This study focuses on a cross - cultural analysis of sexist language used in English and Vietnamese literary works.. This paper aims to investigate linguistic factors indicating sexism i
Rationale
Gender equality is a crucial objective for Vietnam and nations worldwide, serving as a key indicator of societal development The United Nations defines gender equality as the equal enjoyment of human rights and opportunities for both women and men, enabling them to contribute to the political, economic, social, and cultural advancements of developing countries Despite this, gender inequality persists in various forms, including linguistic sexism.
Sexism manifests in various forms, with economic issues like equal pay being the most recognized However, the role of language in perpetuating sexist values is often overlooked, as linguistic sexism is more subtle and deeply ingrained While progress has been made in achieving gender equality in politics and the economy, the fight against sexism in language remains less effective and receives minimal attention Most people advocate for fairness in the workplace but are largely unaware of the need for gender-neutral language Additionally, literary works, which serve as educational and inspirational resources, are not immune to this issue, reflecting the sexism prevalent in past societies This study aims to explore the use of sexist language in English and Vietnamese literature and contribute to the reduction of sexism in both language and literary works.
Aims and objectives
This study investigates linguistic factors that indicate sexism in English and Vietnamese literary works, aiming to elucidate the role of language in promoting gender equality The findings will provide Vietnamese learners of English and writers with suggestions to reduce and ideally minimize sexism in their language and mindset To achieve this aim, the study outlines specific objectives that guide the research process.
- To find out the characteristics of sexism in some English and Vietnamese literary works
- To compare and contrast sexism on certain fields in English and Vietnamese languages
- To draw implications of the thesis for English learners and writers in Vietnamese of writing without showing sexism.
Scope of the study
This study investigates gender-biased language in English and Vietnamese literary works from medieval to contemporary periods By examining specific instances from selected classical texts, the research highlights how gender bias manifests in literature The chosen materials span various historical periods, including Shakespeare's Complete Works, the Iliad, The Canterbury Tales, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Truyện Kiều, and traditional Vietnamese proverbs for the medieval era For modern literature, the study includes works by Ernest Hemingway, Huckleberry Finn, The Wind in the Willows, The Giver, as well as short story collections by Nam Cao, Vũ Trọng Phụng, and Nguyễn Minh Châu.
Research questions
In order to achieve the objectives, the following research questions are raised for exploration:
1 What are the characteristics of sexism in English and Vietnamese literary works?
2 What are the similarities and differences between cultural factors of sexism in English and Vietnamese literary works?
3 How to clarify the hidden message(s) conveyed via the sexism at word and phrase levels in these books?
Research orientation
The study aims to identify characteristics of sexism in English and Vietnamese literary works, offering suggestions for Vietnamese writers and English learners to avoid sexist language To achieve this, both quantitative and qualitative methods are employed to analyze and compare key features Additionally, descriptive and comparative analysis methods are utilized to detail the characteristics of sexism and highlight similarities and differences from a contrastive analysis perspective.
This study analyzes 10 English and 9 Vietnamese literary works in PDF format, focusing on expressions of sexism These primary data sources are complemented by secondary materials, including books, theses, and journal articles sourced from the internet, which provide additional insights into the topic of sexism.
This study employs data analysis techniques to examine and compare the expressions of sexism in Vietnamese and English literature By researching and selecting relevant facts and examples from books and M.A theses, the analysis highlights both the similarities and differences in how sexism is portrayed across these two languages.
Research methods
This article examines the characteristics of linguistic sexism in both English and Vietnamese literature, highlighting their similarities and differences To achieve this analysis, various methods are employed.
This study employs descriptive and comparative analysis methods, utilizing both quantitative and qualitative approaches The qualitative method focuses on describing and interpreting the key features of sexism in English and Vietnamese from a cross-cultural perspective, while the quantitative method examines the characteristics of sexist language in literature from both languages Through comparative analysis and descriptive methods, the research analyzes the collected data to identify the similarities and differences in sexism within English and Vietnamese literature.
To achieve the study's aims and objectives effectively, the selection of materials is crucial The author has chosen examples from M.A theses and online journals to explore the similarities and differences in sexist language within Vietnamese and English literary works.
