e-learning and the science of instruction proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning, third edition

Leverage social presence to encourage deeper learning;Design examples and practice exercises that help learners build new skills; Use networked collaborative facilities effectively for l

About This Book

Why is e-Learning and the Science of Instruction important?

This is a book about what works in e-learning Increasingly, organizations are turning to e-learning to save travel costs and instructional time In fact since our fi rst edition of this book, e-learning in both synchronous and asynchronous formats has risen to account for over one-third of all delivery of workforce instruction However, dollars saved are only an illusion

if the quality of the training does not pay off in improved job performance

Many books on the market offer useful advice for design and development of e-learning

But unlike these books, the guidelines we present are not based on opinion; but rather on empirical research Much of this new research is inaccessible to those producing or evaluating online learning because it has been distributed primarily within the academic research com-munity This book bridges the gap by summarizing research-based answers to questions that practitioners ask about effective e-learning

What’s new in the third edition?

The popularity of the fi rst two editions is testimony to consumer interest in evidence-based guidelines on how to best use visuals, text, audio, practice exercises, and examples in e- learning In our third edition we have updated all chapters, adding new research, guidelines, and examples You will also fi nd a new chapter on the basics of evidence-based training

To illustrate our guidelines, we have added new storyboards from an asynchronous lesson on Excel, a synchronous lesson on Excel, and an asynchronous lesson on pharmaceutical sales

As a result of the popularity of previous editions as a text, we have also added an tor guide, which is available on the publisher’s website Contact your Pfeiffer representative

instruc-to access it

What can you achieve with this book?

If you are a designer, developer, or consumer of e-learning, you can use the guidelines in this book to ensure that your courseware meets human psychological learning requirements In particular you can learn the best ways to:

Communicate your content with visuals, audio, and text;

Avoid overloading learners with extraneous media effects;

•

•

Leverage social presence to encourage deeper learning;

Design examples and practice exercises that help learners build new skills;

Use networked collaborative facilities effectively for learning;

Defi ne the best navigational schemes for your learners;

Design e-learning to help learners build problem-solving skills; andEvaluate simulations and games relevant to your instructional goals

How is this book organized?

Chapters 1 through 3 lay the foundation for the book by defi ning e-learning, describing how

the methods used in e-learning can promote or defeat learning processes, and summarizing

the basics of evidence-based practice

Chapters 4 through 10 summarize the multimedia principles developed by over

twenty-fi ve years of research by Richard Mayer at the University of California In these chapters you

will read the guidelines, the evidence, and examples of how to best use visuals, text, and

audio, as well as content segmenting and sequencing in e-learning

Chapters 11 through 15 focus on guidelines related to important instructional methods

and approaches in e-learning, including use of examples, practice and feedback, collaboration

facilities, navigation tools, and techniques to help learners build problem-solving skills

Chapter 16 updates the research and presents issues to consider in use of games and

simu-lations in e-learning

Chapter 17 integrates all of the book’s guidelines into a comprehensive checklist and

illustrates how they apply in concert to asynchronous and synchronous e-learning examples

See the Introduction for a more detailed summary of what is covered in each chapter

About Pfeiffer

Pfeiffer serves the professional development and hands-on resource needs of training and human resource practitioners and gives them products to do their jobs better We deliver proven ideas and solutions from experts in HR development and HR management, and we offer effective and customizable tools to improve workplace performance From novice to seasoned professional, Pfeiffer is the source you can trust to make yourself and your organi-zation more successful

comprehen-sive materials on topics that matter the most to training and HR professionals Our Essential Knowledge resources translate the expertise of seasoned professionals into practical, how-to guidance on critical workplace issues and problems These resources are supported by case studies, worksheets, and job aids and are frequently supplemented with CD-ROMs, websites, and other means of making the content easier to read, understand, and use

offering proven, ready-to-use materials—including exercises, activities, games, ments, and assessments—for use during a training or team-learning event These resources are frequently offered in looseleaf or CD-ROM format to facilitate copying and customization of the material

instru-Pfeiffer also recognizes the remarkable power of new technologies in expanding the reach and effectiveness of training While e-hype has often created whizbang solutions in search of

a problem, we are dedicated to bringing convenience and enhancements to proven training solutions All our e-tools comply with rigorous functionality standards The most appropriate technology wrapped around essential content yields the perfect solution for today’s on-the-

go trainers and human resource professionals

Essential resources for training and HR professionals

e -Learning

Instruction

The Instructor’s Manual for the third edition of e-Learning and the Science of

Instruction is available free online If you would like to download and print

out a copy of the manual, please visit: www.wiley.com/college/clark

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ISBN 978-0-470-87430-1 (cloth); 978-1-118-08616-2 (ebk); 978-1-118-08617-9 (ebk); 978-1-118-08621-6 (ebk)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Clark, Ruth Colvin.

