General Introduction
Forests are vital for life and livelihoods, serving as habitats for diverse flora and fauna They offer both tangible benefits, such as timber and fuel wood, and intangible services that maintain ecological balance Additionally, forests play a crucial role in combating climate change, conserving biodiversity, and creating various economic opportunities Their significance can be understood from multiple perspectives, highlighting their essential contribution to humanity.
Forests are vital ecosystems that support millions of communities, providing essential benefits to society According to the FAO (2010), they offer employment and livelihoods, especially in developing countries, with approximately 350 million people relying on forests for subsistence and income This includes an estimated 60 to 200 million indigenous individuals who depend entirely on forests for their survival (FAO, 2012) The UNDP (1998) highlights that nearly one-third of the global population, predominantly the poor, relies on natural resources for their sustenance As a result, the degradation of forests poses a significant threat to these vulnerable populations, directly impacting the quality and availability of other natural resources such as soil, water, air, and biodiversity.
Forest management has evolved from focusing solely on wood production to adopting an ecosystem approach that integrates the generation of multiple outputs in decision-making processes.
Effective forestry management requires an understanding of the current and future interests of various stakeholders and beneficiaries Turner (1998) emphasizes that successful forestry thrives under specific management and planning regulations that balance public and private interests This balance is crucial for integrating forestry with other land uses, such as agriculture, grazing, wilderness preservation, water collection, transportation, housing, mineral extraction, recreation, and nature conservation.
Background of the Study
Approximately one-third of the Earth's original forests have been lost, with two-thirds of the remaining forests significantly altered (UNDP 1998) The rapid population and economic growth in developing nations are driving increased exploitation of forest resources, resulting in unsustainable forest management The challenges of deforestation and degradation predominantly affect tropical and subtropical forest regions.
Between 1990 and 2005, Africa and South America experienced the most significant forest losses, while Asia saw a slight increase in forest area due to extensive afforestation efforts in China and, to a lesser extent, India Despite this, countries like Indonesia and Myanmar faced considerable deforestation, with losses of 20.3% and 19.0%, respectively Rapid deforestation was particularly evident in nations with relatively abundant forest cover and resources.
Between 1990 and 2015, Southeast Asia experienced significant forest area depletion, with some countries expanding their forested regions, according to FAO (2016) In the FAO's deforestation analysis, Myanmar ranked third, following Brazil and Indonesia, which held the first and second positions, respectively.
Figure 1 1: Annual change in forest area (2010-2015) (FAO 2016)
Table 1.1: Top Ten Countries for the Greatest Annual Net Loss of Forest Area,
Country Annual forest area net loss
8 Democratic Republic of the Congo 311 0.2
Figure 1 2: Forested area in 2015 and forest changes over 1990-2015 in Asia (FAO
Myanmar Forest Types and Situation
Myanmar boasts a wealth of both renewable and non-renewable natural resources, alongside a remarkable level of biodiversity Approximately 43% of the nation's land remains forested, as reported by the FAO in 2015 The country's diverse elevation, topography, rainfall, soil, and temperature contribute to the presence of seven distinct forest types, encompassing a total area of 29,041,000 hectares Among these, mixed deciduous forests are the most prevalent, while mangrove forests occupy the smallest area.
As of 2009, Myanmar's permanent forest estate (PFE) covers 28.06% of the country's total land area, which includes reserved forests (18.23%), protected public forests (5.89%), and protected areas (3.9%) (Forest Department, 2016).
Figure 1 3: Major Forest Types in Myanmar (Forest Department,2016)
In Myanmar, approximately two-thirds of the population relies on agriculture, forestry, and fishery for their livelihoods, with local communities heavily dependent on forests and non-timber forest products However, the country's forest cover has significantly declined due to factors such as over-exploitation, shifting cultivation, excessive fuel-wood and charcoal harvesting, over-grazing, forest fires, agricultural expansion, mining, infrastructure development, and urbanization Between 1990 and 2015, forest cover decreased from 58% to a projected 43%, highlighting the urgent need for sustainable management practices.
Figure 1 4: Forest Cover Change in Myanmar, 1990-2015 (FAO 2015)
Table 1.2: Forest Cover Change in Myanmar
Other land 7,039 11,184 12,526 13,869 21,634 Inland water bodies 1,903 1,903 1,903 1,903 1,903
Myanmar's forests are currently not managed sustainably, highlighting the need for significant improvements in forestry practices Addressing these forestry issues requires a comprehensive approach that considers both biological and human interactions This research emphasizes the importance of involving local communities, both within and outside reserved forests, in the exploitation and management of forest resources to promote sustainable forest management in Myanmar.
Rationale
Sustaining natural forest resources is essential as they fulfill many basic needs, including shelter, fuel-wood, medicinal plants, erosion control, scenic protection, and contributions to global warming mitigation and foreign exchange earnings Myanmar, which has approximately 29 million hectares of state-owned forest, faces an annual deforestation rate of about 845 square miles, representing 0.68% of its total forest area In contrast, the annual forest restoration through plantation establishment only addresses 14.79% of the deforestation rate.
