Concepts And Principles Of Democratic Governance And Accountability (Pdf).Pdf

Realising true democracy, good governance and accountability will require higher levels of citizen participation, improved civic education, and promoting more awareness and appreciation

Published under the project: ‘Action for Strengthening Good Governance and Accountability in Uganda’ by the Uganda Office of the Konrad-

Adenauer-Stiftung

Contact:

Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung

Uganda Office

51a Prince Charles Drive

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Responsible for publication:

Project Director: Dr Angelika Klein

Project Manager: Yusuf Kiranda

Project Coordinator: Regina Bafaki

Consultant: Dr George Okiror

Conceptualisation & Editing: Mathias Kamp

© Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung 2011

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Contents

ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS IV FOREWORD V

INTRODUCTION 1

PART I – UNDERSTANDING DEMOCRACY .2

1.1 Democracy: Definition and Origin 2

1.2 Main Characteristics and Features of Democracy 3

1.3 Types of Democracy 4

1.4 Principles of Modern Democratic Rule 4

1.5 Democratic Institutions and Actors 7

1.6 Democracy as a Value 10

1.7 Citizens in a Democracy 11

PART II – ELEMENTS OF A DEMOCRATIC STATE AND SOCIETY .14

2.1 Political Pluralism 14

2.2 Democratic Participation 15

2.3 Representation 16

2.4 Elections 19

2.5 Rule of Law 20

2.6 Human Rights and Individual Freedoms in a Democracy 22

2.7 Political Leadership 23

2.8 Good Governance and Accountability 24

2.9 Civil Society and Civic Action in a Democracy 26

PART III – DEMOCRACY IN UGANDA .29

3.1 Brief Historical Background 29

3.2 The Ugandan Political System .30

3.3 Decentralisation and Local Government in Uganda 32

3.4 Elections in Uganda 34

BIBLIOGRAPHY 36

Acronyms/Abbreviations

Foreword

Good Governance and Accountability are principles whose application is essential to

a country achieving genuine democracy and development Good Governance brings along respect of human rights, the rule of law, effective people’s participation in development, as well as transparent and accountable processes and institutions Thus, the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS) is committed to promoting democracy and good governance as the only sustainable way of addressing development challenges anywhere in the world

In the same line, KAS not only recognises, but highly applauds the fact that democracy, good governance and accountability are priorities clearly stipulated

in Uganda’s National Development Plan Nevertheless, for the fact that the multiparty system is generally new, several challenges can be expected Realising true democracy, good governance and accountability will require higher levels of citizen participation, improved civic education, and promoting more awareness and appreciation of democratic principals by the leaders (and citizens) especially at the local level

It is on this premise that the project: “Action for Strengthening Good Governance and Accountability” has been designed by KAS and our partner – Action for Development (ACFODE) The interventions proposed within this action are aimed

at deepening the understanding and appreciation of the principals of democratic governance among leaders and local citizens as well as establishing mechanisms for increased citizen participation in the governance process In this regard, a set of mechanisms will be employed including the production of a civic education toolkit which this guide is part of

On the basis of conducting civic education in Uganda for over three decades, KAS realises the limitations in the availability of reference materials on the concepts

of good governance and accountability, particularly those developed within the Ugandan (local government) context This guide therefore is designed to serve as

a simplified tool for use by civic educators and elected leaders in understanding the concepts of democracy, good governance and accountability Within its content the concept of democracy is clearly defined and explained It sets out the elements of a democratic state and society And it also points out the course democracy has taken

in Uganda, including a brief historical background and the Ugandan political system

as it is today Similarly, the concepts of good governance and accountability are presented in a much simplified way

The author Dr George Okiror is an accomplished Political Scientist His knowledge

on the Ugandan political system has been tapped to produce this guide I am confident this tool will prove invaluable in enhancing the capacity of civil society and

other actors to promote democratic governance and accountability particularly at local level and to conduct grassroots civic education

Dr Angelika KleinCountry RepresentativeKonrad-Adenauer-Stiftung

Introduction

This guide attempts to define the core concepts and principles of democratic governance and accountability In Part I – ‘Understanding Democracy’ -, a definition and brief history of democracy is provided It also looks at the characteristics and features of democracy, types of democracy, and principles of contemporary democratic rule Within this section, examples of democratic institutions and actors are offered The presentation also attempts to explain that for democracy to succeed

it has to be valued and thus be part of a given people’s culture Part I ends with a discussion of the roles and responsibilities of citizens in a democracy