E-learning and the science of instruction : proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning /

Ruth C Clark, Richard E Mayer — 3rd ed.

p cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-87430-1 (hardback)

1 Business education—Computer-assisted instruction I Mayer, Richard E., 1947- II Title III Title:

ELearning and the science of instruction

HF1106.C55 2011

658.3'12402854678–dc22

2011012858 Acquiring Editor: Matthew Davis Production Editor: Michael Kay

Marketing Manager: Brian Grimm Editor: Rebecca Taff

Director of Development: Kathleen Dolan-Davies Editorial Assistant: Michael Zelenko

Developmental Editor: Susan Rachmeler Manufacturing Supervisor: Becky Morgan

Printed in the United States of America

third edition

Printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

i x

Acknowledgments xviiIntroduction 1

1 e-Learning: Promise and Pitfalls 7What Is e-Learning? 8

Is e-Learning Better? 11The Promise of e-Learning 14The Pitfalls of e-Learning 19Inform and Perform e-Learning Goals 20e-Learning Architectures 22

What Is Effective e-Courseware? 23Learning in e-Learning 25

C O N T E N T S

How to Interpret No Effect in Experimental Comparisons 57How to Interpret Research Statistics 58

How Can You Identify Relevant Research? 61What We Don’t Know About Evidence-Based Practice 62

Rather Than Words Alone 67

Do Visuals Make a Difference? 69Multimedia Principle: Include Both Words and Graphics 70Some Ways to Use Graphics to Promote Learning 74Psychological Reasons for the Multimedia Principle 78Evidence for Using Words and Pictures 79

The Multimedia Principle Works Best for Novices 83Should You Change Static Illustrations into Animations? 84What We Don’t Know About Visuals 86

to Corresponding Graphics 91Contiguity Principle 1: Place Printed Words Near Corresponding Graphics 93

Contiguity Principle 2: Synchronize Spoken Words with Corresponding Graphics 102

Psychological Reasons for the Contiguity Principle 104

Narration Rather Than On-Screen Text 115Modality Principle: Present Words as Speech Rather Than On-Screen Text 117

Limitations to the Modality Principle 119Psychological Reasons for the Modality Principle 121Evidence for Using Spoken Rather Than Printed Text 123When the Modality Principle Applies 128

What We Don’t Know About Modality 129

in Audio OR Text: Not Both 133Redundancy Principle 1: Do Not Add On-Screen Text to Narrated Graphics 135

Psychological Reasons for the Redundancy Principle 137Evidence for Omitting Redundant On-Screen Text 139Redundancy Principle 2: Consider Adding On-Screen Text

to Narration in Special Situations 141Psychological Reasons for Exceptions to the Redundancy Principle 142Evidence for Including Redundant On-Screen Text 144

What We Don’t Know About Redundancy 146

Can Hurt Learning 151Coherence Principle 1: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Audio 153Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Audio in e-Learning 156Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Audio 157

What We Don’t Know About Coherence 172

Style and Virtual Coaches 179Personalization Principle 1: Use Conversational Rather Than Formal Style 182

Psychological Reasons for the Personalization Principle 183Evidence for Using Conversational Style 185

Promote Personalization Through Voice Quality 188Promote Personalization Through Polite Speech 189Personalization Principle 2: Use Effective On-Screen Coaches

to Promote Learning 191Personalization Principle 3: Make the Author Visible to Promote Learning 197

Psychological Reasons for Using a Visible Author 200Evidence for the Visible Author 200

What We Don’t Know About Personalization 201

Pretraining Principle: Ensure That Learners Know the Names and Characteristics of Key Concepts 212

Psychological Reasons for the Pretraining Principle 214Evidence for Providing Pretraining in Key Concepts 216What We Don’t Know About Segmenting and Pretraining 218