The increasing population in Myanmar has led to a demand for fuel-wood and other forest products that surpasses the natural forests' carrying capacity Despite the vital role of forest resources in supporting the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities, deforestation rates remain alarmingly high Key factors driving this deforestation include the over-exploitation of timber, shifting cultivation practices, and excessive harvesting of wood for fuel and charcoal Additionally, underlying issues such as poverty, economic growth, rising consumption, unclear land tenure, weak law enforcement, and limited grassroots participation exacerbate the situation.
The high rate of deforestation is largely attributed to the insufficient engagement of local communities in sustainable forest management practices, particularly in integrating their livelihood activities with these initiatives (FAO, 2010).
Sustainable forest management seeks to balance the current needs for forest goods and services with the long-term availability of these resources It emphasizes the conservation of biodiversity and the socio-economic roles of forests This approach integrates administrative, legal, technical, economic, social, and environmental factors to ensure the careful use of forest resources while enhancing livelihood opportunities.
Deliberate human intervention plays a crucial role in preserving forest ecosystems and their functions This includes actions that protect the environment while also promoting specific socially or economically valuable species, ultimately enhancing the production of goods and services.
This research investigates the exploitation and management of forest resources in relation to the legal and policy framework for sustainable forest management The findings aim to serve as a valuable reference for future management strategies that promote sustainable practices and enhance the livelihoods of local communities in the study area and across Myanmar.
Goal and Objectives
This research aims to evaluate the exploitation and management of forest resources in Pale Township, Sagaing Region, Myanmar, in the context of the current legal and policy framework The ultimate goal is to promote sustainable forest management practices in the area.
1 To overview the forest policy in Myanmar and forest management conditions in the Pale Township, Sagaing region;
2 To assess forest resources exploitation and perception of local community on forest management in Pale Township, Sagaing region;
3 To identify factors influencing the participation of local people in forest management of Pale Township, Sagaing region;
Research Questions
Specific research questions are the followings;
1 What are the existing forest policy, law and rules supporting the sustainable forest management in the context of Myanmar?
2 What forest resources are exploited and what are the factors that influence the forest resources exploitation?
3 What are the factors that influence the participation of local people in forest management of Pale Township, Sagaing region?
Introduction
This chapter reviews the literature pertinent to the research, highlighting the evolution of the concepts of sustainable development and sustainable forest management These ideas have emerged from growing public awareness regarding the Earth's current condition and its resources on a global scale They play a crucial role in the modern integration of development, environment, and society.
Sustainable Development
The concept of sustainability emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, notably with the Brundtland Report in 1987 and the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 This idea of sustainable development was developed by the World Commission on Environment and Development and was officially endorsed by the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in June 1992.
The Brundtland report, Our Common Future, defines sustainable development as meeting the needs of the present without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987) This approach emphasizes the importance of economic viability, environmental soundness, and social benefits, highlighting the need for a balance between present and future requirements Literature consistently stresses the significance of achieving social, economic, and environmental equilibrium to attain sustainability Sustainable forest management is recognized as a key aspect of forestry's role in promoting sustainable development (Sophie Higman, 2005).
Sustainable Forest Management
Forest management has evolved from focusing solely on wood production to adopting a sustainable ecosystem approach This new strategy emphasizes equity in resource utilization and encourages stakeholder participation, aiming to balance the diverse hopes and aspirations of those invested in the future of natural forest resources.
Sustainable forest management (SFM) is a complex concept, akin to sustainability itself, due to the numerous integrated variables involved in forest management (Adamowicz & Burton, 2003) This complexity is highlighted in international forest policy frameworks, such as the UNCED "Forest Principles," the ITTO, and the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPFE) (Rametsteiner & Simula, 2003) The Forest Principles established by UNCED in 1992 further articulate the multifaceted nature of SFM.
“forest resources and forest lands should be sustainably managed to meet the social, economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual needs of present and future generations”
Sustainable forest management involves overseeing forests to meet specific management goals, ensuring a consistent supply of valuable forest products and services This approach prioritizes the preservation of the forest's inherent values and future productivity while minimizing negative impacts on both the physical and social environments.
Sustainable forest management, as defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization, seeks to balance the current needs for forest goods and services with the long-term health and availability of forest resources This comprehensive approach includes administrative, legal, technical, economic, social, and environmental considerations in the conservation and utilization of forests It involves varying levels of human intervention, from protecting the forest ecosystem to enhancing its functions.
11 specific socially or economically valuable species or groups of species for the improved production of goods and services (FAO) 2018)
Sustainable forest management encompasses several key elements: a robust legal and policy framework ensuring compliance with regulations and recognizing tenure and use rights; the sustained and optimal production of forest products through effective management planning and monitoring; environmental protection via impact assessments and biodiversity conservation; and the well-being of communities, which includes consultation processes and recognition of cultural rights.