In part II – ‘Elements of a Democratic State and Society’ -, the paper discusses the concepts of political pluralism, democratic participation, political representation, the role of elections in a democracy, and the significance of the rule of law The paper also looks at the concept of human rights and individual freedoms in a democracy This section ends with a discussion of the concepts of good governance and accountability as well as the role of civil society and civic action in a democracy

In Part III – ‘Democracy in Uganda’ -, the paper attempts to offer a brief historical background of democratisation attempts in Uganda As a result, a discussion of the various regimes to date is offered This section ends with a discussion of the political system embraced by Uganda In a bid to address the necessary improvement of service delivery to the citizens, the paper also discusses decentralisation programme and local government in Uganda

PART I – UNDERSTANDING DEMOCRACY

1.1 Democracy: Definition and Origin

The concept of Democracy is traceable to the ancient Greeks and specifically the city-state of Athens in the fifth century B.C The word democracy is derived from the

Greek words ‘demos’, meaning people, and ‘Kratos’ meaning power or rule Directly

translated, democracy therefore means ‘rule by the people’, although originally the Greeks used it to mean the poor or the masses Periclean Athens, named after its most celebrated leader, has inspired generations of later political theorists, statesmen, and common people alike Yet many aspects of Athenian democracy appear strange and unfamiliar to modern eyes The central political institution in Athens during the sixth and fifth centuries B.C was the Assembly, usually composed

of 5,000 to 6,000 members and open to all adult citizens with the exception of women, slaves and foreigners By simple majority vote, the Assembly could decide

on virtually any domestic issue without any legal restrictions Most remarkable, perhaps, was the fact that the leaders of the Athenian Assembly were not elected, but chosen by lot, as the Athenians believed that any citizen was capable of holding public office.1

The problem with democracy has been its very popularity, a popularity that has threatened the term’s undoing as a meaningful political concept In being almost universally regarded as a ‘good thing’, democracy has come to be used as a little more than a ‘hurray! word’, implying approval of a particular set of ideas or system

or rule In the words of Bernard Crick (1993), ‘democracy is perhaps the most promiscuous word in the world of public affairs’2 A term that can mean anything to anyone is in danger of meaning nothing at all

Below are some of the meanings that have been associated with the concept of democracy:

 A system of rule by the poor and disadvantaged;

 A form of government in which the people rule themselves directly and continuously, without the need for professional politicians or public officials;

 A society based on equal opportunity and individual merit, rather than hierarchy or privilege;

 A system of welfare and redistribution aimed at narrowing social inequalities;

1 Cincotta, Howard, What is Democracy? (U.S.Department of State: Office of International Information Programs), 7.

2 Heywood, Andrew, Politics (Macmillan Press Limited, 1997), 65

 A system of decision-making based on the principle of majority rule;

 A system of rule that protects the rights and interests of minorities by placing checks upon the power of the majority;

 A means of filling public offices through a competitive struggle for the popular vote;

 A system of government that serves the interests of the people regardless

of their participation in political office

A working definition for democracy in this paper will be ‘a form of government in which power and civic responsibility are exercised by all adult citizens, directly or indirectly through their freely elected representatives’3

1.2 Main Characteristics and Features of Democracy

Democracy is more than just a set of specific government institutions; it rests upon

a well understood group of values, attitudes, and practices – all of which may take different forms and expressions among different cultures and societies around the world.4

Below are some core democratic characteristics:

 Democracy is government in which power and civic responsibility are exercised by all adult citizens directly or indirectly through their freely elected representatives

 Democracy rests upon the principle of majority rule, which means that decisions are made by majority and have to be accepted by all, but minority viewpoints are respected and protected

 Democracies guard against all-powerful central governments and decentralise government to regional and local levels, understanding that all levels of government must be as accessible and responsive to the people as possible

 Democracies understand that one of their prime functions is to protect such basic human rights as freedom of speech and religion; the right to equal protection under the law; and the opportunity to organise and participate fully in the political, economic, and cultural life of society

 Democracies conduct regular free and fair elections open to all citizens of voting age

 Citizens in a democracy have not only rights, but also the responsibility

to participate in political systems that, in turn, protect their rights and freedoms

 Democratic societies are committed to the values of tolerance, cooperation, and compromise

3 U.S Department of State, Democracy in Brief (Global Publishing Solutions), 4.

4 Ibid 4.

1.3 Types of Democracy

Democracies fall into two basic categories, i.e direct/participatory and representative democracy