Structure of the Thesis
The thesis will consist of 4 chapters as follow:
Chapter 1: Introduction will be the first chapter of the study In this chapter, readers will be provided an overview about what is the purpose of this study, what to expect from reading it and what value can it brings to their personal experience Additionally, the Methodology providing strategies of collecting data, materials and examples will also be included
Chapter 2: Literature review and Theoretical background will briefly mention and review the related materials associating with the objective of the study
Chapter 3: Sexist language in English and Vietnamese will further explain the materials mentioned along with some critical analysis o n what are the main differences and similarity of sexism in the literature of both languages Furthermore, the study will also offer implications for Vietnamese writers in avoiding using sexist languages
Chapter 4: Conclusion will provide a summary to the whole study and what are the limitations when conducting it Some suggestion might appear for future references and improvement.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Review of previous studies
2.1.1 Studies of sexism in the world
Language serves not only as a tool for communication but also as a vital means of fostering social relationships within speech communities An example of this is sex-based linguistic variation, which highlights the significant role of gender in sociolinguistics Certain language forms are deemed appropriate for men or women, and these distinctions can depend on both the speaker's and listener's genders Fasold (1990) notes that sex-linked linguistic variation refers to the differing use of status-marking forms based on sex The exploration of the connection between sex and language gained momentum in 1975 with influential publications such as Male/Female Language by M R Key and Language and Women’s Place by R Lakoff Since then, sociolinguists have shown increasing interest in how language reflects gender differences, particularly in the presence of gender-specific linguistic forms Additionally, the study of sexism in educational materials, particularly ESL/EFL textbooks, has been ongoing since the 1970s, with significant works like Hartman and Judd’s (1978) Sexism and TESOL Materials contributing to this discourse.
Hellinger (1980) discusses the presence of sexism in English language textbooks used in German schools in "For Men Must Work, Women Must Weep," while Porreca (1984) examines sexism in contemporary ESL textbooks Additionally, Hartman and Judd's 1978 review highlights various instances of gender bias in several current educational materials.
TESOL textbooks analyze three aspects of sexism: the portrayal of women and men, the sequence of gender mention, and the stereotypical roles assigned to each gender The findings indicate that sexist language is inherently embedded in our communication.
(English), it is little wonder that textbooks, including ESL texts, model this usage to the students‘ (p.390)
Research indicates that English Language Teaching (ELT) materials often reflect sexist attitudes, reinforcing the subordinate status of women, which could be easily addressed Hellinger (1980) conducted a study analyzing 131 passages from three ELT textbooks in German schools, revealing that men were featured in over 93% of the passages, while women appeared in only about 30%.
Research indicates that 80% of speakers in various contexts are male, with women rarely participating in demanding or successful activities, while men engage in a broader range of roles Porreca (1984) conducted a content analysis of 15 ESL textbooks to explore the manifestation of sexism, focusing on the representation of genders in texts and illustrations, the ratio of male to female nouns, and the use of masculine generic constructions Her findings revealed that sexism persists in ESL textbooks, with females, despite making up over half of the U.S population, being represented only half as often as males In addition to Porreca's significant work, other studies on sexism in teaching and learning materials also warrant attention.
Coles (1977) found that in a study of 150 popular adult basic education stories, men were represented three times more than women Similarly, Britton and Lumpkin (1977) analyzed textbooks in reading, literature, and social studies from before and after 1970 to assess the impact of guidelines aimed at reducing sexism Their findings revealed a disappointing increase of only 2% in the portrayal of females as major characters, rising to just 16% in the newer textbooks.
Hoomes (1978) examined 28 high school literature anthologies for grades 9 to 12, revealing a significant gender disparity with a ratio of female to male characters at 1:3.5 Additionally, the study found that the mean ratio of professions available to female characters compared to male characters was 1:5 in texts and 1:7 in illustrations.
In the 1990s, research by Peterson & Kroner (1992) revealed significant gender biases in psychology and human development textbooks, with male representation in work, theory, and behavior far surpassing that of females, who were often depicted negatively Similarly, Poulou (1997) examined the discourse roles of men and women in Greek language textbooks for adults, highlighting that sexist differences adversely impacted the pedagogical value and objectives of the dialogues presented.
