them in discovering their potential and making informed decisions about their education.
The National Strategy for Human Resource Development (2011–2020) emphasizes the importance of foreign language skills, particularly English, for Vietnamese human resources The Vietnamese government, through various decisions and resolutions, aims to innovate teaching methods and assessments to enhance students' creativity, autonomy, and lifelong learning abilities Despite Vietnam's membership in the ASEAN Economic Community since 2015, challenges remain, particularly regarding students' foreign language competence Consequently, improving foreign language education and fostering learner autonomy have become top priorities for the Vietnamese government and the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET).
The Decision No.1033/QĐ-TTg issued by the Prime Minister on June 30, 2011, aimed to enhance education and vocational training in the Mekong Delta from 2011 to 2015, yet five years later, the region's educational quality remained inferior to other areas in Vietnam Comprising 13 provinces, the Mekong Delta's economy primarily relies on agriculture, but it faces significant challenges in education, particularly in English language proficiency A report from the Educational Forum 2017 revealed that only 13.55% of students in the Mekong Delta achieved the standard level of English competence, highlighting a major barrier to their success in higher education and the labor market Despite over a decade of educational reforms, traditional teacher-centered approaches to English teaching persist In today's technology-driven era, students have access to various tools for learning English, necessitating a shift in the teacher's role to support independent learning Additionally, the recent adoption of a credit system in higher education requires students to take more responsibility for their learning, posing challenges for those unaccustomed to self-directed study.
Despite extensive research on learner autonomy (LA) among EFL teachers and students in various regions, including Western nations and Asian countries like Vietnam, comprehensive generalizations and conclusive findings remain elusive Notable studies by Borg (2006), Haji-Othman and Wood (2016), and others have explored teachers' perceptions, while research by Balcikanli (2010) and Chan et al (2002) has focused on students' views However, only one thesis (Trịnh Quốc Lập, 2005) and one article (Nguyễn Văn Lợi, 2016) specifically address LA in Cần Thơ University, highlighting a gap in the literature.
In 2005, a task-based approach to learning assessment (LA) was explored in a writing course for EFL students at Cần Thơ University, while Nguyễn Văn Lợi (2016) examined EFL teachers' beliefs and practices regarding LA across six universities in Vietnam Cần Thơ, the most developed city in the Mekong Delta and home to the largest university in Southern Vietnam, highlights the need for further LA research in poorer, rural provinces Smith and Ushida (2009) emphasize that LA capacity should be localized and tailored to specific social contexts, suggesting that teachers and students from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds may understand and apply LA differently in their educational practices.
The present study was conducted at the Faculty of Foreign Language Education at a public university in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, which achieved multidisciplinary status in 2003 This young and dynamic university focuses on training high-quality human resources, particularly in educational sciences and pedagogies, while also engaging in scientific research and community service to support the socio-economic development of the region The university aims to be a prestigious training center for high-quality teachers in Vietnam The Faculty of Foreign Language Education comprises twenty-two lecturers dedicated to training both English major teacher students and non-teacher students EFL students, like their peers in other faculties, follow a credit-based training system, requiring them to prepare for each classroom lesson with four periods of independent study at home Furthermore, in accordance with Decision No.805/QĐ-ĐHĐT issued on October 28, 2016, students are mandated to engage in autonomous learning as outlined in Article 4 of the regulation.
The issuance of Decision No 2080/QĐ-TTg on December 22, 2017, by the Prime Minister of Vietnam marked a significant step in enhancing foreign language education within the national educational system for the 2017-2025 period This initiative has led to the promotion of autonomous learning in foreign languages, fostering greater independence and proficiency among learners.
Many English major students at the Foreign Language Education Faculty of the University have a weaker background in English compared to their peers in larger cities like Cần Thơ and Hồ Chí Minh City Freshmen, in particular, struggle to adapt to the university environment, which differs significantly from their previous learning experiences The current curriculum lacks courses focused on "LA skills in learning English at higher education," and there is no handbook for autonomous learning in the English major Consequently, students face challenges in adjusting to the demands of higher education, requiring them to invest considerable effort and time in independent study while developing effective learning strategies According to Thomas and Ben (2008), there is a widening opportunity gap between urban and rural students, as well as between the wealthy elite and the majority who remain impoverished, leaving many students in rural or remote areas without adequate resources to study English.