Sustainable forest management is shaped by historical experiences, ongoing threats of forest conversion and degradation, and the growing demands of human populations (Lintangah 2014) According to Agenda 21 (UNCED, 1992), sustainable forest management is highlighted as a critical priority for ensuring the health and longevity of forest ecosystems.
Urgent action is needed to conserve and sustain forest resources, emphasizing the importance of greening suitable areas to enhance public awareness and participation in forest management This approach must consider land use, tenure patterns, and local needs while clearly defining the objectives of various greening activities.
Sustainable forest management programs must align with local, regional, and national priorities, as emphasized by Putz (1994) The involvement of people is crucial in the social-ecological system, and neglecting local needs has led to the failure of numerous forestry initiatives (Vanhanen et al., 2010) Therefore, understanding and addressing these local claims is essential for achieving sustainable forest management.
12 forestry is more an issue of human behavior than an issue of trees and forests (Nilsson, 2001).
Instruments for SFM Implementation
Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) encompasses key aspects of forest management, developed by government representatives and international policymakers in collaboration with environmental NGOs (Rametsteiner & Simula, 2003) Significant milestones include the establishment of the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), the adoption of the "Forest Principles" at the 1992 Earth Summit, and agreements on sustainable forest use through the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) (Visseren-Hamakers & Glasbergen, 2007) In 2006, the UNFF outlined four global objectives to guide international forest policy, focusing on reducing deforestation, addressing forest cover loss and degradation, enhancing forest-based economic, social, and environmental benefits, and mobilizing financial resources for SFM implementation (UNFF, 2006).
The assessment of sustainability evaluates management activities by equally weighing their effects on economic, social, and environmental aspects of human welfare This assessment incorporates criteria that address both local and broader management scales—international, regional, and local—while also considering various time frames, including annual, mid-term, and long-term perspectives.
The seven common global applicable thematic criteria for SFM which define
Sustainable forest management encompasses various aspects, including the extent of forest resources, health and vitality, productive functions, biological diversity, protective roles, socio-economic benefits, and the legal and institutional framework (Rametsteiner & Simula, 2003) In addition to traditional government strategies for forest management and planning, three primary instruments are recognized as essential tools for effective implementation.
SFM implementation are the National Forest Program, Forest Criteria and Indicator and Forest Certification (Lintangah 2014).
ITTO Global Set of Criteria and Indicator Groups for SFM
Criteria and Indicators (C&I) serve as essential tools for describing, implementing, and monitoring sustainable forest management at both national and forest levels (FAO, 1998) Criteria represent core values, while indicators provide core data (Nilsson, 2001) C&I systems operationalize these elements of sustainable forest management (SFM) in a measurable format, following a hierarchy that includes principle, criterion, indicator, and verifier (Auch, 2014).
According to ITTO (2005), a criterion is a vital aspect of forest management used to assess sustainable practices, accompanied by related indicators that define the necessary conditions for compliance The ITTO framework was updated to align with a global set of criteria for sustainable forest management (SFM) during international conferences on Criteria and Indicators (C&I) in 2002 and 2005 These seven criteria are fundamental components of SFM, with the associated indicators grouped into main categories, and their order does not imply any priority or importance (Auch 2014).
General legal, economic and institutional framework
Criterion 1: Enabling conditions for sustainable forest management
Policy, legal and governance framework
Quantity, security and quality of forest resources
Criterion 2: Extent and condition of forests
Goods and services provided by the forest
Procedures for biodiversity conservation in production forests
Criterion 6: Soil and water protection
Protective functions in production forests
Criterion 7: Economic, social and cultural aspects
Community and indigenous people‟s rights and participation
SFM is not only about the management of the forest for production or protection but also maintain the relationship between people and forest (Parviainen,
Participation is crucial for sustainable forest management (SFM), as it fosters collaboration among various stakeholders such as forest managers, timber importers, researchers, and environmentalists Engaging these groups in developing methods to assess the social and ecological impacts of forestry operations can enhance sustainability efforts Human intervention and interaction are key elements in driving progress within the sustainable forest management framework.
Forest Resources Exploitation and Livelihood of Local People
Forests provide essential tangible benefits to impoverished communities, including agricultural land, non-timber forest products (NTFPs), and timber Additionally, they offer intangible advantages such as enhancing micro-climate conditions, which are crucial for the well-being of these populations.
15 on-site ecological services are the examples of benefits that can be obtained from forests (Vedeld et al., 2007)
Over one billion people globally depend on forests, with one-third of the world's population utilizing biomass fuels Additionally, billions rely on indigenous medicines derived from herbs and extracts sourced from these forests In certain developing countries, more than 20% of protein needs are met through hunting and fishing in forested areas (CIFOR, 2008).