In the early 21st century, Sydney (2004) examined gender role stereotyping in 40 primary school textbooks in Tanzania, revealing a significant underrepresentation of female characters compared to males Similarly, Bahiyah et al (2008) highlighted that Malaysian textbooks shaped children's understanding of societal relationships, allowing linguistic sexism and gender role stereotypes to influence students' perceptions and behaviors in their daily lives.
The research conducted by Otlowski (2003) highlights the significance of selecting Japanese textbooks for EFL students, particularly regarding gender representation within the culture It reveals that women are often depicted in stereotypical roles as mothers and homemakers Similarly, Mineshima (2008) analyzed gender portrayals in an EFL textbook, focusing on sexism through the lens of the number of female versus male characters, their utterances, and their prominence The findings indicated that females were significantly under-represented and confined to traditional stereotypes, while males were portrayed as cooperative and optional These studies underscore a persistent trend of sexism in language, revealing that females are frequently less visible than males in educational materials, indicating a systemic bias against women.
2.1.2 Studies of sexism in Vietnam
Since the 1990s, researchers in Vietnam have explored the connection between language and gender Notably, Binh (2000) examined gender differences in children's language, while Dung (2002) highlighted the politeness exhibited by females in communication.
Khang (2000) highlights that language reflects sex discrimination through various categories, including the prevalence of male-centric terms that signify male dominance, the preference for masculine pronouns such as he/his over feminine ones like she/her, the use of gendered titles like Mr., Mrs., and Miss, and the stereotypical attitudes conveyed in phrases such as unwed mother and unwed father.
Diep (2002) is recognized as the first Vietnamese linguist to systematically study sexism in language, highlighting that bias exists against both genders, though his focus is primarily on the discrimination faced by women His research identifies several categories of linguistic sexism, including the relationship between grammatical gender and biological sex, where male pronouns often encompass both sexes He also discusses the markedness of sex in language, noting that female job titles frequently derive from male counterparts, such as "actress" from "actor." Additionally, he points out the imbalance in meanings associated with words for men and women, exemplified by the differing connotations of "professional." Diep addresses sexism in naming conventions, illustrating the evolution from "Mrs." and "Miss" to the more neutral "Ms." Furthermore, he examines stereotypes in language, particularly in phrases that reinforce traditional roles for women Despite the global interest in this topic, Diep's study reveals a lack of extensive research on sexism in language within Vietnam, motivating further investigation into this significant sociolinguistic issue.
Research has shown that scholars worldwide have focused significantly on the issue of sexism in language However, previous studies primarily address sexism in a broad context This study aims to enhance the existing literature by specifically examining sexist language in literary works.
Review of theoretical background
There are multiple definitions of sexism Collins Cobuild English Dictionary
Sexism, as defined in 1995, is the belief that one sex, typically women, is less intelligent or capable than the other and does not deserve equal treatment Emerging in the mid-twentieth century, sex discrimination reflects the attitude that one gender is inferior and less valuable, often highlighting male dominance over females The feminist movement, which encompasses various forms of activism, is central to the ongoing fight against sexism, advocating for equality not just for women but for all genders.
Sexist language, also known as sex-exclusive or gender-biased language, reflects male bias in communication For instance, the phrase "Every cook praises his own broth" uses "his" to imply inclusivity, suggesting that men represent women as well This highlights the need for more gender-neutral language to avoid reinforcing stereotypes.
Sexism in language, as defined by Miller & Swift (1972), refers to expressions that convey attitudes and expectations related to gender, highlighting the inherent dominance of one gender over another.
The definitions highlight a common theme: sexism in language is evident in how men and women are portrayed These expressions often reflect a greater value placed on one gender while diminishing the other.
Sexism is defined as discrimination against individuals based on their sex, as explained by Wardhaugh (1986), and is characterized by the belief that one sex is superior to the other, according to the Oxford English Dictionary (1989) This results in unfair treatment, particularly of women by men, and reinforces traditional gender role stereotypes Ultimately, sexism reflects an overestimation of one sex and an underestimation of the other, conveying the notion that one gender holds superiority over the other.
Understanding the essence of sexism will help the author as well as readers grasp the characteristics of sexist language in general as well as in the field of literature
2.2.2 Gender, gender marking and gender system in languages :
Gender is a grammatical category that classifies nouns into different groups, influencing their behavior in relation to other parts of speech While not universally present in all languages, many languages exhibit this category Corbett (1991) explored gender attribution and marking across over 200 languages, noting that most language families have gender systems, with notable exceptions in certain major Asian language families.