Importance of research on LA in teaching and learning English at this university
The Mekong Delta's tertiary education, especially at this university, strives to match the standards of major universities in other regions of Vietnam, as highlighted by Dương Thị Hoàng Oanh.
In 2011, it was highlighted that autonomous skills are essential for equipping students with transferable skills necessary for real-world social situations post-university However, autonomy is rarely practiced effectively, and research on this concept in Vietnam is limited By 2014, when this study commenced, no research had been conducted on learner autonomy (LA) for teachers and students at this university, which had been established for nearly 15 years Therefore, further investigation is needed in rural areas like the Mekong Delta, particularly at this university, to identify solutions for enhancing EFL learners' LA abilities in a local context This study aimed to explore how teachers and students perceive the concept of learner autonomy and its application in the teaching and learning processes at a university in the Mekong Delta, where research on LA among EFL educators and students is scarce The findings seek to provide deeper insights into LA from the perspectives of Vietnamese-speaking EFL teachers and students, who are considered insiders in their educational environment.
Aims of the research
This study has three primary objectives: to examine how Vietnamese EFL teachers perceive and implement learner autonomy (LA) in their teaching practices, to explore students' understanding of LA and their methods for learning English independently, and to investigate the relationship between the perceptions and practices of both EFL teachers and students regarding LA.
Research questions
With the aims stated above, the following research questions are addressed in relation to EFL teachers and students in a Vietnamese university in the Mekong Delta:
1 What are EFL teachers‟ perceptions of LA and practices to promote LA among their learners?
2 What are EFL students‟ perceptions and practices of LA?
3 What are the relationships between EFL teachers‟ and EFL students‟ perceptions and practices of LA?
Research significance
This study significantly contributes to the understanding of learner autonomy (LA) in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context within a rural area of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam It enhances the existing literature by incorporating aspects of lifelong learning and cultural challenges related to LA Additionally, the research offers valuable insights for EFL teachers, policymakers, and the broader community, enabling them to develop strategies to enhance students' LA abilities Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, the study includes in-depth interviews with teachers, group interviews with students, and questionnaires to further investigate learner autonomy in this specific context.
Organization of the thesis
The thesis is organized into five main chapters Chapter One emphasizes the significance of autonomy in language learning within tertiary education and outlines the rationale for the study Chapter Two explores theories of autonomy, providing a foundational understanding that informs the solutions discussed in subsequent chapters Chapter Three presents the research design and methodology employed in the thesis In Chapter Four, the analyzed data is presented alongside a discussion of the findings Finally, Chapter Five offers suggestions and directions for further research.
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of learner autonomy (LA) in foreign and second language learning It starts by defining LA and discussing its significance in higher education A summary of five definitions and four key aspects related to LA is presented The perceptions and practices of both teachers and students regarding learner autonomy are examined Finally, the chapter concludes with an assessment of LA from the perspectives of teachers and students, serving as a foundation for exploring how EFL educators and learners perceive and implement learner autonomy in their teaching and learning processes.
Learner autonomy
Definitions of learner autonomy
Learner autonomy, initially defined by Holec (1981) as the “ability to take charge of one’s own learning,” has been frequently referenced in literature Holec emphasized that this ability is not innate but can be developed through formal education Over time, learner autonomy has been interpreted in various ways, leading Little (1991) to label it a “buzz word.” Researchers have characterized it as “learners’ capacity in learning” (Benson, 2001; Dam, 1995; Dickinson, 1994; Holec, 1981, 1985; Little, 1991; Littlewood, 1996), “responsibility in learning” (Benson & Voller, 1997; Borg & Al-Busaidi, 2012b; Dam, 1995; Holec, 1981; Little, 1991; Littlewood, 1999), and “cognitive attitude in learning” (Dickinson, 1995; Little, 1991).
Different definitions of Language Awareness (LA) lead to various interpretations, as discussed in section 2.1.3 The subsequent focus will be on the significance of LA in language learning within higher education.