In direct democracy, citizens, without the intermediary of elected or appointed

officials, can participate in making public decisions Direct democracy thus reduces the distinction between government and the governed and between the state and civil society; it is a system of popular self-government Its most common manifestation in the modern era is the use of referenda.5 In Uganda, the practice

of direct democracy can be found at the local council 1 (village) level and during national referenda, as was the case in 2005 when a referendum was held to change over from the Movement system to a multiparty dispensation Direct democracy is most clearly practicable with relatively small numbers of people – in a community organisation, tribal council, or the local unit of a labour union, for example – where members can meet in a single room to discuss issues and arrive at decisions by consensus or majority vote

However, today, as in the past, the most common form of democracy, whether for

a town of 50,000 or a nation of 50 million people, is representative democracy,

in which the citizens elect officials to make political decisions, formulate laws, and administer programmes for the public good This type of democracy is limited and indirect It is limited in the sense that popular participation in government

is infrequent and brief, being restricted to the act of voting every few years It is indirect in that the public do not exercise power themselves; they merely select those who will rule on their behalf This form of rule is democratic only insofar as representation establishes a reliable and effective link between the government and the governed

In Uganda, for example, article 1(1) of the Ugandan Constitution provides that ‘all power belongs to the people who shall exercise their sovereignty in accordance with the constitution’; Clause (4) provides that ‘the people shall express their will and consent on who shall govern them and how they should be governed, through regular, free and fair elections of their representatives or through referenda’

1.4 Principles of Modern Democratic Rule

These are sometimes referred to as the pillars, tenets, or principles of democratic rule They differentiate democratic rule from any other types of government Any democracy around the world can be evaluated on the basis of these principles They include:

 Citizen participation: This means that citizens are part and parcel of

what happens in their society or country The citizens are part of the

5 Ibid., 5 - 6.

decision-making process on matters that affect them Communication is a two-way consultative process, i.e bottom-up as well as top-bottom before any decision is reached

 Equality: This means equality before the law, equality of opportunity in

the realisation of individual capacities without regard to one’s race, gender, ethnic background, religion or whatsoever

 Political tolerance: This means the ruling masses are mindful and

respectful of the interests of the minority While there may be differences between the people by way of race, religion, descent and culture they rise above such differences and give room for discussion, debate and accommodation of different viewpoints

 Accountability: This is when elected leaders or public officials have

to answer to the common citizens regarding their actions, decisions or indecisions during the time they are or were occupants of the public offices Those found to be performing to the required standards are rewarded by their continued stay in office while those found to be lacking in one way or another are punished

 Transparency: To be transparent means that leaders allow for public

scrutiny of what they do while in public office The citizens are allowed to attend public meetings and are free to obtain information on what happens

in public offices, who makes what decisions and why Transparency is a step towards accountability

 Regular, free and fair elections: Regular elections ensure that the

citizens are not stuck with bad leadership but that they have the opportunity

to throw out incompetent leaders through free and fair elections Free and fair elections give the citizens a chance to elect a leader of their choice as opposed to rigging elections that return often unwanted leaders to power Elections are the main avenue for all citizens to exercise power by choosing their leaders and giving their vote to the candidate whom they think will represent them best

 Economic freedom: Economically handicapped citizens are the ones

prone to all types of abuses as they lack the economic base to meet the basic necessities of life As a result they are the ones often bribed with the smallest of gifts during elections, the consequences of which are often adverse, such as returning corrupt and morally bankrupt leaders to power Economic independence creates the foundation on which the citizens become vibrant and thus able to call their leaders to account for their actions or inaction In democracies, economic pluralism needs to go hand

in hand with political and social pluralism, i.e the freedom to choose/select one’s political leaders and the freedom to belong to one’s social/cultural associations, respectively

 Control of the abuse of power: Any government without checks and

balances on its powers is likely to abuse those powers The most common

form of abuse of power is corruption by government officials Control of abuse of power can be achieved through a number of ways, i.e by way of

separation of powers of the three arms of government – the legislature,

executive and the Judiciary – and by ensuring the independence of the three Another way is by creation of institutions such as the government ombudsman (Inspector of Government in the case of Uganda), which watches over the performance of government officials in relation to the agreed standards and ethics

 Bill of rights: This imposes controls on government powers in a bid to

protect the citizens from abuse by heavy-handed leaders As such, the bill

of rights seeks to protect the rights and freedoms of the citizens by way

of ensuring that this protection is enshrined in the constitution of a given country