11 Leveraging Examples in e-Learning 223What Are Worked Examples? 224

The Psychology of Worked Examples 227Evidence for the Benefi ts of Worked Examples 227Worked Example Principle 1: Fade from Worked Examples

to Problems 229Worked Example Principle 2: Promote Self-Explanations 231Worked Example Principle 3: Include Instructional Explanations

of Worked Examples in Some Situations 234Worked Example Principle 4: Apply Multimedia Principles

to Examples 235Worked Example Principle 5: Support Learning Transfer 239Design Guidelines for Far Transfer Worked Examples 240What We Don’t Know About Worked Examples 245

12 Does Practice Make Perfect? 251What Is Practice in e-Learning? 253The Paradox of Practice 255

C o n t e n t s

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Practice Principle 1: Add Suffi cient Practice Interactions to e-Learning

to Achieve the Objective 257Practice Principle 2: Mirror the Job 262Practice Principle 3: Provide Effective Feedback 263Practice Principle 4: Distribute and Mix Practice Among Learning Events 267

Practice Principle 5: Apply Multimedia Principles 272Practice Principle 6: Transition from Examples to Practice Gradually 274

What We Don’t Know About Practice 274

13 Learning Together Virtually 279What Is Collaborative Learning? 280What Is Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)? 284

Some Generalizations About Collaboration 288CSCL Research Summaries 292

Structured Controversy 300CSCL: The Bottom Line 303What We Don’t Know About CSCL 303

14 Who’s in Control? Guidelines for e-Learning Navigation 309Learner Control Versus Program Control 311

Do Learners Make Good Instructional Decisions? 315Learner Control Principle 1: Give Experienced Learners Control 319Learner Control Principle 2: Make Important Instructional Events the Default 322

Learner Control Principle 3: Consider Adaptive Control 323Learner Control Principle 4: Give Pacing Control 327Learner Control Principle 5: Offer Navigational Support

in Hypermedia Environments 329What We Don’t Know About Learner Control 333

Thinking Skills Principle 2: Consider a Whole-Task Course Design 345

Evidence for Whole-Task Instruction 351Thinking Skills Principle 3: Make Thinking Processes Explicit 355Thinking Skills Principle 4: Defi ne Job-Specifi c Thinking

Processes 360Teaching Thinking Skills: The Bottom Line 363What We Don’t Know About Teaching Thinking Skills 364

16 Simulations and Games in e-Learning 369The Case for Simulations and Games 372What Are Simulations and Games? 374

Do Games and Simulations Teach? 378Games and Simulations Principle 1: Match Game Types

to Learning Goals 381Games and Simulations Principle 2: Make Learning Essential

to Game Progress 382Games and Simulations Principle 3: Build in Proven Instructional Strategies 382

Games and Simulations Principle 4: Build in Guidance and Structure 386

Games and Simulations Principle 5: Manage Complexity 389Games and Simulations Principle 6: Make Relevance Salient 393What We Don’t Know About Games and Simulations 394

17 Applying the Guidelines 401Applying Evidence-Based Guidelines to e-Courses 401

C o n t e n t s

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e-Lesson Reviews 404Review of Sample 1: Asynchronous e-Lesson on Excel for Small Business 409

Review of Sample 2: Synchronous e-Lesson on Excel 414Review of Sample 3: Automotive Troubleshooting Simulation 418Refl ections on Past Predictions 421

Beyond 2011 423

In Conclusion 424References 425Glossary 453List of Tables and Figures 475Name Index 487

Subject Index 493About the Authors 501Pfeiffer Publications Guide 503

x v i i

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

I N THIS THIRD EDITION, we have added new sample lessons to illustrate the application and violation of our principles We are grateful for the talents of Mark Palmer, who created the asynchronous Excel and sales storyboards

We acknowledge the many instructional researchers throughout the world whose work has contributed to this book In particular, we thank the following researchers and practitioners who gave us access to their examples and research for inclusion in this third edition:

Robert Atkinson, Arizona State UniversityDale Bambrick, Raytheon Professional ServicesLance Dublin, Dublin Consulting

A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s

x v i i i

Susanne Lajoie, McGill UniversityLloyd Rieber, University of GeorgiaDan Suthers, University of HawaiiFinally, we are grateful to support we received from the Pfeiffer team, especially to Matt Davis for editorial support

by the use of digital technology to manage and deliver instructional solutions

This book provides you with evidence-based guidelines for both self-study (asynchronous) and virtual classroom (synchronous) forms of e-learning