Roles of learner autonomy
In today's rapidly evolving technological landscape and the shifting teaching methodologies of the 21st century, learner autonomy (LA) plays a vital role in the educational process While the concept of LA in language learning is not new, it has remained a significant topic over the past three decades, profoundly influencing language teaching and learning (Benson, 2006; Blidi, 2017) Particularly in higher education, fostering LA has become a primary objective (Sinclair, 2000) According to Norman (1994), LA should be a fundamental aim of education, emphasizing the importance of teaching students how to independently acquire knowledge and sustain their enthusiasm for learning.
Learner autonomy (LA) significantly enhances students' creativity and independence It is essential for educators to prioritize the development of learners' autonomous learning abilities Improving students' capacity for self-directed learning is a fundamental responsibility of every teacher According to Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012a), an overwhelming 93.4% of teachers recognize the positive impact of LA on second and foreign language learning.
LA contributes to language learners‟ success remarkably According to Bajrami
Learning Analytics (LA) offers significant benefits at the university level, including flexibility, adaptation, self-initiative, and self-direction (2015, p.149) A key reason for further developing LA in higher education is to promote lifelong learning for both educators and students Lifelong learning is viewed as "an investment in human capital" (Blidi, 2017, p.7), highlighting the need for students to acquire targeted skills and competencies that align with the demands of the current economy, culture, and job market It is crucial for educators, policy-makers, and administrators to cultivate the necessary skills for students to thrive in lifelong learning Ultimately, LA is essential in guiding university students towards success.
2.1.2.1 Learner autonomy in Asian EFL higher education
Recent studies highlight the significant benefits of learner autonomy (LA) in foreign and second language education within Asian contexts, emphasizing its positive impact in university settings Research indicates that LA, which has its roots in Western educational practices, plays a crucial role in helping students become active and independent learners For instance, Dafei (2007) demonstrates a strong correlation between learners' English competence and their LA abilities, suggesting that enhanced LA leads to improved language acquisition Additionally, Balcikanli (2010) found that when students are given the opportunity to influence their learning processes, they exhibit more positive attitudes, resulting in focused and purposeful learning Cakici's findings (2017) further support the importance of LA, revealing that participants value it highly and are eager to take responsibility for their language learning decisions Overall, both researchers and informants recognize and appreciate the value of learner autonomy in language education.
2.1.2.2 Learner autonomy in Vietnamese EFL higher education
These days, LA has appeared in Vietnamese MOET‟s educative strategies, and in Vietnamese Education Law, as mentioned in section 1.1 Mentioning the role of
In the context of higher education, Trịnh Quốc Lập (2005) emphasizes that a key objective of English Language Teacher training programs in Vietnamese universities is the development of learner autonomy (LA) This focus aims to enhance the personal and autonomous learning skills of English major students, which they will continue to utilize post-graduation Consequently, by applying the autonomy cultivated in their educational environment, individuals can seize numerous opportunities to engage in self-directed learning tasks (Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Lệ, 2009).
Learning Analytics (LA) plays a crucial role in enhancing both the processes and outcomes of educational activities, as highlighted by Đặng Tấn Tín (2012) It aids students in overcoming technical challenges and is vital for knowledge construction and sustainable learning in a globalized context Lê Xuân Quỳnh (2013) emphasizes LA's significance from ideological, psychological, and economic perspectives Dương Mỹ Thẩm and Seepho (2014) further assert that LA's importance is growing in academic and teaching practices in the 21st century, as students are now being equipped with both knowledge and LA skills Therefore, LA is essential for learning English in Vietnam.
Learner autonomy in foreign language education
Over the past thirty years, "learner autonomy" has emerged as a significant focus in second and foreign language learning literature Understanding the attributes of learner autonomy is crucial for both EFL teachers and learners in their educational processes Despite various interpretations of the concept, researchers have yet to agree on a single definition, leading to numerous definitions being proposed Alhaysony (2016) reviews these definitions and notes that they commonly emphasize aspects such as learners' ability, responsibility, control, and attitude This study highlights three essential components of learner autonomy: ability, responsibility, and cognition, while also considering additional definitions.
LA – lifelong learning and cultural challenge – are explored
Holec (1981, p.3), one of the pioneers in this field provides a definition of
Learning autonomy (LA) is defined as the ability to take charge of one’s own learning, a concept widely recognized by language researchers globally It encompasses the capacity to engage in independent and conscious learning According to Holec (1985, p.180), this definition emphasizes the importance of self-directed learning in the educational process.