 A culture of accepting the results of elections: Once free and fair

elections are held and a winner clearly emerges, the loser of the elections should without resistance evacuate office and hand over the instruments

of power to the winner However, it is also important that once voted into power, the leaders should rule for the benefit of all citizens regardless of the fact that some did not vote for them

 Human rights: Unlike dictatorships, democracies strive to protect the

rights and freedoms of their citizens from abuse These rights include the right to life, the right to own property, the freedom of expression, the freedom to associate, and the freedom to assemble, among others

 Multi-party system: A multiparty system is a set-up where there are

more than two political parties contesting for power The reasons for having multiple parties in a democracy are: to widen the pool for choice of the best candidate for political office; to offer alternative views to the government

of the day as a result of the existence of an opposition; and to enable the opposition to act as a check on those in political office One-party systems lead to a lack of alternatives for the citizens and concentration of powers and have often led to dictatorships

 Neutrality of state institutions: State institutions such as the police and

the army should be neutral and not take sides or be politically partisan

 Rule of law: This implies that no one is above the law and requires

that all citizens observe the law and are held accountable if they break

it The due process of law requires that the law should be equally, fairly and consistently enforced The rule of law ensures law and order and the protection of citizens as they enjoy their rights

1.5 Democratic Institutions and Actors

The success of democracy in a country is dependent on having strong institutions These institutions include the three arms of government: the Legislature (Assembly, Parliament), the Executive and the Judiciary

Assemblies are respected because they are composed of lay politicians who

represent the people rather than by trained public officials Assemblies are invested

with formal law-making power, thus the name legislators Assemblies6 provide

a link between government and the people, a channel of communication that can both support government and help to uphold the regime and force government to respond to public demands and anxieties

The major functions of assemblies are:

 Legislation: As representatives of the people, the legislators are vested with the power to make laws on behalf of the citizens This makes the laws binding because legislators execute this function on behalf of the people, meaning that the people themselves make their laws It is in parliament that discussion and debate of proposed laws take place

 Representation: As noted above, assemblies play a representative role providing a link between government and the people Because we cannot all sit in parliament, the elected members of parliament thus serve a delegated function

 Scrutiny and oversight: Greater emphasis has been placed on the ability

of assemblies to constrain or check government power This is what makes assemblies scrutinising bodies whose major function is to deliver responsible and accountable government It is for the same reason that the concept of checks and balances is used when looking at the three arms

of government, especially parliament that has to scrutinise and oversee the activities of the executive and the judiciary

 Recruiting and training: Assemblies often act as the major channels

of recruitment, providing a pool of talent from which leading makers emerge Parliament is a training ground because it is where the lay representatives of the people acquire oratorical skills and learn how

decision-to debate and make laws, functions that build their capacity decision-to fill other political offices

 Legitimacy: Assemblies promote this function by encouraging the public to believe that the system of rule above them is rightful It is for the same reason that even authoritarian regimes tolerate assemblies

6 Heywood, Andrew, Politics (Macmillan Press Limited, 1997), 297.

The Executive branch of government is charged with the function of implementing

or executing the law This is the core of government, as noted by Heywood, because political systems can operate without constitutions, assemblies, judiciaries and even parties, but they cannot survive without an executive branch to formulate policy and ensure that it is implemented The executive is the source of political leadership

In the broadest sense, the executive is the branch of government responsible for the implementation of laws and policies made by the legislature The executive branch extends from the head of government to members of the enforcement agencies such as the police and the military and includes both ministers and civil servants.7

More commonly, the term is used in a narrow sense to describe the smaller body of decision-makers who take overall responsibility for the direction and coordination

 Control of policy-making: The key function of the political executive, as mentioned above, is to direct and control the policy process and policy implementation

 Popular political leadership: The popularity of the political executive, more than any other part of the political system, is crucial to the character and stability of the regime The political executive’s role is to direct and control the policy process The political executive is looked to, in particular, to develop coherent economic and social programmes that meet the needs

of more complex and politically sophisticated societies, and to control the state’s various external relationships in an increasingly interdependent world At policy level, it is the ability of the executive to mobilise support that ensures the compliance and cooperation of the general public Without support from the public, or from other key groups in society, policy implementation becomes difficult or impossible

 Bureaucratic management: The task of overseeing the implementation of policy means that the political executive has a major bureaucratic and administrative responsibility In this sense, the chief executive, ministers and secretaries make up the top management charged with running the machinery of government