Here you will learn the guidelines, the evidence, and examples to shape your decisions about the design, development, and evaluation of e-learning

Audience

If you are a designer, developer, or consumer of e-learning, you can use the guidelines in this book to ensure that your courseware meets human

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psychological learning requirements Although most of our examples focus

on workforce learning, we believe instructional professionals in the tional and academic arenas can equally benefi t from our guidelines

educa-Package Components

For this third edition we have added an instructor guide that includes many resources The instructor guide is located on the Pfeiffer website Contact your Pfeiffer representative for access

Table I.1 summarizes the content of the book’s chapters We have added

a new Chapter 3, which describes the basics of evidence-based practice

We have updated the research in all of the chapters and added new board examples for a lesson on Excel as well as for a more strategic skill of consultative selling

story-Table I.1 A Preview of Chapters

•

Three approaches to research on instructional effectiveness

The features of effective experimental comparisons

An introduction to the statistical concepts

Evidence for whether learning is improved in e-lessons that include visuals

Types of visuals that best promote learningWho benefi ts most from visuals?

Static illustrations Versus animations

Evidence for the best placement of text and graphics on the screen

Evidence for sequencing of text or audio in conjunction with visuals

Situations in which the contiguity principle is most applicable as well as the psychological basis for this principle

When the modality principle is and is not applicable

as well as the psychological basis for the principle

•

•

7 Applying the Redundancy Principle: Explain Visuals with Words in Audio OR Text: Not Both

Evidence for use of audio to explain graphics rather than text and audio

Situations when adding on-screen text to narration can be helpful to learning

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8 Applying the Coherence Principle: Adding Extra Material Can Hurt Learning

Evidence for omitting distracting graphics and stories, irrelevant audio, and detailed textual explanationsEvidence for using simple rather than complex visualsEvidence for omitting extraneous words added for interest, to expand on key ideas or for technical depth

•

•

•

9 Applying the Personalization Principle:

Use Conversational Style and Virtual Coaches

Evidence for conversational style, voice quality, and polite speech to improve learning

Situations in which the personalization principle is most applicable

Evidence for best design of computer agents to promote learning

Evidence for making the author visible to the learner through the script

Lesson into Parts

Evidence for breaking a continuous lesson into size segments and allowing learners to access each segment at their own rate

bite-Evidence for sequencing key concepts in a lesson prior to the main procedure or process of that lesson

Evidence and guidelines to transition from examples

to practice assignments through fadingWays to ensure examples are processed by adding questions that promote self-explanations or by methods that promote active observationHow to design examples that support learning of strategic skills

Techniques for navigational aids in hypermedia environments

Three types of thinking skillsEvidence on the effectiveness of thinking skills training programs

Features of and evidence for whole-task instructionGuidelines for making thinking processes explicit in e-learning

An introduction to cognitive task analysis to defi ne expert thinking skills

What are simulations and games?

Evidence for effectiveness of simulations and gamesTechniques to ensure the learning effectiveness of simulations and games

C H A P T E R O U T L I N E

What Is e-Learning?

Is e-Learning Better?

The Promise of e-Learning

Promise 1: Customized TrainingPromise 2: Engagement in LearningPromise 3: Multimedia

Promise 4: Acceleration of Expertise Through Scenarios

The Pitfalls of e-Learning

Pitfall 1: Too Much of a Good ThingPitfall 2: Not Enough of a Good ThingPitfall 3: Losing Sight of the GoalPitfall 4: Discovery Learning

Inform and Perform e-Learning Goals

Near Versus Far Transfer Perform Goals

e-Learning Architectures

Interactivity in the Architectures

What Is Effective e-Courseware?

Training GoalsLearner DifferencesEnvironment

Learning in e-Learning

W H A T ’ S N E W I N T H I S C H A P T E R ?