Learning autonomy (LA) is defined as the acquisition of the necessary capacities to implement a self-directed learning program Some researchers, such as Benson (2006), prefer the term "capacity" over "ability" when discussing LA in their studies.
Autonomy in learning is described as the capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action (Little, 1991) This emphasizes the cognitive abilities of learners to analyze, make decisions, and act independently Dickinson (1994) clarifies these abilities by highlighting the importance of recognizing learning objectives, planning goals, selecting appropriate strategies, and managing their implementation Dam (1995) further defines learner autonomy as the capacity and willingness to act independently and cooperatively, underscoring social responsibility Littlewood (1996) identifies two key attributes of learner autonomy: ability and willingness, where ability involves knowledge of alternatives and necessary skills, while willingness is driven by motivation and confidence He asserts that successful autonomous learners must integrate ability, willingness, knowledge, and skills Benson (2001) also aligns with Holec's perspective on learner autonomy.
Learner autonomy (LA) is defined as the capacity of learners to take control over their own learning, emphasizing their voluntary responsibility Benson (2009) further develops this concept, describing LA as a combination of abilities, attitudes, and dispositions It is essential for students to cultivate their autonomous learning skills, while teachers play a vital role in supporting and fostering these abilities in their learners.
Language learners must take responsibility for their own learning, as emphasized by Holec (1981), who states that autonomy involves managing all decisions related to learning This includes setting objectives, selecting content and methods, monitoring progress, and evaluating outcomes Dickinson (1987) further defines learner autonomy as a situation where the learner is fully responsible for all decisions regarding their education Similarly, Little (1991) highlights that autonomous learners are those who embrace responsibility for their learning journey.
Ho and Crookall (1995) propose a model that emphasizes learner autonomy for Chinese students, encouraging them to take responsibility for their own learning This involves making decisions regarding their study plans, evaluating their progress, and engaging in self-monitoring and assessment They provide strategies to help students develop essential skills, such as goal setting, participating in weekly discussions, and acquiring necessary competencies like conflict resolution, professional communication, time management, and contingency planning.
Taking responsibility for language acquisition involves cultivating specific behaviors and skills, which Benson and Voller (1997, p.2) categorize into five key components Autonomous learners are defined by their ability to engage in self-directed learning.
Students can cultivate a unique set of skills essential for self-directed learning by studying independently This approach helps to unlock their innate potential, often stifled by traditional educational systems, and encourages them to take responsibility for their own learning journey.
Autonomy in learning requires students to take responsibility for their educational journey, as highlighted by Littlewood (1999) This involves two key characteristics: learners must commit to their learning process and actively design their learning objectives, identify their preferred learning styles, and evaluate their progress By focusing on their education, students are motivated to discover effective study methods, plan both short-term and long-term goals, and assess their achievements Consequently, autonomous learners develop a conscious attitude towards their learning activities, which is essential for fostering independence and accountability in their educational pursuits.
2.1.3.3 Learner autonomy as cognitive processes
Learner autonomy (LA) is defined as a cognitive process where autonomous learners possess the necessary learning strategies, knowledge about learning, and attitudes to utilize these skills independently of a teacher (Wenden, 1991) Essential components for developing LA include knowledge of learning strategies, metacognition, and positive learner attitudes Dickinson (1995) emphasizes LA as an attitude towards learning, highlighting the importance of students making decisions about their own educational journey White (1995) views LA as a learner's control over the language learning process, while Dam (1995) describes it as a readiness to take charge of one's learning to meet personal needs Little (2000) underscores individuality and independence as core aspects of LA, asserting that individual cognition is intertwined with social interaction Overall, learners' understanding and attitudes towards LA are crucial for their educational success.
Metacognition plays a crucial role in fostering autonomous learning attitudes among students Defined by Hennessey (1999) as the awareness and regulation of one's cognitive processes, metacognition involves actively monitoring and applying strategies to enhance problem-solving skills Rolheiser et al (2000) describe it as "thinking about thinking," emphasizing learners' understanding of their cognitive processes to develop essential skills for achieving goals Furthermore, students with metacognitive skills can better navigate challenges, compensating for low ability and insufficient information (Rolheiser et al., 2000) Harris (2003) reinforces this by highlighting that metacognition guides the learning process, incorporating strategies for planning, monitoring, and evaluating language use and learning, which are vital for developing learner autonomy.