The term "gender," often associated with grammatical categories, is derived from the Latin word "genus" and is not commonly used in everyday language or specialized texts Various languages feature systems of gender classification, ranging from two to over twenty genders and subgenders, each with distinct labels While many languages utilize familiar labels like masculine, feminine, and neutral, others employ unique classifications such as animal, nonanimal, strong, weak, human, and nonhuman Additionally, some languages, like Dyirbal, use numerical designations for genders instead of traditional labels.
Corbett (1991: 1) distinguishes two types of gender systems which are grammatical gender system and notional gender system
The grammatical system can be subdivided into the morphological system and phonological system
The notional system is based on in the semantic-based gender attribution system of nouns system Such systems are also called natural systems
2.2.3 The arbitrariness of grammatical gender system, especially g ender- identifying systems:
Many researchers argue that masculine is often perceived as the "dominant" or more "valuable" gender compared to feminine In languages that categorize gender into masculine, feminine, and neuter, masculine typically influences the response model for inclusive nouns, representing both genders through agent nouns for males and females.
In this aspect, English and Vietnamese are similar in that they both belong to a type of language that possess a natural gender system or a notional gender system
In this case, sexism is expressed in the use of masculine pronouns to replace common nouns of gender in inclusive contexts
In English, there are speech patterns as follows:
The teacher is responsible for his students
The term "teacher" is gender-neutral, encompassing both male and female educators; however, its possessive form defaults to the masculine pronoun "his" instead of the feminine "her."
If a friend wishes to become a member, please ask him to write for information
The term "friend" serves as a gender-neutral descriptor, yet its associated personal pronoun is "him," reflecting a masculine bias This trend extends to other marked nouns, where masculine forms like "actor" are frequently employed as inclusive terms, overshadowing their female counterparts such as "actress."
In the Vietnamese education sector, the term "thầy" serves as both an honorific title and a personal pronoun While the phrase "thầy cô giáo" is commonly used to refer to educators, the relationship between teachers and students is often expressed with the term "thầy-trò," which does not include "cô-trò." Consequently, "thầy" has evolved to encompass both male and female teachers, transforming the originally masculine term "teacher" into a gender-inclusive noun.
While translating documents and learning materials from foreign languages to Vietnamese, it is also difficult to avoid using the second personal pronouns "anh"
A pronoun that encompasses both men and women is essential in language As Nguyen Lai (1997: 62) stated, "When it appears, that language belongs to both me and you; it is for me and for you as well."
Many authors argue that the English language predominantly reflects a male perspective, with terms like "doctor" often perceived as masculine, while female-specific words are limited to certain roles such as "mother" or "nurse" (Miller and Swift, 1972) This bias in language usage suggests that both English and the culture it embodies tend to favor males Although there is a female morpheme, such as "woman," the absence of terms like "fisherwoman" in favor of "fisherman" highlights the male-centric structure of the language.
In Vietnamese, the phenomenon of lexical void resembles that of other languages, though the expression differs For instance, terms like "bác sĩ" (doctor) and "kỹ sư" (engineer) are often perceived as more masculine than feminine by most Vietnamese speakers.
Numerous linguists have sought to identify the origins of lexical voids, leading to various interpretations These interpretations can be broadly categorized into two primary groups: linguistic explanations and sociological explanations.
Summary
This chapter highlights the extensive research on sexism in language conducted in American, European, and some Asian countries, while noting the scarcity of studies in Vietnam Linguistic sexism manifests in various forms across different fields, with language textbooks being the most frequently analyzed materials Various methodologies, including content analysis, critical discourse analysis, and corpus-based approaches, have been employed to study linguistic sexism, with content analysis being the most preferred method The following chapter will provide a detailed examination of the research methodology used in this study.
SEXIST LANGUAGE IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMES LITERARY WORKS
Sexist characteristics in English literary works
Sexism is prevalent in both Eastern and Western cultures, with Eastern societies often displaying overt patriarchal characteristics, while Western literature has historically expressed contempt towards women Additionally, men have also been subjected to toxic language in traditional societies.