I N THIS CHAPTER we defi ne e-learning as training delivered on a ital device such as a smart phone or a laptop computer that is designed to support individual learning or organizational performance goals Our scope includes asynchronous forms of e-learning designed for self-study as well as synchronous instructor-led e-learning Among these two forms of e-learning,

dig-we include e-courses developed primarily to provide information (that

is, inform courses) as well as those designed to build specifi c job-related skills (that is, perform courses)

In the fi ve years since we wrote the second edition of e-Learning and the

Science of Instruction, digital technology has continued to evolve rapidly Web

2.0 shatters the traditional model of unidirectional instruction by supporting online multilateral exchanges of visuals, text, and audio within and outside of the learning community Search engines such as Google, coupled with social media such as Facebook and YouTube, make learners receivers, producers, and

1

e-Learning

P R O M I S E A N D P I T F A L L S

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distributors of knowledge Technology has also become more immersive in other ways Three-dimensional worlds made popular by gaming applications offer environments in which learners assume an avatar persona and can move around and interact with objects and other participants Likewise, platforms have shrunk and diversifi ed, giving birth to a range of mobile learning devices

However, the benefi ts gained from these new technologies will depend

on the extent to which they are used in ways compatible with human tive learning processes When technophiles become so excited about cutting-edge technology that they ignore human mental limitations, they may not

cogni-be able to leverage technology in ways that support learning Instructional methods that support rather than defeat human learning processes are an essential ingredient of all effective e-learning courseware The most appropri-ate methods depend on the goals of the training (for example, to inform or

to perform); the learners’ related skills (for example, whether they are familiar with or new to the skills); and various environmental factors, including tech-nological, cultural, and pragmatic constraints

In this chapter we lay the groundwork for the book by defi ning e-learning and identifying both the potential and the pitfalls of digital training We also distinguish between inform and perform e-learning goals, introduce three e-learning design architectures and summarize key factors associated with effective courseware

What Is e-Learning?

We defi ne e-learning as instruction delivered on a digital device such as a computer or mobile device that is intended to support learning The forms

of e-learning we examine in this book have the following features:

Stores and/or transmits lessons on CD-ROM, local internal or nal memory, or servers on the Internet or intranet

exter-Includes content relevant to the learning objectiveUses media elements such as words and pictures to deliver the content

Uses instructional methods such as examples, practice, and feedback

What e-learning courses include both content (that is, information) and

instructional methods (that is, techniques) that help people learn the content

How e-learning courses are delivered via digital devices such as

comput-ers and smart phones using words in the form of spoken or printed text and pictures such as illustrations, photos, animation, or video Some forms of e-learning called asynchronous e-learning are designed for individual self-study

We show a screen shot from an asynchronous class on Excel in Figure 1.1

These courses are typically self-paced, allowing individual learners to access

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•

Figure 1.1 A Screen Capture from an Asynchronous Excel Lesson

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training at any time or any location on their own Other formats called tual classrooms, webinars, or synchronous e-learning are designed for real-time instructor-led training We show a screen shot from a virtual classroom

vir-in Figure 1.2 Synchronous e-learnvir-ing allows students from New York to New Delhi to attend an online class taught by an instructor in real time

However, synchronous sessions are also often recorded, allowing them to be viewed by a single learner in a self-paced manner Synchronous and asyn-chronous forms of e-learning may support collaboration with others through tools such as wikis, YouTube, chat, discussion boards and email

Why e-learning lessons are intended to help learners reach personal

learn-ing objectives or perform their jobs in ways that improve the bottom-line goals of the organization

In short, the “e” in e-learning refers to the “how”—the course is digitized

so it can be stored in electronic form The “learning” in e-learning refers

Figure 1.2 A Screen Capture from a Synchronous Excel Lesson

C h a p t e r 1 : e - L e a r n i n g : P r o m i s e a n d P i t f a l l s 1 1

to the “what”—the course includes content and ways to help people learn it—and the “why”—refers to the purpose: to help individuals achieve edu-cational goals or to help organizations build skills related to improved job performance

Our defi nition states that the goal of e-learning is to build job-transferable knowledge and skills linked to organizational performance or to help indi-viduals achieve personal learning goals Although the guidelines we present throughout the book also apply to lessons designed for educational or gen-eral interest learning goals, our emphasis is on instructional programs that are built or purchased for workforce learning To illustrate our guidelines

we draw on actual training courseware from colleagues who have given us permission to use their examples In addition we have built two sets of story-boards: one with a focus on basic Excel skills intended to illustrate a typical technology training course and a second with a focus on sales skills intended

to illustrate instructional techniques that apply to more strategic skills

Is e-Learning Better?