In short, learners‟ consciousness in autonomous learning plays an important role How to help students control this cognitive process is very vital to develop their learning effects
2.1.3.4 Learner autonomy in lifelong learning
Language learning is recognized as a lifelong endeavor, as noted by Thomson (1996) Lifelong learning (LA) serves as a foundation for this continuous process, with Jacobs and Farrell (2001) emphasizing the importance of viewing learning as an ongoing journey Kose (2006) describes LA as a lifelong learning project, while Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012b) assert that it prepares individuals for future learning opportunities Azizi (2014) further highlights that LA is a continuous process rather than a temporary need After graduation, LA remains crucial for learners' development Blidi (2017) argues that the advancement of lifelong learning significantly influences educational policies and teaching trends globally, acting as a bridge to connect educational outcomes with socio-economic demands.
In short, lifelong learning is an important perspective of LA in language learning
2.1.3.5 Learner autonomy as cultural challenge
Recent discussions highlight the influence of culture on language teaching and learning, particularly in the context of Learning Autonomy (LA) Blidi (2017) emphasizes the need for researchers to explore the cultural impact on LA characteristics, suggesting that culture should drive and challenge the promotion of LA Research indicates that Asian students, including Vietnamese learners, share strong beliefs in social relations and respect for teachers, as noted by Ho and Crookall (1995) Littlewood (1999) differentiates between East Asian students' reactive autonomy and Western students' proactive autonomy, with Asian learners valuing formal, teacher-led instruction Đặng Tấn Tín (2010) points out that Vietnamese education often prioritizes memorization over creativity, leading to a lack of responsibility in students' learning processes.
(2012) indicates that East Asian students are used to teacher-centered method
Nguyễn Thanh Nga (2014) identifies three key differences between Western and Asian cultures in academic settings Firstly, the relationship between teachers and students varies significantly; in Western cultures, this relationship is more egalitarian and informal, allowing students to freely question and challenge their teachers, fostering independence in learning Conversely, Asian cultures emphasize respect for teachers, who maintain control over students' education, leading to a more passive learning approach where students hesitate to ask questions Secondly, the learning styles differ, with Western education favoring a student-centered methodology that encourages responsibility and critical thinking, while Asian students typically rely on teachers for knowledge, focusing on rote memorization rather than active engagement Lastly, attitudes towards knowledge and learning diverge, as Western students value individual ideas and uphold academic integrity, rejecting dishonesty and plagiarism, whereas Asian students often view knowledge as collective and may not consistently cite sources in their work.
Aspects of learner autonomy
Language autonomy (LA) is defined and examined by researchers globally, as highlighted in section 2.1 It is analyzed from various perspectives frequently referenced in the latest academic literature Benson (1997) identifies three key aspects of autonomy in language teaching: technical, psychological, and political He describes these aspects as "ideal constructs" for further exploration.
The relationship between autonomy in language learning and theories of knowledge and learning is significant, as highlighted by Oxford (2003, p.76), who introduces an additional dimension of social culture These four aspects collectively contribute to the foundational concepts in understanding language learning autonomy.
LA commonly addressed in the language learning literature
2.1.4.1 Technical aspect of learner autonomy
Benson (1997, p.19) defines the technical aspect of language acquisition (LA) as the process of learning a language independently, outside of formal educational settings and without a teacher's guidance He highlights the importance of creating a conducive physical environment that empowers autonomous learners to take charge of their own learning journey.
Positivism underpins the concept of learner autonomy (LA), as it posits that "knowledge is a more or less accurate reflection of objective reality" (Benson, 1997, p.20) This technical approach to LA emphasizes the importance of learning strategies and skills that empower students to take control of their own education It focuses on the timing, location, and methods of learning, as well as the planning and assessment processes involved To foster autonomy, learners must be equipped with essential skills and techniques that enable them to navigate language learning independently, even in the absence of a teacher Previous studies (Gardner & Miller, 1999, 2011; Morrison, 2008) have explored this aspect of LA to improve learner autonomy in self-access learning centers Benson (2006) further examines various modes of LA outside the classroom, including self-access centers, computer-assisted language learning, and distance learning Nonetheless, a purely technical perspective on autonomy is insufficient without considering psychological factors.