Forest resources play a crucial role in supporting the livelihoods of some of the continent's most impoverished populations According to Vedeld et al (2007), many poor individuals rely directly on non-cultivated natural resources, which are predominantly located in forested areas.
Income data from 24 developing countries, encompassing around 8,000 households across 360 villages, reveals that forest activities account for approximately 20% of total household income Additionally, other forms of environmental income represent over 25%, which is comparable to the income generated from crop cultivation (Angelsen et al., 2011).
According to a World Bank report, over 1.6 billion people globally rely on forests and trees for their livelihoods, highlighting the critical role of forest-related resources in poverty eradication (World Bank, 2008; Kamanga et al.).
Understanding forest income dependence is crucial for effective natural resource planning at all governance levels, as these resources significantly contribute to rural income Policy interventions should focus on enhancing the natural resource base, implementing participatory management and monitoring systems, securing access rights for the poor, and establishing markets to increase value addition Addressing these factors is essential for rural development Forest resources can serve not only as a safety net but also as a catalyst for innovation, economic growth, and poverty alleviation, as demonstrated in other regions.
According to Babulo et al (2008), the utilization of forest resources and the dependence on environmental products vary among households This reliance on specific economic activities, particularly forest resources, is influenced by factors such as the household's resource endowment, demographic and economic characteristics, as well as external elements like market conditions, pricing, and technology.
Rural communities in tropical forest areas depend on forests for their livelihoods, utilizing forest products for both subsistence and market sales Understanding the factors that affect income from these resources is crucial for enhancing forest-based livelihoods Income levels are shaped by market access, pricing, and various organizational, institutional, and social factors, which in turn affect the diversity of resources available to the poor and lead to specialized livelihood strategies.
Empirical research indicates that household characteristics, including size, age and sex of the head, education level, asset holdings, and income opportunities, significantly influence decisions regarding forest resource use (McElwee, 2008; Kamanga et al., 2009; Tesfaye et al., 2011; Tumusiime et al., 2011) For instance, McElwee (2008) highlighted a notable correlation between the age of household heads and forest resource utilization, revealing that younger heads (under 30) rely more on forest extraction due to limited access to government jobs and local wage labor compared to their middle-aged and older counterparts Similarly, Tesfaye et al (2011) found that older households in Ethiopia depend less on forest income, as they are less capable of engaging in forest work However, a meta-analysis by Vedeld et al (2004) from the World Bank did not identify household age as a significant factor affecting forest incomes.
Research indicates that the size of the household, the gender of the household head, and their level of education significantly impact the income derived from forest resources Studies by Babulo et al (2008), Kamanga et al (2009), Tesfaye et al (2011), and Tumusiime et al highlight these factors as crucial determinants of forest income.
Larger households tend to engage more in forest-related activities due to having more members who may lack skills for higher income jobs In contrast, male-headed households and those with educated heads are more likely to pursue skilled employment, resulting in less participation in low-return forest activities.
Household dependence on forest income is significantly influenced by factors such as land size and livestock holdings Larger agricultural and livestock operations provide households with better income opportunities, reducing their reliance on forest resources Additionally, research indicates that individuals with lower incomes and limited alternative income sources tend to depend more on forests for their economic needs compared to those with higher incomes.
Participation of Local Communities in Forest Resources Management
Participation in forest resource management involves the active engagement of stakeholders in setting conservation goals, identifying beneficiaries, managing resources, resolving conflicts, and monitoring the effectiveness of forestry and biodiversity projects (Barnejee et al., 1997).
Local communities are strategically positioned near natural resources, enabling them to manage these resources more effectively than distant government officials Decentralization fosters a fair distribution of benefits derived from these resources, ultimately enhancing the livelihoods of forest users Evidence shows that in regions where local individuals serve as guards, deforestation rates are typically lower compared to areas monitored solely by government personnel The exclusion of local stakeholders from forest management and development can jeopardize the sustainability of forest reserves and surrounding areas.
18 forests are continuously subjected to encroachment by fringe communities (Glover,
Sustainable management of forest reserves is essential for improving the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities, as their participation in management and benefit utilization is crucial (Alhassan, 2010) Research indicates that socio-demographic and economic factors significantly influence local participation in forest management, with social indicators being the primary consideration, followed by economic factors (Maskey et al., 2003; Lise, 2000) Education plays a role in stakeholder participation, although some studies suggest that voluntary participation may not be directly affected by educational levels (Lise, 2000; Glendinning et al., 2001; Owubah et al., 2001; Chowdhury, 2004; Kugonza et al., 2009) Additionally, the level of community participation is often linked to the benefits derived from forests, with higher dependency on forest resources leading to increased interest and involvement in management and protection activities (Lise, 2000; Maskey et al., 2003).