For many training goals, you may have a choice of several delivery media One of the least expensive options is a traditional hard-copy book In-person instructor-led training augmented with slides and the occasional video is another popular option Finally, e-learning in either self-study or instructor-led formats offers a third choice As you consider your delivery options you might wonder whether some media are more effective for learning purposes than others

Although technology is evolving rapidly, much of what we are seeing today under the e-learning label is not new Training delivered on a com-puter, known as computer-based training or CBT, has been around for more than forty years Early examples delivered over mainframe computers were primarily text on a screen with interspersed questions—electronic versions

of behaviorist psychologist B.F Skinner’s teaching machine The computer program evaluated answers to the multiple-choice questions and prewritten feedback was matched to the learner responses One of the main applications

of these early e-lessons was to train workers to use mainframe computer tems As technology has evolved, acquiring greater capability to deliver true

sys-e - L sys-e a r n i n g a n d t h sys-e S c i sys-e n c sys-e o f I n s t r u c t i o n

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multimedia, the courseware has become more elaborate in terms of realistic graphics, audio, color, animation, and complex simulations However, as we will see, greater media capabilities do not necessarily ensure more learning

Each new wave of instructional delivery technology (starting with fi lm

in the 1920s) spawned optimistic predictions of massive improvements in learning For example, in 1947 the U.S Army conducted one of the fi rst published media comparisons with the hypothesis that fi lm teaches better than classroom instructors (see box for details) Yet after more than sixty years of research attempting to demonstrate that the latest media are better, the outcomes fail to support the superiority of any single delivery medium over another

T H E F I R S T M E D I A C O M P A R I S O N

R E S E A R C H

In 1947 the U.S Army conducted research to demonstrate that instruction

deliv-ered by fi lm resulted in better learning outcomes than traditional classroom or

paper-based versions Three versions of a lesson on how to read a micrometer were

developed The fi lm version included a narrated demonstration of how to read the

micrometer A second version was taught in a classroom The instructor used

the same script and included a demonstration using actual equipment along with

still slide pictures A third version was a self-study paper lesson in which the text used

the same words as the fi lm, along with pictures with arrows to indicate movement

Learners were randomly assigned to a version and after the training session they

were tested to see whether they could read the micrometer Which group learned

more? There were no differences in learning among the three groups (Hall &

Cushing, 1947)

With few exceptions, hundreds of media comparison studies have shown

no differences in learning (Clark, 1994; Dillon & Gabbard, 1998) A analysis by Bernard et al (2004) integrating research studies that compared learning from electronic distance education to learning from traditional

meta-C h a p t e r 1 : e - L e a r n i n g : P r o m i s e a n d P i t f a l l s 1 3

classroom instruction yielded the achievement effect sizes shown in Figure 1.3 (See Chapter 3 for information on meta-analysis and effect sizes) As you can see, the majority of effect sizes in the bar chart are close to zero, indicating no practical differences in learning between face-to-face and electronic distance learning However, the bars at either end of the graph show that some distance learning courses were much more effective than classroom courses and vice versa A review of online learning by Tallent-Runnels, Thomas, Lan, Cooper, Ahern, Shaw, and Liu (2006) concurs:

“Overwhelming evidence has shown that learning in an online environment can be as effective as that in traditional classrooms Second, students’ learn-ing in the online environment is affected by the quality of online instruc-tion Not surprisingly, students in well-designed and well-implemented online courses learned signifi cantly more, and more effectively, than those

in online courses where teaching and learning activities were not carefully planned and where the delivery and accessibility were impeded by technol-ogy problems” (p 116)

Figure 1.3 Electronic Distance Learning Versus Face-to-Face

Instruction: Distribution of Effect Sizes

Adapted from Bernard et al., 2004.