2.1.4.2 Psychological aspect of learner autonomy
The psychological aspect of learner autonomy (LA) encompasses learners' attitudes and awareness in taking responsibility for their own studies According to Benson (1997), LA is defined as a capacity that includes attitudes and abilities, enabling learners to assume greater responsibility for their learning This aspect is linked to a constructivist perspective, highlighting cognitive features such as motivation and learning styles that influence learners' educational experiences (Benson, 2001) Constructivism posits that learners must actively discover knowledge and transform complex information into personal understanding (Slavin, 2003) Oxford (2003) emphasizes that this psychological dimension involves learners' mental and emotional traits in developing their autonomy Little (2003) further clarifies that autonomous students possess a clear understanding of their course goals, accept responsibility, actively plan their studies, and assess their learning outcomes Thus, enhancing mental factors like positive perceptions and abilities such as reflection and proactivity in self-management and interaction is crucial for students' development in LA (Little, 2003).
2.1.4.3 Political aspect of learner autonomy
Political aspect of LA is based on critical theory, and focuses on learners‟
Learner autonomy (LA) refers to the ability of students to take control over their learning processes and environments, as highlighted by Benson (1997) This concept embodies the rights of learners to manage their own educational experiences Critical theory further explores LA by examining the social contexts of access, control, power, and ideology, as noted by Pennycook (1997) Oxford (2003) echoes this perspective, emphasizing that the political-critical view of education involves significant issues of power and access Ultimately, autonomous learners have the right to dictate their learning conditions, choose their activities, and pursue education free from external obligations.
2.1.4.4 Sociocultural aspect of learner autonomy
Oxford (2003) expands on Benson's three aspects of language acquisition (LA) by introducing a sociocultural perspective, which highlights the role of social interaction in learners' cognitive and language development This perspective is grounded in Vygotsky's sociocultural theory (1978), which posits that cognition evolves through environmental stimulation and social interactions Vygotsky (1978) defines the Zone of Proximal Development as the gap between a learner's independent problem-solving abilities and their potential development when guided by adults or collaborating with more capable peers This suggests that learners benefit from instruction and peer cooperation rather than working in isolation.
Promoting autonomy in language learning must consider the cultural contexts of learners, allowing them to engage with the world and become authors of their own narratives (1997, p.45) Sociocultural approaches highlight the interplay between individual behaviors, attitudes, and cultural meanings in specific learning environments (Palfreyman, 2003, p.13) Furthermore, learner autonomy is seen as a collaborative process (Little, 2004, p.19), with Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory illustrating the connection between collaboration and autonomy (Little, 2004, pp 21-22) This emphasizes the importance of student interactions with their environment, including various challenges, communities, and relationships.
It can be seen that three above aspects of LA advocated by Benson (1997,
2006) are necessary conditions The “social” perspective that Oxford (2003) suggests is the sufficient condition – the environment for educators to implement
The four-aspect model of learner autonomy (LA) is widely recognized in research and has been utilized by various Asian authors to investigate the perceptions and practices of EFL teachers and students Notable studies include those by Lê Xuân Quỳnh (2013), Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Lệ (2009), Nguyễn Thanh Nga (2014), Nguyễn Văn Lợi (2016), and Wang & Wang (2016).
2.2 Perceptions and practices of learner autonomy 2.2.1 Perceptions
Perception is a complex process defined in various ways across scientific literature Angell (1906) describes it as the awareness of material things presented to the senses, while Kanwisher (2001) emphasizes the extraction of perceptual information from stimuli, regardless of conscious experience Chambers Dictionary defines perception as recognizing one's environment through physical sensations, highlighting an individual's understanding Bodenhausen and Hugenberg (2009) view perception as the interface between outer and inner worlds, and McShane and Von Glinow (2010) describe it as the process of making sense of the surrounding world Ultimately, perception shapes our understanding of reality through sensory information, influencing our judgments, values, and actions Therefore, to comprehend behavior, one must first understand the underlying perceptions.