A study examining factors affecting participation in forest management revealed ambiguous results regarding the influence of age on forestry activities While some researchers, including Thacher et al (1996) and Kugonza et al (2009), concluded that age did not significantly impact forest management participation, Atmis et al presented contrasting findings.
Age plays a significant role in influencing participation, as noted in a 2007 study Additionally, research by Kugonza et al (2009) indicates that gender does not impact the involvement of forest-dependent communities in managing forest resources However, other studies conducted by Lise (2000) and Phiri (2009) suggest that gender may have varying effects on participation.
Research indicates a strong positive correlation between the extent of participation and gender, with women participating more than men This trend is supported by Maskey et al (2003), who highlighted that various institutions advocate for the importance of women's participation.
Several studies done on people‟s participation including Holmes (2007) and Kugonaza et al (2009) also reported that proximity of forest-dependent communities to forests has positive association with the participation Holmes
Research indicates that communities located farther from forest resources tend to engage less with them Achieving sustainable forest management requires the active involvement of all stakeholders, as forests play a crucial role in alleviating poverty for communities that depend on them.
Description of Study Area
This study aims to evaluate the exploitation and management of forest resources in Myanmar, focusing on sustainable forest management practices Geographically situated in Southeast Asia, Myanmar spans latitudes 9°32' to 28°31' N and longitudes 92°10' E to 101°11' E, covering a total area of 676,577 km² The country extends 936 km from east to west and 2,051 km from north to south (FD 2010).
This study focuses on Pale Township in the Sagaing Region of Myanmar, which, despite being administratively part of Yinmabin District, is co-managed by the Monywa District Forest Department The selection of this area for the case study is driven by the significant anthropogenic threats to its forest vegetation, including illegal logging, fuel-wood collection, and encroachment by local communities due to limited livelihood options Additionally, there is a lack of existing research on forest management in this region The study aims to explore community participation in forest resource exploitation and management, facilitated by the researcher's interest in engaging with local populations Factors such as resource availability, financial constraints, and the research timeline also influenced the choice of this study area.
According to the Pale Township Forest Department, Pale township is located between latitudes 21 48'N and 22 10' N and longitudes 94 25' E and 94 55' E and
Pale Township, with an elevation of 454 feet above sea level, encompasses a total area of 612.79 square miles (392,298 acres or 158,757.51 hectares) and has a population of 156,269 across 58 village tracts The predominant ethnicity in the area is Amar, followed by Chin and Shan ethnic groups The region experiences an average rainfall of 35 inches, with temperatures ranging from 15°C to 44°C The highest mountain in the township reaches an elevation of 4,378 feet.
Forest cover status and land use conditions of study area are; good forests
The study area encompasses various land types, including 56,387 acres of forest land (27.34% of the total township area), 95,292 acres of poor forests, 28,328 acres of taungya, 131,852 acres of agricultural land, 9,048 acres of water, and 71,391 acres of other land uses The predominant forest types are moist upper mixed deciduous forest, dry upper mixed deciduous forest, deciduous dipterocarp forest, and pine forest These deciduous forests host valuable timber species such as Teak (Tectona grandis), Myanmar Ironwood (Xylia xylocarpa), Burmese Rosewood (Dalbergia oliveri), and Burma Padauk (Pterocarpus macrocarpus) Key forest products include timber, poles, bamboo, rattan, firewood, charcoal, and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) like wildlife, honey, resin, medicinal plants, and edible plants Reserved forests and protected public forests in the area are detailed in the accompanying figures and tables.
Figure 3 1: Location of Study Area
Table 3.1: Reserved Forests and Protected Public Forest in Pale Township
Area (acre) Area (ha) Forest Type
RF 56387 22819.03 Moist/Dry Upper Mixed
2 Sindone RF 19084 7723.03 Moist/Dry Upper Mixed
3 Satha 24995 10115.13 Dry Upper Mixed Deciduous
5 Khin Aye RF 32271 13059.62 Moist/Dry Upper Mixed
6 Satha PPF 10003 4048.07 Dry Upper Mixed Deciduous
Research Design and Approaches
This study employs both qualitative and quantitative approaches, recognizing that qualitative research provides in-depth explanations of events, while quantitative research excels at summarizing data and making generalizations.
The qualitative approach in social science focuses on exploring and understanding the meanings individuals or groups assign to social or human problems through descriptive data, while the quantitative approach tests objective theories by examining relationships among variables using numerical data Research in the qualitative approach involves defining research questions, collecting data in participants' settings, and conducting inductive analysis to interpret the data's meaning Conversely, quantitative methods test theories deductively, incorporate safeguards against bias, control for alternative explanations, and aim to generalize and replicate findings Both approaches have distinct strengths and are valuable in research.
The qualitative approach is exploratory and beneficial when researchers are uncertain about the key variables to investigate In contrast, the quantitative approach is considered the most effective for testing theories or explanations Nonetheless, there are instances where integrating both approaches is essential, particularly when relying solely on one method does not adequately address the research problem.
