INTRODUCTION
Rationale of the study
Under the above-mentioned circumstances, there is an obvious need of investigating learning styles firstly for students at universities, especially ones in the major of English
At Nguyen Tat Thanh University, English major students come from diverse backgrounds, yet the teaching methods remain largely unchanged, failing to accommodate this variety In the autonomy-focused university environment, there is a pressing need for self-awareness among these students If the findings of this study are successfully implemented, they can offer teachers practical suggestions for improving teaching methods and developing materials that cater to different learning styles in heterogeneous classrooms Ultimately, validating these findings could bridge the gap between teachers and students, enhancing rapport in the classroom.
Aims of the study
From the above, this aims of this study is:
1 To understand learning styles preferences among English-majored students at NTT University namely Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic in class and out of class learning environments
2 To discover the effect of gender in the identified learning styles preferences
3 To explore main reasons for shaping students‟ learning styles
The study aims to investigate how gender and learning environment influence the learning style preferences of English-majored students at NTT University The hypothesis posits that these factors significantly affect students' preferred approaches to learning.
Research questions
Provided with the aims of the study, three research questions are considered in this study:
1 What are the patterns of learning styles of students majoring English at NTT University in different learning environments?
2 To what extent is students‟ gender related to their learning styles preferences?
3 What are crucial factors that mediate students‟ adoption of learning styles?
Significance of the study
This study provides valuable insights into the language teaching-learning process in Vietnam, benefiting teachers, researchers, and students alike For Vietnamese educators, understanding learning styles can bridge the gap between teaching methods and students' needs, allowing for the selection of more suitable materials and methods This alignment fosters better material development in the future As one of the pioneering studies in the fields of learning styles and language teaching methodology in Vietnam, it offers researchers a foundational perspective For students, recognizing their own learning styles enhances their learning experience, empowering them to adopt effective learning strategies, sustain motivation, and achieve greater autonomy in their educational journey.
Delimitation of the study
Despite the limitations faced by English-majored students at NTT University, there are numerous opportunities to conduct similar studies across various fields such as economics, engineering, and social sciences These opportunities extend to different educational institutions in Ho Chi Minh City, including colleges, high schools, and foreign language centers, as well as across various regions.
The thesis emphasizes the significant influence of gender and learning environment on student learning, while also highlighting the importance of considering additional factors such as age, academic proficiency, and personality in understanding learners' backgrounds.
In addition to the VAK model, which serves as the primary framework for learning styles in this thesis, there is a significant need to explore various other models, inventories, and questionnaires within the Vietnamese context Furthermore, there is a substantial opportunity to incorporate studies on teaching styles, cognitive styles, and intellectual styles in Vietnam.
Organization of the study
This thesis is organized in five chapters
Chapter 1 provides (1) the background of the study, (2) the rationale of the study, (3) the aims of the study, (4) research questions, (5) the significance of the study, (6) delimitation of the study, and (7) organization of the study
Chapter 2 presents the literature review of this study, which includes related studies in the field of learning styles, gender, learning environment and teaching approaches
Chapter 3 describes research design which includes setting, participants and instruments, and research methodology including collection procedure and analytical procedure
Chapter 4 analyses and interprets collected data from English-majored students at NTT University
Chapter 5 draws some conclusions from the findings and offers some recommendations for teaching and further research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
From styles to learning styles
Defining learning styles is a complex challenge, as highlighted by Cassidy (2004), due to their extensive evolution across multiple disciplines and the ambiguous application of the term alongside related concepts.
Before being referred to as learning styles, these concepts were commonly known as "cognitive styles." Researchers often view cognitive styles through a behaviorist lens, suggesting that they are shaped by external stimuli This perspective is supported by various studies (Claxton & Murrell, 1978; Dunn et al., 1989; Ehrman & Oxford, 1990; Keefe, 1979; Reichman, 1978; Scarpaci & Fradd, 1985), which investigate how environmental factors like noise, design, lighting, and temperature influence mental processes and perception Additionally, cognitive style research delves into the biological aspects of individual mental processes, focusing on brain-based activities and the functions of different cerebral hemispheres It also aims to clarify the roles and mechanisms of various perceptual channels, including visual, auditory, and kinesthetic modes.