 Crisis response: The biggest advantage that the political executive has over the other two arms of government is its ability to take swift and decisive action When crises break out in domestic or international politics, it is

7 Ibid., 316.

the political executive that swings into action by virtue of its hierarchical structure and the scope it provides for personal leadership It is for this reason that the assemblies8 allow political executives near-dictatorial powers in times of war, and for executives to seize emergency powers when confronted with domestic crises such as natural disasters, terrorist threats, industrial unrest and civil disorder

The third arm of government is the Judiciary that is empowered to decide legal

disputes The central function of judges is to adjudicate on the meaning of law,

in the sense that they interpret or construct law This function arises because the makers of law, i.e the legislators are very often lay people as concerns matters

of law In countries with written/codified constitutions, the function of the judges also involves the interpretation of the constitution itself and this allows judges

to arbitrate in disputes between major institutions of government or in disputes between the state and the individual

One of the chief characteristics of the judiciary in liberal democratic systems is that judges are strictly independent and non-political actors This, however, remains a very controversial and debatable issue in many countries where the involvement

of judges in matters which are political is concerned To ensure the impartiality

of court rulings9 judges, whether appointed or elected, must have job security or tenure guaranteed by law, so that they can make decisions without concern over pressure or attack by those in positions of authority

The other democratic institutions and actors include the media, civil society, political parties and, especially, a strong opposition in parliament

A free and independent media is important in a democracy as it is the mouthpiece

for reaching out to the masses As modern societies grow in size and complexity, the arena for communication and public debate has become dominated by the media The media includes radio, television, newspapers, magazines, books and, more recently, the internet and satellite television The functions of the media are:10

 Information and education: The media has a central role to play in informing and educating the citizens and in providing accurate information

to public consumers It facilitates intelligent decisions about public policy

by hosting debates and dialogues This role is especially important during election campaigns when few voters will have the opportunity to see, much less talk, with candidates in person

 Advocacy: Media audiences may benefit from various conflicting opinions,

in order to obtain a wide range of viewpoints

 Acting as watchdog over government and other powerful institutions

in society: By holding to a standard of independence and objectivity,

8 Ibid., 319.

9 U.S.Department of State, Democracy in Brief (Global Publishing Solutions), 41.

10 Ibid., 43.

however imperfectly, news media can expose the truth behind the claims

of governments and hold public officials accountable for their actions

 Setting the agenda: Because the media cannot report on everything, they must choose issues to highlight and which to ignore This way the media decides what is news and what is not These decisions in turn influence the public’s perception of what issues are most important

A political party is a group of people that is organised for the purpose of winning

government power, by electoral or other means The major functions of political parties are to:

 recruit and socialise new membership;

 nominate and campaign to elect public officials;

 draw up policy programmes for the government if they are in the majority;

 offer criticisms and alternative policies if they are in opposition;

 mobilise support for common policies among different interest groups;

 provide structure and rules for society’s political debate;

 enhance representation of the electorate;

 articulate interests as the citizens make demands to their governments;

 mobilise the citizens to participate in political and development processes

Interest groups and civil society organisations (CSOs), including governmental organisations (NGOs), are another key element in a vibrant

non-democracy A citizen11 may be a member of a number of private or voluntary organisations, including interest groups that try to influence public policy and sway public officials’ views Democracy protects the rights of ‘special interest’ groups to organise and advocate their causes NGOs attempt to serve the needs

of a community, a nation or a cause, which may be defined globally NGOs try to supplement or even challenge the work of government by advocating, educating, and mobilising attention around major public issues and monitoring the conduct of government and private enterprises NGOs may provide expertise and personnel on the ground for the implementation of government-funded projects NGOs may be politically unaffiliated or they may be based on partisan ideals and seek to advance

a particular cause or set of causes in the public interest Whatever their nature, NGOs operate under minimal political control of states

Like any aspect of culture, members of society need to be socialised into embracing democracy and its ideals Socialisation, which is the process of transmission of (democratic) values, can be achieved in two ways The first is a formal process

of learning or schooling which entails a structured learning programme through

a school curriculum which members of a given society will be required to learn Civic education,for example, can be achieved through a formal process of learning The second is through an informal process of transfer of values of democracy As democracy becomes a way of life among a given people, democratic values are passed down from one generation to another, sometimes through a non-deliberate process during the early stages of one’s socialisation Simply put, ‘democracy is a day-to-day practice where:

 human beings are regarded as equals;

 every person is respected;

 everyone’s role is understood and appreciated;

 everybody has the opportunity to be heard and understood;

 everybody has the right to participate in decision-making on matters that affect their lives;

 everybody has the right to vote on issues and elect their leaders.’12

For democratic values to be passed on to the members of a given society, formally

or informally, the political culture within a given country should be conducive to democratic ideals For example, it is difficult to expect democracy to take root in a dictatorship Even where the climate is conducive to the success of democracy, it has to become part and parcel of the people’s culture