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From the plethora of media comparison research conducted over the past sixty years, we have learned that it’s not the delivery medium, but rather the instructional methods that cause learning When the instructional methods remain essentially the same, so does the learning, no matter which medium

is used to deliver instruction Conversely, a course that includes effective instructional methods, will better support learning than a course that fails to use effective methods—no matter what delivery medium is used

Still, we don’t want to leave the impression that all media are lent Each delivery environment has its tradeoffs Books, for example, are inexpensive, self-paced, and portable but limited to text and still graphics

equiva-Classroom instructor-led training offers high social presence and nities for hands-on practice, but is instructor-paced and content invariant, requiring all learners to proceed at the same pace and review the same con-tent Computers represent one of the most fl exible media options, as they support media elements of text, graphics (still and animated) and audio

opportu-Computers offer opportunities for unique engagement with simulations or with highly immersive environments that in some cases would be impos-sible to replicate outside a digital environment In addition, computers offer opportunities to tailor learning—opportunities that are diffi cult to achieve outside of one-to-one human tutoring With Web 2.0, computers offer multi-lateral communication channels that span time and space All of these features offer promise but also harbor pitfalls when not used in ways congru-ent with human learning processes

The Promise of e-Learning

How popular is e-learning in workforce learning? The trends in delivery media for the last decade shown in Figure 1.4 reveal a steadily increasing

market share for digital learning In the fi rst edition of e-Learning and the

Science of Instruction, we reported that in the year 2001, approximately 11

percent of all training was delivered via computer (including the Internet, intranets, and CD-ROM) By the second edition, written at the end of 2006, that fi gure had risen to 29 percent As we begin the second decade of the 21st Century, e-learning accounts for 36.5 percent of delivery (ASTD State

C h a p t e r 1 : e - L e a r n i n g : P r o m i s e a n d P i t f a l l s 1 5

Figure 1.4 Percentage of Learning Hours Available Via ILT

(Instructor-Led Training) and Technology

Adapted from ASTD’s State of the Industry Report, 2010.

of the Industry Report, 2010) Driven by economic conditions that seek more cost-effective forums for training as well as by continued evolution

of computer technology, e-learning now accounts for over one-third of all workforce learning delivery

Organizations are turning to e-learning to save training time and travel costs associated with traditional face-to-face learning However, cost savings are only an illusion when e-learning does not effectively build knowledge and skills linked to desired job outcomes Will you leverage the potential of e-learning to provide relevant and cost-effective learning environments? Part of the answer depends on the quality of the instruction embedded in the e-learning products you are designing, building, or selecting today We propose that the opportu-nities to foster learning via digital instruction rely on appropriate leveraging of four unique features that we summarize in the following paragraphs

Promise 1: Customized Training

Self-study asynchronous e-learning has the potential to customize learning

to the unique needs of each learner By unique needs, we don’t mean

learn-ing styles—a myth still popular among trainlearn-ing practitioners in spite of a

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lack of evidence to support it (Clark, 2010; Pashler, Bain, Bottage, Graesser, Koedinger, McDaniel, & Metcalfe, 2007) By customized training we mean tailoring content and instructional methods based on the work roles and learn-ing needs of individuals (particularly their prior knowledge) In Chapter 14 we review adaptive e-learning in which the program customizes content and train-ing methods dynamically based on learner responses With adaptive e-learning you can save valuable staff time and ensure consistent learning by providing more practice and examples for those who need them and less for those who don’t Other than one-on-one tutoring with human mentors—an expensive option that often yields inconsistent results—no other delivery environment offers the customization options available in asynchronous e-learning

Promise 2: Engagement in Learning

Regardless of delivery media, all learning requires engagement In Figure 1.5

we show our Engagement Matrix, which includes two types of activity:

behavioral and psychological By behavioral engagement we mean any overt

Figure 1.5 The Engagement Matrix

Adapted from Stull and Mayer, 2007.

from a pull-down menu, or using text chat during a webinar By

psychologi-cal engagement, we mean cognitive processing of content in ways that lead

to acquisition of new knowledge and skills Some cognitive processes that lead to learning include paying attention to the relevant material, mentally organizing it into a coherent representation, and integrating it with relevant prior knowledge Some examples of activities in e-learning intended to prime psychological engagement include self-explaining a complex visual, summa-rizing a portion of a lesson, generating an outline or drawing based on the lesson, or taking a practice test

As you can see in Figure 1.5, the matrix crosses high and low behavioral activity against high and low psychological activity Learning occurs in the upper cells of the matrix in the zones of high psychological activity Note that high levels of behavioral activity do not necessarily correspond with high levels of psychological activity (lower right quadrant) Pressing the forward button in e-learning or playing a computer game such as PacMan involve high levels of behavioral activity but little psychological activity that leads to learning In contrast, carefully watching an animation explained with audio narration involves little or no behavioral activity but will lead to psychological activity needed for learning Our point is that high levels of behavioral activ-ity don’t necessarily translate into the type of psychological processing that supports learning Likewise, meaningful learning can occur in the absence

of behavioral responses Your goal is to use media elements and instructional methods that fall into the upper half of the matrix Throughout this book we will show evidence-based techniques to help you achieve that goal