In the 1980s, the concept of "learning styles" emerged, shifting focus from the traditional notion of "cognitive style." Keefe (1979) was among the first researchers to define learning styles as the characteristic cognitive, affective, and psychological behaviors that serve as stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to their learning environments.
This perspective offers greater flexibility than cognitive styles by moving beyond the traditional "physical" approach Hartley (1998, as cited in Cassidy 2004) distinguishes cognitive styles as the characteristic ways individuals tackle cognitive tasks, while learning styles refer to how they approach learning tasks Mariani (1996) expands this definition to include affective, social, and physiological behaviors in the learning process Reid (1995) emphasizes that learning styles exist on a continuum, suggesting that they are not strictly positive Therefore, students can adapt their styles to suit different situations, and educators should support this adaptability by helping students identify their strengths and weaknesses.
The expansion of the concept of learning styles has resulted in confusion, particularly due to the interchangeable use of the terms cognitive styles and learning styles, which share many similarities Additionally, as the definition of learning styles broadens to encompass various aspects of learning, it often leads to the misapplication of the term in relation to other concepts, especially learning strategies.
Learners can choose various strategies for different tasks, while learning styles tend to be more stable and automatic (Harley, 1998, as cited in Cassidy, 2004) To clarify this relationship, Mariani (1996) proposed a hierarchy that categorizes personality, learning styles, learning strategies, and tactics based on their contextual generality In a classroom setting, a learner's learning style remains consistent, while their strategies may vary depending on the context Oxford (2003) further distinguishes between learning styles as "general approaches" and learning strategies as "specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques."
In short, learning styles can be identified with four basic characteristics:
It is expanded from the concept of cognitive style
It relates to how learners absorb, process and retain new information under the environmental influences
It expresses a learner‟s reasonably stable general preferences when learning
Each style has its own strengths and weaknesses
Despite the lack of a universally accepted definition of learning styles, researchers continue to explore this area, leading to a growing number of theories and models (Wilson, 2012) The International Learning Styles website (www.learningstyles.net) offers a comprehensive definition that effectively encapsulates the essence of learning styles.
“Learning style is the way in which each learner begins to concentrate on, process, absorb, and retain new and difficult information (Dunn and Dunn, 1992; 1993;
The interaction of various elements influencing concentration varies among students, making it essential to identify what triggers and sustains their focus Understanding each student's unique processing style is crucial for fostering long-term memory and retention To uncover these natural tendencies, a comprehensive learning style model should be employed, highlighting individual strengths and preferences across physiological, sociological, psychological, emotional, and environmental factors.
The learning field is characterized by a wide variety of models that are created, updated, and revised each year To address this challenge, researchers have sought to develop a comprehensive framework that encompasses all learning style models.
Curry's "onion" model, introduced in 1983, categorizes learning styles into three distinct layers: the innermost layer represents personality traits, the middle layer encompasses individual information processing styles, and the outermost layer reflects instructional preferences This model highlights the varying modifiability of these layers, indicating that while the outermost layer is more adaptable, the innermost layer is more resistant to change By distinguishing between personality, learning styles, and strategies, Curry's model serves as a valuable tool for understanding learning styles in diverse contexts.
Figure 2.1: An illustration of Curry‟s “Onion” model (American Physiological Society,
Coffield and his colleagues (2004) developed a continuum of learning styles that integrates various models from both cognitive and educational disciplines The continuum ranges from theorists focused on genetics and cognition on the left to those emphasizing classroom instruction, motivation, environmental factors, and culture on the right Central to this model are theorists who prioritize personality types This classification leads to the identification of five major families of learning styles.