Understanding democracy as a value also means that it will be practised at all levels and in all spheres of life It is not just limited to areas of formal political leadership but instead forms a guiding principle, even in everyday life Thus, if democracy as

a value is being understood, supported and internalised by the citizens it should be practised, for example, in families, communities, schools, at workplaces and within CSOs That way, every citizen in a democratic society is socialised into the society’s democratic norms and practices

1.7 Citizens in a Democracy

Citizen participation is paramount for the success of democracy If the making process excludes the masses, one cannot talk of a democracy For meaningful citizen participation in the politics of their country and, thus, the success of democracy, it is necessary that citizens know their roles and duties in a democracy Besides this, the task of citizens is to nurture institutions and practices that are compatible with local conditions and conducive to democratic aspirations

decision-12 U.S Department of State, Democracy is a Discussion: Civic Engagement in Old and New Democracies (A Joint Publication of

the U.S Department and Connecticut College, 1997).

In nations still labouring under the burden of authoritarian regimes, the challenge is

to expand the small arenas of liberty that exist within the interstices of oppression.13

As noted in the Human Rights Declaration and reiterated in Chapter Four of the Constitution of Uganda,14 the citizens’ rights include:

 Equality and freedom from discrimination;

 Protection of right to life;

 Protection of personal liberty;

 Respect for human dignity and protection from inhuman treatment;

 Protection from slavery, servitude and forced labour;

 Protection from deprivation of property;

 Right to privacy of person and other property;

 Protection of freedom of conscience, expression, movement, religion, assembly and association;

 Civic rights and activities;

 Right to a clean and healthy environment;

 Right of access to information;

 Right to just and fair treatment in administrative decisions

Alongside the rights are citizen responsibilities15 listed below:

 Compliance with legitimate laws and institutions This includes the protection of the constitution from unnecessary changes and abuse;

 Acceptance and respect of the rule of the majority;

 Payment of taxes by the citizen;

 Monitoring and protecting the use of public funds from abuse;

 Cooperation with local authorities such as local councils and the police;

 Exposing criminals and preventing criminal activities;

 Citizen participation in the development of their community;

13 U.S Department of State, Democracy is a Discussion: Civic Engagement in Old and New Democracies (U.S Department and

Connecticut College, 1997), 7.

14 The Constitution of the Republic of Uganda, 1995.

15 MS Uganda’s Democracy Project, Democracy Your Handbook (2005)

 Voting for responsible leadership;

 Holding leaders accountable for their plans and actions;

 Having the right information at the right time in order for one to be a meaningful participant in the decision-making process;

 Protecting, sharing and use of natural resources in a sustainable manner;

 Being tolerant to others who have different views and opinions;

 Practising democratic ideals in our homes, places of work and wherever we find ourselves

PART II – ELEMENTS

OF A DEMOCRATIC STATE AND SOCIETY

2.1 Political Pluralism

The broader definition of pluralism is a belief in or a commitment to diversity or multiplicity As a descriptive term, pluralism may be used to mean the existence

of party competition, a multiplicity of ethical values or a variety of cultural norms

In a democracy, government is only one thread in the social fabric of many varied public and private institutions, legal forums, political parties, organisations, and associations This diversity is called pluralism, and it assumes that the many organised groups in a democratic society do not depend upon government for their existence, legitimacy, or authority Most democratic societies have thousands of private organisations, some local and some national Many of these organisations serve a mediating role between individuals and society’s complex social and governmental institutions, filling roles not given to government and offering individuals opportunities to become part of their society without being in government.16

In the Ugandan context, political pluralism means, simply, that Ugandans are free to form and belong to different political parties and to hold different political ideologies The different political parties or groups are free to compete for political positions (power) at all levels, national or local In addition, the people are also free, whether as individuals or as political organisations (parties), pressure groups,

or social, cultural and economic institutions, to express their opinion on different aspects of politics and governance An individual’s or group’s opinion cannot be disregarded simply because it contradicts the view of the government or party in power; otherwise, all views have to be listened to and respected State agencies should not interfere when citizens exercise their freedoms as long as the freedoms are being exercised within the law