Creswell (2009) outlines two strategies for quantitative research—experiment and field survey—and five strategies for qualitative research, including ethnography, grounded theory, case studies, phenomenological research, and narrative research Recent studies often employ a combination of these strategies, such as integrating quantitative surveys with qualitative key informant interviews and focus group discussions in household livelihood research (McElwee, 2010; Tesfaye et al., 2011; Tumusiime et al., 2011) Qualitative methods encompass three primary data collection techniques: in-depth, open-ended interviews; direct observation; and written documents (Patton).
Interviews can vary widely in format, ranging from informal conversations to structured, standardized formats (Platton 1990) They encompass a variety of question types, including those focused on experience, behavior, opinions, values, and background information, as well as presupposition and neutral questions (Mikkelsen 2002) A key advantage of interviews is the ability to clarify inconsistencies in responses through probing questions (Butt 2006) However, a notable drawback is the potential for the researcher's presence to unintentionally influence participant responses Additionally, during fieldwork, questions can be adapted to reflect new insights and experiences.
The qualitative research methodology and case study approach are employed to explore the intricate socio-economic relationships between forest resources and local communities, focusing on their daily interactions and dependencies.
The livelihoods of 24 individuals are intricately linked to these forests, highlighting the importance of both location and time The strengths of the case study approach lie in personal observations, in-depth interviews, and its adaptability to field situations (Butt 2006) While case studies may not yield generalized statistical data, they offer valuable insights (Nichols 2002) This method provides holistic and meaningful information about real-life events, indicating the prevalence of phenomena and offering insights into causal processes (Yin 2003).
There are two primary types of survey designs utilized in case studies: experimental design and descriptive design Descriptive design is effective for gathering information about existing groups and phenomena Therefore, it is appropriate for this research to assess the socio-economic status and forest resource exploitation among households in the case study area.
Data Collection
Primary Data Collection
During the field data collection, both qualitative and quantitative methods were utilized, including direct observations, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and face-to-face household interviews The following section provides detailed descriptions of these methods.
For the field surveys, eight villages located near reserved forests were chosen, involving 211 respondents selected through simple random sampling, representing 10% of total households in each village Focus group participants were identified using purposive sampling, a non-probability method that enables in-depth investigation of target samples while minimizing the risk of misrepresenting the population, as noted by Neuman (2006).
Table 3.2: Numbers of Households and Sampling Intensity in each Village
No Village name Location Total no of HHs
Figure 3 2: Location of Villages; inside and outside Reserved Forests
Direct observation was employed in selected study villages to gather qualitative data on household dynamics and forest-dependent activities As noted by Creswell (2009), qualitative observations involve researchers taking field notes on behaviors and individuals, with varying levels of participation This method offers significant advantages, including insights into local community behaviors and environmental conditions (Yin, 2003) Both participant and non-participant observation techniques were utilized, allowing for the assessment of forest types, resource status, market accessibility, transportation options, and daily livelihood activities of households, including their asset status and forest usage.
Key informant interviews utilizing semi-structured checklists were conducted with seven participants, including three forest staff, two village tract leaders, and two community forestry user group members These interviews are designed to gather specialized knowledge from community members who possess insights on specific topics, as noted by Mikkelsen (2002) The primary benefits of these interviews include the ability for researchers to explore not only factual information but also the opinions of respondents regarding various events Additionally, participants can recommend other relevant key informants or information sources, enhancing the depth of the research (Yin, 2003).
Household face-to-face interviews were conducted using a structured questionnaire format (Appendix I) with a total of 211 respondents from eight villages The questionnaire content was developed based on comprehensive literature reviews.
The 27-item questionnaire is divided into three sections: the first gathers general information about respondents and household characteristics, including age, gender, education, occupation, income, and expenditure The second section focuses on forest resource extraction, while the third assesses local perceptions of forest management This research utilized face-to-face interviews with structured questionnaires, a method praised by Neuman (2006) for achieving high response rates, accommodating longer questionnaires, and allowing interviewers to observe surroundings and utilize non-verbal communication with visual aids Additionally, face-to-face interviews help mitigate issues related to incomplete questionnaires and misunderstandings of questions by respondents.
In survey research, the interviewer's role is crucial to prevent bias (Fink, 1995; Neuman, 2006) Prior to asking questions, it is important to clarify that the study is strictly for academic purposes, ensuring participants that their responses will remain anonymous and confidential, with no legal implications.
Focus group discussions were held to gain in-depth insights on specific topics following household interviews The researcher introduced key topics of interest, facilitating an open dialogue among participants Throughout and after these discussions, the researcher documented the key outcomes and occasionally sought clarification on certain points from the participants.
Secondary Data Collection
Secondary data collection focuses on gathering information from existing sources such as government agencies, NGOs, and private sectors, along with both published and unpublished literature relevant to the research Given the lack of prior scientific studies in this area, particularly concerning sustainable forest management, secondary data was sourced from the local forest department to enhance the primary data This secondary data encompassed various documents.