Figure 2.2: Families of Learning Styles (Coffield et al., 2004, p 10)
Broverman Cooper Gardner et al
Guilford Holzman and Klein Hudson
Hunt Kagan Kogan Messick Pettigrew Witkin
Learning styles and preferences are largely constitutionally based including the four modalities:
Learning styles reflect deep-seated features of the cognitive structure, including „patterns of ability‟
Learning styles are one component of relatively stable personality type
Learning styles are flexibly stable learning preferences
Move on from learning styles to learning approaches, strategies, orientations and conceptions of learning
Epstein and Meier Harrison-Branson Miller
Allison and Hayes Herrmann Honey and Mumford Kolb
Felder and Silverman Hermanussen, Wierstra, de Jong and Thijssen Kirton McCarthy
Biggs Conti and Kolody Grasha-Riechmann Hill
Marton and Saljo McKenney and Keen Pask
Pintrich, Smith, Garica and McCeachie Schmeck Weintein Zimmerman and Palmer Whetton and Cameron
The continuum offers a comprehensive framework for theorists to position their research, showcasing its flexibility to incorporate mixed models that defy easy classification Within this continuum, three primary learning style mainstreams emerge, reflecting the developmental phases of the field Cognitive-centered models represent the traditional perspective, focusing on cognition and brain-based activities Following this, personality-centered models expand the scope to include psychological factors Lastly, activity-centered models emphasize the practical application of learning styles within the pedagogical process.
Cognitive styles, as defined by Riding and Rayner (1998, p.8), refer to an individual's preferred and habitual method of organizing and representing information This concept originated in psychology, aiming to uncover how individuals perceive and process information.
Cognitive styles was further defined in several ways:
1 Cognitive characteristics modes of functioning that are revealed through one‟s perceptual and intellectual activities in a highly consistent and pervasive way
2 A super-ordinate construct involved in many cognitive operations that accounts for individual differences in a variety of cognitive operations that accounts for individual differences in a variety of cognitive, perceptual, and personality variables
3 Intrinsic information processing patterns that represent a person‟s typical modes of perceiving, remembering, thinking and problem solving
(Claxton & Murrell, 1987; Griggs, 1991; as cited in Le, 2010, p 10)
The concept of cognitive styles began to take shape in the 1940s, with Allport being the first to introduce the term "style" in relation to cognition in 1937 Vernon highlighted that the foundational tradition of cognition can be traced back to the classical Greek works on personality description, as noted in 1973 by Riding and Rayner.
Gender and learning styles
The term gender has evolved from a focus on biological differences between males and females to an exploration of gendered identities shaped by social constructs An individual's gender is influenced not only by their biological sex but also by their social behaviors and activities Consequently, males and females exhibit distinct preferences in their daily activities, particularly in their learning styles Research indicates that males tend to favor kinesthetic, tactile, and visual learning approaches, while females are often characterized as more auditory and passive in classroom settings (Greb, 1999).
& Pizzo, 1990, as cited in Tatarinsteva, 2002; Reid, 1987; Park, 1997; Mulaic et al.,
In 2009, various studies, including those by Vaseghi, Ramezani, & Gholami, and Lincoln & Rademacher, indicated that learning styles may not yield consistent results across all research For instance, Sheppard's findings highlight the variability in learning style effectiveness.
A study by Vaseghi, Ramezani, and Gholami (2012) highlights that Korean female students favor group work and a kinesthetic learning style Additionally, research by Wehrwein, Lujan, and DiCarlo (2007, as cited in Saadi, 2014) reveals that 54% of females and only 12.5% of males prefer a single learning style, while 45.8% of females and 87.5% of males opt for multiple modes These gender differences in learning styles are influenced by the cultural and societal contexts of individuals, suggesting that preferences vary significantly across different nationalities.
Male Brunei students tend to experience higher energy levels in the late morning, while female Brunei students are more motivated by parental influence and auditory stimuli, feeling more energetic in the afternoon and preferring a greater variety of activities.