In this part, the study presents and discusses the two main characteristics of sexist language against women in English literature, which are gender imbalance and stereotypes against women
3.1.1.1 Gender imbalance in English literature
Sexism in language is evident in the imbalance between terms used for females and those used for males, a phenomenon observed in various languages, including both European and Asian tongues Research by scholars like Hellinger (1985) and Corbett highlights this disparity.
(1991), Hjelmslev (1956), Lyons (1969), Herbert&Nykiel-Herbert (1986), this imbalance is shown in pairs of opposites of different meanings:
- Women are associated with sex >< Man associated with talent
- Women are associated with negative associations >< Men are associated with positive associations
The following is a review of the semantic imbalance in the aforementioned pair of opposites: i) Women are associated with sex >< Man associated with talent
In American English, many word pairs reflect gender distinctions, where the feminine term often carries a sexual connotation, while the masculine counterpart maintains a serious, professional tone For instance, "callboy" refers to a stagehand who cues actors, whereas "callgirl" denotes a prostitute Similarly, "Sir" conveys respect, while "Madam" can imply the owner of a prostitution ring Additionally, "old master" signifies a talented painter, in contrast to "old mistress," which refers to a former lover This pattern highlights the negative associations often linked to women compared to the positive associations typically associated with men.
The distinction in meaning between male and female expressions is evident in gender-specific word pairs For instance, "bachelor" refers to an unmarried man, while "spinster" or "old maid" denotes an unmarried woman, highlighting not just gender differences but also varying connotations The term "bachelor" carries a positive association, prompting women to seek alternatives like "bachelor-girl" or "bachelorette" to avoid the negative implications tied to "spinster" or "old maid."
Another pair of words with similar meaning in English are patron and matron
In Medieval English, "patron" signifies father, while "matron" denotes mother The term "patron" carries high prestige, evident in phrases like "patron of the arts" or "patron saint." In contrast, "matron" is often associated with roles such as female prison guards or public toilet managers To counter the negative connotation of "matron," women sought to adopt "patroness," a feminine form of "patron," reflecting a more positive identity.
1, b) Instances of the word matron)
The term "shrew," which refers to a type of mouse, also denotes a sour woman in English In contrast, "shrewd," a cognate of "shrew," describes a smart and skillful individual, particularly when referring to men, as exemplified in Shakespeare's "The Taming of the Shrew."
There are the word pair wizard and witch Both words mean "magic users"
The term "wizard" refers to a masculine figure embodying skill, intelligence, and magic, whereas "witch" denotes a feminine figure associated with miracles and dark intentions In a patriarchal society, women were often viewed as property, lacking individual identity and autonomy.
Shakespeare's *The Taming of the Shrew* exemplifies the theme of misogyny and patriarchy, particularly through the portrayal of female characters like Bianca and Katherina The choice to leave Hortensio's 'Widow' unnamed highlights her lack of individuality, as her identity is solely defined by her husband's death, reflecting the control men exert over women This illustrates the societal views of the late 16th century, where women were repressed by male-dominated structures and regarded as subservient, while men held superior power.
In Shakespeare's portrayal, Hortensio's swift shift from Bianca to the "wealthy widow" after declaring he will "never woo her more" highlights the dismissive attitudes men held towards women during that era This behavior exemplifies societal norms, as Hortensio's initial infatuation with Bianca, a character embodying the 'Ingénue' archetype—beautiful, gentle, and virginal—quickly fades when he perceives her as a "proud disdainful haggard."
―forswears her as one unworthy of all the former favors that I have fondly flattered her withal‖ (pg.2937) By using fricative alliteration, Shakespeare makes
Hortensio's anger and disgust towards Bianca's actions reveal his desire for her obedience and submission, highlighting the societal judgment of women based on their appearances Shakespeare initially presents Bianca as a chaste and modest young girl, making her more desirable Hortensio's demand for "kindness of women" reflects a male chauvinist attitude prevalent in the Elizabethan era, emphasizing the expectation that women should provide "love, fair looks, and true obedience" to their husbands, akin to the duty a subject owes to a prince.