Promise 3: Multimedia

In e-Learning, you can use a combination of text and audio, as well as still and motion visuals to communicate your content Fortunately, we have a healthy arsenal of research to guide your best use of these media elements that we discuss in Chapters 4 through 10

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Promise 4: Acceleration of Expertise Through Scenarios

Studies of experts across a wide variety of domains show that about ten years

of experience are needed to reach high levels of profi ciency (Ericcson, 2006)

In some work settings, getting that experience can take years because situations that require certain skills rarely present themselves e-Learning, however, offers opportunities to immerse learners in job-realistic environments requiring them

to solve infrequent problems or complete tasks in a matter of minutes that could take hours or days to complete in the real world For example, when troubleshooting equipment, some failures are infrequent and may require con-siderable time to resolve A computer simulation, however, can emulate those failures and give learners opportunities to resolve them in a realistic work envi-ronment such as the one in Figure 1.6 In Chapter 15 we discuss e-learning programs such as this one designed to build thinking skills

Figure 1.6 A Simulated Automotive Shop Offers Accelerated Learning

Opportunities

With permission from Raytheon Professional Services.

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The Pitfalls of e-Learning

The powerful features of e-learning are a two-edged sword with many tial traps that sabotage learning Here we summarize some of the major pitfalls that can rob your organization of a return on investment in digital learning:

poten-Pitfall 1: Too Much of a Good Thing

As we will see in Chapter 2, the human cognitive system is limited, and when it comes to instruction, less is almost always more It’s tempting to use

an eye-catching mix of animations, sounds, audio, and text to convey your content However, we have good evidence to support our advice: Don’t do it

Read Chapter 8 on the Coherence Principle to learn the details

Pitfall 2: Not Enough of a Good Thing

At the other end of the spectrum you can fi nd e-learning that, in fact, is imalist in that it fails to make use of features proven to promote learning For example, a wall-of-words approach ignores opportunities to leverage relevant visuals by providing explanations that use text and more text Alternatively, some e-learning, called “page turners,” omits interactivity other than the for-ward and back buttons These courses may present screen after screen of stunning animations but don’t provide the learners with overt opportunities

min-to process the content through practice exercises or simulations

Pitfall 3: Losing Sight of the Goal

In 2009, $126 billion were invested in workforce learning in the United States alone (ASTD State of the Industry Report, 2010) We suspect there

is little evidence of return on that investment—a safe speculation on our part because most organizations don’t invest the time or resources to assess outcomes from their training Regardless of delivery medium, any training development process must identify key skills that promote organizational goals and build training around the tasks that constitute those skills Be it games, virtual worlds, or social media, technophiles gravitate toward the latest cool trends—sometimes without considering whether and how best to leverage them in ways that support relevant learning

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Pitfall 4: Discovery Learning

Because the metaphor of the Internet is high learner control, allowing users to search, locate, and peruse thousands of Internet sites, a tempting pitfall is to create highly exploratory learning environments that give learners an unrestricted license to navigate and piece together their own unique learning experiences

One lesson we have learned from over fi fty years of research on discovery ing is that it rarely works (Mayer, 2004) Instead, as we discuss in Chapter 16,

learn-we recommend a structured form of e-learning lesson that provides guidance

Inform and Perform e-Learning Goals

As summarized in Table 1.1, the guidelines in this book apply to e-learning that is designed to inform as well as e-learning that is designed to improve specifi c job performance We classify lessons that are designed primarily to

build awareness or provide information as inform programs, also known as

briefi ngs A new employee orientation module that reviews the company history and describes the company’s organization or a product knowledge update are examples of topics that are often presented as inform programs

The information presented is job relevant, but there may be no specific expectations of new skills to be acquired The primary goal of these programs

is to transmit information

Table 1.1 Inform and Perform e-Learning Goals

information

• Company history

• New product features

skills (to promote near transfer)

• How to log on

expense report

skills (to promote far transfer)

• How to close a sale

• How to analyze a loan