The article discusses forest policy, laws, and regulations governing the forestry sector, focusing on the status of reserved and protected public forests It highlights the District and Township Forest Management Plan, along with both published and unpublished reports, including the profile of Pale Township Additionally, it emphasizes the collection of theories, principles, and past findings relevant to the research through an extensive review of journals, articles, research papers, books, reports, theses, and pertinent online resources.
Data Processing and Data Analysis
Quantitative Data Analysis
The study utilized both descriptive and explanatory statistical tools from SPSS version 20 and Microsoft Excel to conduct various analyses, including frequency analysis, descriptive statistics, crosstab analysis (Chi-square test), independent sample t-test, and one-way ANOVA Key household characteristics such as age, sex, household size, education level, occupation, main income sources, monthly income, monthly expenditure, and forest resource exploitation were assessed using frequency tables and descriptive statistics The independent sample t-test compared income from forest products based on village location and gender, while one-way ANOVA tested income differences across villages, education levels, age classes, and household sizes Additionally, descriptive statistics and Chi-square tests identified factors influencing local community participation in forest management activities The results, presented in tables and charts, highlighted the frequencies, distributions, and relationships between the measured variables.
Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative analysis played a crucial role in evaluating the findings of quantitative analysis and understanding the underlying reasons for those results This analysis was conducted through content analysis of data gathered from focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and field observations Additionally, content analysis serves to gauge public perceptions of sustainable forest management It encompasses various strategies for analyzing text (Powers & Knapp, 2006) Furthermore, forest policy and management regarding sustainable practices were assessed using a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) framework.
This chapter presents an overview of the forest policy and regulatory framework, detailing the forest management actions undertaken by the forest department It also examines the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of respondents, the exploitation of forest resources, and the income derived from forests Additionally, it explores local people's perceptions of forest management and the factors influencing their participation in the management of forests in Pale township.
Overview of Myanmar Forest Policy and Regulatory Framework
Myanmar Forest Policy
In 1995, Myanmar's Forest Policy was established to align with the principles of sustainable development and international forestry commitments from the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) This policy aims to sustainably conserve and manage forests, recognizing their vital role in the national economy and environmental stability To achieve its broader national goals, the policy emphasizes six key priorities: Protection, Sustainability, Basic Needs, Efficiency, Participation, and Public Awareness.
Protection aims to preserve soils, water catchments, ecosystems, biodiversity, and genetic resources of plants and animals, along with scenic reserves and national heritage sites Sustainability involves managing forests to guarantee ongoing benefits, both tangible and intangible, for current and future generations It emphasizes the responsible use and enhancement of forest resources to ensure ecological resilience and continuous socio-economic growth Additionally, addressing basic needs includes providing fuel.
Efficient forest management maximizes economic benefits such as productivity, tax revenue, and employment while minimizing negative socio-environmental impacts Community participation in forestry and wildlife activities fosters local involvement in conservation efforts and enhances non-farm incomes through community forestry and agroforestry Raising public awareness is crucial for educating stakeholders about the importance of forests, trees, and wildlife in socio-economic development and environmental conservation The forest policy aims for a balanced land use strategy, designating 30% of land as reserved forest and 5% as protected areas, with a long-term goal of expanding protected areas to 10% of total land.
Forest policy development in Myanmar has been a lengthy process, evolving towards a stronger foundation through ongoing reforms Since the introduction of scientific management in 1856, forest policy has played a crucial role in resource management Amid changing political conditions and a growing population, the management of forest resources has gained significant policy, legal, and institutional support The country is now focusing not only on timber production but also on environmental conservation, recognizing the importance of sustainable forest management (SFM) for the prosperity of future generations in Myanmar.
Forest Law (1992)
The 1992 Forest Law emphasizes the importance of forest protection, environmental conservation, and biodiversity preservation, while establishing a comprehensive system of permanent forest estates and protected areas It also encourages private sector participation in reforestation efforts and the timber trade.
Decentralizing management responsibilities fosters a community participatory approach to forest resource management, aiming to meet the basic needs of rural populations This shift moves away from a focus on revenue generation and restrictions, promoting motivation and shared management responsibilities among the community.
Forest Rules (1995)
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation established the Forest Rules in 1995 to enforce the Forest Law These rules address various aspects, including the designation of reserved forests that are off-limits to development, the declaration of protected public forests, and the management of forest land They outline the establishment of forest plantations and the procedures for obtaining permission to extract forest products Additionally, the rules detail the processes for harvesting forest produce, operating timber depots, and developing wood-based industries They also include measures for investigating violations, imposing administrative penalties such as fines and timber confiscation, and defining offenses and their corresponding penalties.