In the field of Language Acquisition (LA), the concept of "perception" is examined to understand the views of both English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers and students regarding LA, as highlighted in various studies (Al Asmari, 2013; Azizi, 2014; Đặng Tấn Tín, 2012; Dogan & Mirici, 2017; Dương Mỹ Thẩm & Seepho, 2014; Gardner, 2007; Haji-Othman & Wood, 2016; Harati, 2017; Joshi, 2011; Wang & Wang, 2016) This research aims to delve into the understanding and cognition of teachers and students concerning the concept of LA.
Language teachers' perception, as defined by Borg (2006), encompasses their cognition regarding what they consider, are familiar with, and believe Xhaferri et al (2015) build on Borg and Al-Busaidi's questionnaire (2012b), along with insights from Benson (2011) and Little (1991, 1999), to identify ten key concepts that serve as a framework for exploring beliefs about learner autonomy (LA) These concepts include technical, psychological, social, and political views on LA, the teacher's role, the relevance of LA to various cultural contexts, age-related factors, language proficiency, teaching methodology implications, and the relationship between LA and effective language learning Xhaferri et al (2015) emphasize that these concepts address different theoretical aspects of learner autonomy and should not be regarded as equal Numerous researchers (Haji-Othman & Wood, 2016; Keuk & Heng, 2016; Nguyễn Thanh Nga, 2014; Nguyễn Văn Lợi, 2016; Wang & Wang, 2016) have utilized these concepts in their inquiries to examine EFL teachers' perceptions or beliefs regarding learner autonomy.
Learners‟ perceptions of LA are an important issue for both educators and learners themselves investigated by a number of language researchers Van Lier
Acting on learners' perceptions of their own learning can help them enhance their strengths and address their weaknesses (Jacobs & Farrel, 2001) According to White (1995), learners must understand the nature of language learning and their role in the process to effectively practice language acquisition However, holding incorrect beliefs can lead to ineffective language learning strategies, hindering their success in language learning.
Understanding language assessment (LA) is crucial for both teachers and students, particularly in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), as they adapt to new standards in the 21st century Teachers' insights into the significance of LA, grounded in their academic expertise, are essential for their development as professional foreign language educators Similarly, students' awareness of LA and its importance plays a vital role in their academic success Therefore, it is essential for educators to explore how the perceptions of both teachers and learners regarding LA influence their practices, enabling them to provide better support in language teaching and learning.
Before discussing the practices of both teachers and learners regarding Learning Analytics (LA), it is essential to define what is meant by "practice." While numerous studies have examined the practices of teachers and students in promoting LA, a clear definition of practice itself has often been overlooked Typically, these studies focus on the actions taken by educators and learners without establishing a foundational understanding of practice This research aims to clarify the concept of practice, as highlighted by Dewey (1904), who asserts that the definition of practice is contingent upon one's purpose According to Dewey, practice work is fundamentally linked to the intentions behind it.
“an instrument in making real and vital theoretical instruction; the knowledge of subject-matter and of principles of education” Additionally, practice is defined as
Assessment as learning as an indispensable segment of LA
Boud (1995) asserts that "assessment always leads to learning," highlighting that every assessment act conveys important messages to students regarding their learning objectives and methods He emphasizes the significance of learners' understanding of the connection between their assessment and learning Similarly, Berry (2008) describes assessment as a vital component of the teaching and learning process, aimed at supporting student learning She notes that students can leverage assessment data to set learning goals, make informed decisions to enhance their learning, and improve their understanding of quality work Furthermore, students are encouraged to evaluate both their own and their peers' learning, facilitating discussions about their progress and receiving feedback from both teachers and classmates.
Effective learning activities (LA) involve conscious and systematic efforts by both teachers and students to gather, analyze, and interpret information, ultimately leading to informed decisions and actions that enhance teaching and learning Integrating the assessment of LA into learners' autonomous learning is crucial, as it empowers them to become "authors of their own worlds" (Pennycook, 1997, p 45) Boud (2002, p.2) emphasizes that assessment serves as a key "prompt for learning," guiding students on what to focus on and how to approach their studies Consequently, understanding assessment is essential for students, as it influences their learning choices and helps them evaluate their own progress effectively.
Assessment as learning (AaL) is a key approach in learning assessment (LA), defined by Earl and Katz (2006) as an active cognitive restructuring process where students engage with new ideas This method positions students as essential links between assessment and learning, fostering their responsibility for their educational journey Berry (2008) highlights that AaL encourages deep learning and serves as a metacognitive process, with three primary functions: helping learners understand expected standards, enhancing their self-monitoring and self-evaluation skills, and allowing them to create personalized study plans Ultimately, AaL is crucial for advancing learning assessment in higher education.