In Act 5 Scene 2, the widow asserts her independence by refusing to respond to her husband's summons, stating, "you have some goodly jest in hand" (pg 2961) This moment highlights her dominance in the relationship, symbolizing her control over her marriage to Hortensio Petruchio's remarks further reinforce this dynamic, illustrating the shifting power balance within their interactions.
In "The Taming of the Shrew," Shakespeare portrays the widow as a strong character, challenging the earlier perception of her as weak and dominated by men This oxymoronic depiction suggests that Shakespeare aimed to critique society's imprudent treatment of women rather than promote misogyny Bill Alexander notes that the play highlights the transformative power of theatre, encouraging audiences to reflect on their own views and behaviors towards women Consequently, the themes in "The Taming of the Shrew" remain relevant across different time periods, transcending the historical context of women's subordination.
Shakespeare's inclusion of the Induction in "The Taming of the Shrew" raises questions about the theme of misogyny, as it presents the Katherina and Petruchio plot in a farcical, unrealistic light, suggesting that the audience should not take the themes of 'Female Submission' literally However, the Induction's inconsistency throughout the play may lead audiences to interpret the misogynistic and patriarchal elements concerning Bianca and Katherina more seriously than intended Shakespeare critiques the societal attitudes of his time by mocking the expectations and traditions of the Elizabethan period, showcasing a progressive view of women through his female protagonists, who often appear as the dominant gender While some characters reflect contemporary mindsets, Shakespeare's portrayal of women indicates a more advanced perspective, differing significantly from the prevailing views of his era.
There are other examples (Appendix 1, d) Women‘s existence being denied or considered goods in old English society) such as Catherine Barkley in Hemingway‘s
In "A Farewell to Arm," the character's self-effacement is subtle, reminiscent of Dido from Virgil's Aeneid, who tragically takes her own life on a makeshift funeral pyre after Aeneas abandons her This act symbolizes her descent from a powerful Queen of Carthage to a distraught ex-girlfriend, driven by the capriciousness of the gods.
In literary works such as Daniel Defoe's *Robinson Crusoe*, women are portrayed as gifts for men in a colonized setting, while in Homer's *Iliad*, they are treated as prizes and property, with Achilles being the sole voice of discontent Additionally, Saul Bellow's *Herzog* starkly illustrates the theme of women as mere possessions of men, highlighting the pervasive issue of sexism in literature.
3.1.1.2 Stereotypes regarding women in English literature
Sexist characteristics in Vietnamese literary works
As Vietnam is an Eastern nation, the influence of feudal patriarchal society o n our culture was overwhelming Sexist language was clearly expressed in Vietnamese literature, against both men and women
This study examines the portrayal of sexism against women in Vietnamese literature, highlighting key aspects such as the objectification of women, negative stereotypes, discriminatory naming practices, biased forms of address, and the cultural significance of virginity.
The "Tale of Kieu" stands as an enduring masterpiece that highlights the severe discrimination of the feudal era It tells the story of Thuy Kieu, a woman of exceptional talent and beauty, who deserves societal recognition and respect However, she ultimately becomes a mere commodity, traded between sellers and buyers, reflecting the harsh realities of her time.
―Cò kè bớt một thêm hai
Giờ lâu ngã giá vàng ngoài bốn trăm‖
The term "Cò kè" translates to "bargain" in English, highlighting how human dignity has become a commodity in society Despite this, the female protagonist endures her circumstances, fully aware of her position within a corrupt social structure Nguyen Du poignantly illustrates the injustices, discrimination, and dependence faced by women in the past, echoing the sentiment of "đau đớn thay phận đàn bà" through his powerful verses.
― Cành hoa đem bán vào thuyền lái buôn‖
―Cành hoa‖ – a flower branch, is a metaphor depicting Thúy Kiều, as she was sold to human traffickers with a dirt cheap price
―Sính nghi rẻ giá, nghi hôn sẵn sàng‖
―Sính nghi rẻ giá‖ originally means a low wedding fee, but in this instance, it is used to depict the way Mã Giám Sinh bought Kiều for a cheap price
The Vietnamese feudal ruling class employed Confucian philosophy to emotionally and spiritually bind individuals, particularly affecting young people during a time when love was earnest yet constrained by arbitrary feudal discipline Marriages and family decisions were solely in the hands of parents, leaving women with little freedom under the oppressive rules of "three obediences and four virtues." This is exemplified in the story "The Moral Wife in Khoai Chau," where the male character Trọng Qùy gambles away his wife Nhị Khanh to a wealthy merchant, illustrating the harsh realities faced by women in a patriarchal society.