In local governments,17 political pluralism entails two basic aspects: first, political leaders, including local council chairpersons and councillors, may be elected on a political party ticket or as independent candidates, in which case different political parties can be represented in a local council The second aspect is that the various stakeholders – councillors, civil servants and civil society – are all involved in the decision-making process Pluralism at local level also implies considering the views

16 U.S Department of State, Democracy in Brief (Global Publishing Solutions), 8 – 9.

17 Political Pluralism, Democratic Participation and Representation at Local Government Level in Uganda, A handbook on key

concepts for civil society, media and Local Councils (Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, 2009), 18–19

of leaders must be free and fair In some societies, a referendum is used to decide

on major issues of the day In this way citizens become part of decision-making and governance

Experiences in Africa and elsewhere also show that leaders can neglect the interests

of those who elected them and concentrate instead on their own interests and those

of particular groups It is, therefore, important for the people to constantly monitor the way their leaders manage their affairs This is possible through civil associations, for example; farmers, youth, academics, women, persons with disabilities, veterans, entrepreneurs, environmentalists etc Participation in such associations is important

as they help to protect group interests and as they raise awareness about specific issues and, therefore, can be educative Furthermore, participation through such associations and groups eliminates individual isolation and strengthens the people’s position in engaging leaders for their own interests and those of the community in general.19 This becomes even more relevant when the government system expands and its organs become far removed from the people, and when a person as an individual cannot effectively question the government

A lack of people’s participation in free associations bears the risk that since it is difficult for an individual to pressurise the government into meeting people’s needs, the failure of individual efforts leads to individual despair and frustration, which may

in turn lead to withdrawal from the campaign for democracy.20

Participation can occur in different forms and degrees, in all spheres of life and at all levels in the political system

In the social sphere people are participating in community matters and issues of

daily life, for example through involvement in community projects, self-help groups

or charity initiatives Other popular examples of social participation can be found in the diversity of social groups and activities such as religious groups and churches, sports clubs, traditional and cultural activities and events etc

18 Grigsby, E., Analyzing Politics: An Introduction to Political Science (Belmont: Thomson Learning Inc 2005) , 325.

19 See REDET, The Foundations of Democracy (Department of Political Science and Public Administration, University of

Dar-es-Salaam (n.d.)), 14.

20 Ibid., 14.

Through their jobs and income-generating activities people also participate in the

economic sphere By producing, offering and purchasing goods people become

participants in the market Other examples of organised participation in the economic sphere are savings clubs and cooperatives, among others

In the political sphere people in a democratic system have opportunities to

participate through different mechanisms, from the local to the national level The most common form of political participation in a democracy is voting in elections Apart from voting for other candidates people can, of course, also become candidates themselves and run for public office Forms of political participation beyond elections include referenda and consultations by leaders (for example through community meetings) Participation, however, can also occur in alternative forms of proactive initiative by the citizens who can, for example, engage their leaders in discussions and dialogues Some of these alternative forms can be institutionalised to a certain extent; for instance people can join political parties or form certain interest and lobby groups Other forms are of a more temporary or spontaneous nature, such

as petitions, campaigns for certain projects or services and protest movements and demonstrations Through such activities existing forms of participation in the social sphere frequently acquire a political dimension The media can also provide opportunities for participation, particularly by providing platforms for publicly expressing opinions on political matters

Owing to the main challenge presented by direct democracy, i.e the difficulty of each one of us representing ourselves at various fora, indirect or representative democracy was introduced Representation is defined as the process by which political power and influence which the entire citizenry or a part of it might have upon governmental action, with their express or implied approval, is exercised on its behalf by a small number among them, with a binding effect upon the whole community thus represented.21

Similarly, a representative government is understood to stand for ‘the whole people’,

or some numerous portion of it It exercises the ultimate controlling power through deputies periodically elected by the people themselves Scholar J.S Mill argued that

‘the people must possess this ultimate power in all its completeness They must be masters, whenever they please, of all the operations of government’.22

From the above conceptualisation, five essential principles of representation in a liberal democracy stand out, namely:

21 Friedrich, C.J., Constitutional Government and Democracy: Theory and Practice in Europe and America (Massachusaetts: Blasdell Publishing Company, 1968), 278.