Male Hungarian students preferred background sound, whereas female Hungarian students liked to be more self-motivated, teacher motivated, persistent, responsible, and authority-figure oriented
Male students in New Zealand favored kinesthetic learning experiences, while female students preferred brighter lighting, warmer temperatures, and a more responsible approach to learning Additionally, female students enjoyed diverse learning methods more than their male peers.
Male Swedish students preferred kinesthetic learning style, whereas female Swedish students liked to be more self-motivated and responsible
The influence of gender on learning styles is significant, highlighting the need for educators to consider both students' learning preferences and their gender differences Understanding how gender impacts learning styles can provide valuable insights that enhance the educational process.
Learning Environments
Learning environments encompass various factors that significantly influence the learning process Throughout the history of pedagogy, the concept of learning environments has been interpreted in diverse ways Traditionally, thinkers such as St Augustine, Comenius, Rousseau, Dewey, and Freire viewed the learning environment primarily as the interactions between teachers and learners This perspective has evolved over time, shifting from a teacher-centered approach to a more learner-centered focus.
Table 2.5: Summary of philosophical perspectives
Learning environments have increasingly captured the attention of educators from various perspectives Behaviorist theorists like Thorndike, Skinner, and Bandura view these environments as crucial sources of stimuli for the learning and teaching process In contrast, scholars such as Vygotsky, Bruner, and Kincheloe see learning environments as social contexts where both learning and cultural interactions occur Additionally, some researchers, including Lockheed and Scheerens, adopt an administrative perspective on learning environments Recently, there has been a growing interest in the physical aspects of these environments, as highlighted by the work of Moos, Freiberg, and others For more details, refer to Table 2.7.
Table 2.6: Summary of theoretical frameworks and models
In the field of learning styles, learning eviroments hold an crucial role because individuals epxress their learning styles through their surrounding enviroments Kolb
In his 1984 model of learning styles, Kolb emphasized the significance of learning environments in shaping individual learning preferences He argued that learners acquire experiences from these environments, which in turn influence their unique learning patterns Additionally, Dunn (2000) identified key differences between in-class and out-of-class environments for freshmen, highlighting the distinct contexts in which students learn.
In a classroom setting, students must effectively listen to lectures to identify key points, take notes for test preparation, and retain approximately three-quarters of the information presented Additionally, they should be able to read materials, discern important concepts, take notes for studying, and remember about 75% of what they have read.
Dormitory students often face various challenges in their out-of-classroom environment, including the presence of a roommate, differing preferences for music or quiet while studying, interruptions from friends visiting in person or on the phone, varying lighting requirements, conflicting study schedules, and different habits regarding food and drinks.
Dunn identified that the environmental learning style consists of two key dimensions: physical and social Physical factors, such as temperature, sound, light, food, time, and classroom management, enhance learners' capacities In contrast, social factors include group dynamics, individual work, pair and team collaboration, and the level of teacher authority Importantly, learning occurs not only in the classroom but throughout an individual's daily life, indicating that in-class and out-of-class environments are interconnected and interchangeable in the learning process The variables associated with these different environments significantly influence learning styles, suggesting that the exploration of learning styles and environments should extend beyond traditional boundaries.
“classroom” and take a full view of this issue.
Conceptual framework of the study
Understanding individual learning styles is crucial for teachers to effectively address their students' needs, bridging the gap between educators and learners The learning process consists of two key components: perception, which involves the learner's interaction with the external environment, and procession, which refers to the internal processing of perceived information.
In 2007, three primary learning modalities—Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic—were identified, with preferences varying among individuals These preferences can be influenced by both internal and external factors, including gender identity and biological traits shaped by societal norms Additionally, an individual's learning style may be affected by their environment, encompassing both social and physical elements In the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning, significant disparities exist between classroom and out-of-class learning environments.
This study explores the learning styles of Vietnamese EFL students by examining three key dimensions Firstly, it utilizes the VAK learning styles model to assess students' preferences Secondly, it investigates the influence of gender on these preferred learning styles Lastly, the research surveys various learning environments to determine if they affect students' learning style preferences.
Figure 2.7: The conceptual framework of the study