Assessment as Learning (AaL) plays a vital role in Learning Assessment (LA) for both educators and learners Its primary goal is to equip students with the skills and mindset necessary for metacognition, fostering their ability to engage in autonomous learning AaL focuses on enhancing students' assessment capabilities, enabling them to become proficient self-assessors To achieve this, teachers must introduce, instruct, and provide opportunities for students to evaluate their own learning (Earl & Katz, 2006).
Teachers‟ role
In assessment as learning, teachers are essential in creating instructional and assessment strategies that enable students to reflect on and track their own learning (Earl & Katz, 2006, p.42) Additionally, Earl and Katz (2006) emphasize that teachers have the responsibility to promote the development of autonomous learners through assessment as learning.
• model and teach the skills of self-assessment;
• guide students in setting goals, and monitor their progress toward them;
• provide exemplars and models of good practice and quality work that reflect curriculum outcomes;
• work with students to develop clear criteria of good practice;
To help students enhance their learning experience, it is essential to guide them in creating internal feedback and self-monitoring mechanisms This approach enables them to validate and critically assess their own thinking, fostering a sense of comfort with the ambiguity and uncertainty that often accompany the process of acquiring new knowledge.
• provide regular and challenging opportunities to practise, so that students can become confident, competent self-assessors;
• monitor students‟ metacognitive processes as well as their learning, and provide descriptive feedback;
• create an environment where it is safe for students to take chances and where support is readily available
According to Berry (2008), the role of teachers in Assessment as Learning (AaL) is crucial, as they design their teaching strategies to create opportunities for students to engage in self-assessment and peer-assessment of their learning.
Teachers play a crucial role in observing and assessing learners' practices of learning autonomy (LA), which helps identify students' strengths and weaknesses By understanding these aspects, educators can create tailored teaching plans to foster student autonomy According to Gardner (1999), teachers have three key responsibilities in this process: first, they must enhance learners' awareness of the benefits of self-assessment; second, they should guide students in completing self-assessment forms; and finally, they need to ensure that students grasp the advantages of self-assessment in their journey toward autonomous learning.
Teachers must engage in self-assessment of their instructional activities for several reasons According to Airasian and Gullickson (1994), self-assessment encompasses concepts such as "reflective practitioner" and "analysis of practice," urging educators to critically evaluate their teaching effectiveness Boud (1995) emphasizes the importance of providing self-assessment forms with checklists for both teachers and learners Madsen (2005) highlights that self-assessment involves teachers reflecting on their practices to determine their effectiveness and identify improvements for future lessons Nova (2017) outlines the benefits of self-assessment, noting that it helps teachers recognize the need for effective teaching activities, enhances their performance, and fosters a greater sense of responsibility in their teaching practices.
Learners‟ role
To engage effectively in assessment as learning, students must actively analyze, evaluate, and critically reflect on their learning processes This self-assessment enables them to modify their current study goals and establish new learning objectives Consequently, students serve as vital links between teaching and learning (Berry, 2008).
Autonomous language learners are responsible for their own learning and progress, as highlighted in section 2.1 This responsibility underscores the importance of self-assessment in higher education, which prepares students to tackle not only known problems but also challenges they have yet to conceive (Brew, 1995, p 57) Additionally, Gardner emphasizes the significance of this approach in fostering independent learning.
Self-assessment is a crucial component for learners to evaluate their knowledge and skills (1999) Little et al (2007) emphasize its importance in fostering learner autonomy (LA) among language teachers By engaging in self-assessment, learners reflect on their goals, objectives, activities, and outcomes, shaping their perceptions of LA According to Little (2010), LA involves learners taking charge of their education through planning, monitoring, and evaluation Self-assessment serves as a key mechanism to enhance LA, allowing students to establish personal standards for evaluating their strengths and weaknesses in language learning Little (2004) identifies learner reflection as a fundamental principle of LA, highlighting the pivotal role of self-assessment in developing autonomy This process enables students to assess their progress, identify areas for improvement, and set appropriate learning goals for future study.