22 Mill, J.S., ‘Of the Proper Functions of Representative Bodies’, in H Eckstein and D Apter, (eds.), Comparative Politics: A Reader (New York: The Free Press, 1963), 104.

 The ultimate power lies with the people (the popular sovereignty principle);

 This popular power is exercised by a selected few on behalf of the many (the deputation principle);

 The deputies (or representatives) are mandated by the people through periodical elections (the popular consent principle);

 Decisions made and actions carried out by these deputies have a binding effect on the community (the governance principle); and

 As ultimate masters, the people remain the final judge of performance of the government and their deputies (the accountability principle)

But how should a representative act so as to conform to all these principles? Edmund Burke, an English philosopher and politician, argued that a representative should be guided by four things, namely constituency opinions, rational judgement, consideration of the national interest and personal convictions or conscience.23 In the modern world, most people tend to view a representative in Burkean terms: a person with discretion and inclined or expected to act in response to local, national and personal exigencies

Constitutions and subsidiary legislations in various countries, both at local and

national levels, spell out the functions of representatives There are common

known functions such as the making of laws/ordinances/by-laws, revenue-raising, and authorisation of budgets However, representatives (for example members of parliament and councillors) do a lot of other things sanctioned by convention, the expectations of voters, personal convictions and the fact that they are ‘leaders’ In

a case study of the districts of Mbarara and Gulu political leaders, activists in CSOs and media practitioners identified a number of functions for a representative that can be located at three levels – national, constituency and personal.24

National level functions include law-making; passing and amending the

constitution; approving taxes, other revenues and budgets; making or shaping public policy; controlling government actions; informing the government about constituency situations; resource allocation nationally and providing leadership nationally

Constituency-level functions include informing one’s constituents about

government actions, plans and policies; helping to settle conflicts and resolve the grievances of constituents; aggregating and articulating the interests of constituents to relevant authorities; resource allocation locally; mobilising efforts for the development of the constituency; providing leadership locally

23 Edmund, Burke, , Writings and Speeches, Vol II (Boston, 1901), 89-98.

24 The case study was conducted to tap the views of the media practitioners, CSO leaders and political leaders in local governments

as part of the preparation of this handbook during the month of February 2009.

Personal-level functions include self-advertising, credit-claiming, and

position-taking Since these personal-level functions are rarely discussed in literature, let us briefly explain them

Self-advertising has been defined as ‘any effort to disseminate one’s name among

constituents in such a fashion as to create a favourable image but in message having little or no issue content’.25 Experience, however, also indicates that self-advertising may include focus on the real issues of constituents and development Getting oneself known in the constituency and nationally requires self-advertising using methods such as:

 frequent visits to the constituency in case one resides outside it;

 speeches to home audiences;

 attending constituents’ functions and ceremonies, such as weddings and burials;

 sending condolence or congratulatory messages to constituents;

 writing newspaper columns (in newspapers published in local languages);

 participating in public debates (on radio and TV, in seminars, conferences etc.); and,

 being calculatingly vocal on selected issues of local importance

Credit-claiming has been defined as ‘acting so as to generate a belief in a

relevant political actor (or actors) that one is personally responsible for causing the government, or some unit thereof, to do something that the actor (or actors) considers desirable The emphasis here is on individual accomplishment (rather than, say, party or government accomplishment) and on the Congressman as doer (rather than as, say, expounder of constituency views)’.26

Position-taking is defined as ‘the public enunciation of a judgmental statement on

anything likely to be of interest to political actors’ The position taken may tie in with constituency interests or the party position on the issue, or personal conscience The position may be conservative (i.e clinging to one’s position of the past), or radical (i.e breaking with the past or the mainstream view).27 Position-taking in a local government council or national parliament includes fence-sitting (i.e avoiding becoming involved in decision-making or being conscious of taking a side that may affect the rating of a representative negatively) on some sensitive issues if the representative is uncertain of the consequences of his pronouncement, i.e how his/her constituents or his/her party would receive it

25 Mayhew, D., ‘Congress: the election connection’, in P Woll, American Government: Readings and Cases (1987), 469 Also for methods of getting known through self-advertising elsewhere in East Africa, see Mushi, S.S., ‘Historical and Theoretical Analysis

of Representation’, in Mukandala, R.S et al., People’s Representatives: Theory and Practice of Parliamentary Democracy in Tanzania (Kampala: REDET, 2004), 42-43.

26 Mayhew, 469.

27 Ibid., 469.