In certain situations, a husband may sell his wife due to a lack of resources, highlighting the perception of women as property This notion is further illustrated in Vietnamese literature, where women are often viewed as possessions rather than individuals For more details, refer to Appendix 2, Table 6, and Appendix 3, section a.
In traditional feudal societies, a woman's identity was often tied to her husband's name, reflecting a system where she was considered to belong to him Upon marriage, women typically adopted their husband's last name and were referred to by his title, signifying their subordinate status Additionally, children were expected to inherit their father's surname, as illustrated in the literary work Truyện Kiều.
Mothers give birth to the physical body, while men are seen as the creators of humanity In Vietnamese culture, when a woman named Liên marries a man named Nguyên, she adopts her husband's name, becoming Mrs Nguyên.
During that era, women faced significant deprivation of fundamental human rights, constrained by the oppressive laws of feudalism and antiquated societal views Lacking a voice, they were entirely dependent on their husbands, even in life-threatening situations.
In the novel "The Story of a Woman in Nam Xương," Vũ Thị Thiết ultimately sacrifices her life due to the oppressive and patriarchal nature of her husband.
Before leaping into the river, she cleansed herself at the Hoàng Giang wharf, asserting her innocence and loyalty to her husband before the heavens This act stemmed from a feudal society that silenced her voice and denied her the opportunity to demonstrate her virtue The character Truong Sinh symbolizes the oppressive patriarchal system that leaves individuals feeling trapped Similarly, in "Tales of Kieu," the corrupt feudal system is depicted as forcing women into sacrifices with no alternatives.
Giận duyên tủi phận bời
Cầm dao nàng đã toan bài quyên sinh [3]
The passive role of women in ancient society is evident in various literary works and proverbs from that era, highlighting the lack of gender equality This reflects the unfair disadvantages and stigmatization that women faced in a society where their status was significantly marginalized.
3.2.1.2 Women were associated with sex – men were associated with talent
The cultural mindset during the feudal-patriarchal period emphasized that sons were expected to pursue careers for fame, prioritizing their professional achievements In contrast, daughters were primarily valued for their roles within the family, with their husbands and children taking precedence over personal ambitions This perspective is reflected in everyday speech, folk songs, and proverbs.
This folk song stated that being a male, the highest priority is his career, marrying or having children are just secondary goals (Appendix 3b, ―làm trai chí ở cho bền‖)
Vietnamese medieval literature also clearly illustrated the aforementioned attitude: (Appendix 3b, ―sứ mệnh cần lao, tang bồng khí khái)
“Tang bồng‖ is short for ―tang bồng hồ thỉ‖, which “tang” means
In ancient Chinese customs, the term "tang bồng" refers to a bow made from mulberry wood, while "hồ thỉ" signifies an arrow crafted from artemisia grass When a boy is born, his family traditionally fires this bow six times—four shots in each direction, one towards the sky, and one towards the earth This ritual symbolizes the hope that the boy will grow up to "shoulder the nation," embodying strength and responsibility Consequently, "tang bồng" is often featured in phrases like "Chí tang bồng," "nợ tang bồng," and "tang bồng khí khái," reflecting noble aspirations associated with boys In contrast, girls are often likened to "Bèo bọt chút thân," or water-fern, suggesting a fate of wandering and insignificance.
Traditionally, men are seen as scholars focused on education and examinations, while women are often relegated to domestic roles, waiting for marriage This perspective reflects a societal expectation where men pursue academic achievements, and women aspire to support their husbands, highlighting the gender disparity in career opportunities and aspirations.
Or ―Chàng thì đi cõi xưa mưa gió,
Thiếp thì về buồng cũ chiếu chăn‖ [8]
Historically, women have been viewed primarily as caregivers responsible for household duties, while men have been celebrated for their talents This societal perspective often reduces women's roles to domestic responsibilities, contrasting sharply with the recognition of men's abilities.
(The woman here came from a poor family, married with a rich man, she had not been able to enjoy marriage life for long before the war came‖ (Appendix 3b,