Forestry Master Plan
The Forestry Master Plan for 2001-2031 emphasizes sustainable forest management through a comprehensive framework initiated by the Forest Department This National Forestry Program includes medium-term plans for 62 districts, focusing on the protection and expansion of reserved and protected public forests Key objectives involve promoting forest regeneration and rehabilitation, managing watersheds to ensure the longevity of water resources, optimizing teak and hardwood extraction, and enhancing forestry research Additionally, the plan aims to enforce laws against illegal logging, encourage the use of fuel-wood substitutes, and promote the export of timber, value-added forest products, and non-timber forest products (NTFPs), while also fostering ecotourism to boost foreign exchange earnings.
Forest Land Tenure Reform
Most forests are state-owned and categorized as reserved or public/unclassified forests, allowing for the extraction of commercial timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) from both types Reserved forests and protected public forests make up the permanent forest estate (PFE) Specific regulations govern the rights associated with teak.
1992 Forest Law, “a standing teak tree wherever situated in the state is owned by the state‟‟.
Community Forestry Program
The 1995 Community Forestry Instruction (CFI) establishes a legal framework to enhance community involvement in forestry management It identifies suitable areas for community forests, including government-authorized reserved and non-reserved forests, village-owned firewood plantations, private lands with owner consent, and lands owned by organizations The CFI aims to engage local populations in sustainable forest management (SFM) and address national fuel wood demands The Forest Department (FD) facilitates the rapid initiation of community forestry (CF) through the formation of Forest User Groups (FUGs), which develop management plans that, once approved, grant them 30-year renewable use rights documented in a Community Forestry Certificate The National Forestry Master Plan mandates the transfer of 2.27 million acres (1.36% of total land area) to FUGs by 2030-2031.
Local Forest Management
In the late 1800s, British colonists established the groundwork for Myanmar's forest management system, particularly focusing on teak forests This period marked the introduction of the Myanmar Selection System (MSS), a scientific approach to forestry management.
Myanmar is administratively stratified into 7 Regions and 7 States, 68 Districts, 315 Townships and more than 60000 Villages The district level is the
Sustainable forest management in the country is implemented across 34 forest management units (FMUs), guided by a comprehensive 10-year district forest management plan for each district This approach ensures the effective execution of sustainable practices within each FMU.
The article outlines six essential working cycles in forestry: the Production Working Cycle focuses on timber extraction from natural forests; the Plantation Working Cycle emphasizes timber production from forest plantations; the Local Supply/Community Forests Working Cycle aims to provide forest products to local communities; the Watershed Working Cycle is dedicated to conserving critical watershed areas; the Non-wood Forest Products Production Working Cycle manages the production of non-wood forest products, which may overlap with other cycles; and finally, the Protected Areas Working Cycle is centered on the conservation of wildlife and biodiversity.
Sustainable forest management at the district level is overseen by an assistant director, with each district divided into townships managed by a staff officer Townships are further segmented into beat areas, consisting of 5 to 10 villages, coordinated by a deputy range officer In the study area, there are 7 beat areas supervised by one staff officer, 2 range officers, and 7 deputy range officers The Staff Officer, leading the Township Forest Department, is responsible for implementing and monitoring forest operations as per the District Forest Department's guidelines, inspecting and taxing the extraction and transportation of forest products, preventing illegal activities to ensure forest sustainability, promoting public awareness through standardized forest villages, and fulfilling additional duties assigned by higher authorities and government organizations.
Forest operations, including girdling, selection felling marking, and both artificial and natural regeneration, are managed by range officers, deputy range officers, and forest guards under the guidance of staff officers Key activities such as plantation establishment, seed production area creation, enrichment planting, improvement felling, pruning, weeding, thinning, fire protection, and the establishment of reserved forests and community forestry programs are coordinated to ensure effective forest management and conservation.
Table 4.1: SWOT Analysis of Forest Management
- Allocate forest land for local community
- Coordination between local people, local officials and forest rangers in reforestation
- Mostly focused on timber harvest or revenue
- Inadequate involvement of the communities
- Not enough staff to manage all of the forest areas
- Enforcement of forest laws and rules
- Implementation of forest management plan
- Create job for local community
- Increase revenue from forest products
- Community involvement in community forestry program
- Population increase and poverty, no alternative jobs for local community
Myanmar is dedicated to sustainable forest management and is a signatory to the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), which guides its SFM policies at national and local levels in accordance with international standards.
36 and indicators However, it was also revealed that the township level, these international criteria and indicators towards sustainable forest management frameworks are not known.
Forest Cover Changes of Pale Township during 20 years (1998-2018)
Between 1998 and 2018, significant changes in land cover were observed, particularly due to the construction of the North Yama dam in 2008, which increased water bodies from 6,668.76 hectares to 13,106.79 hectares Conversely, forest land decreased from 26,123.43 hectares in 1998 to 12,918.91 hectares in 2018 Additionally, the area of scattered forest shrank from 60,978.99 hectares to 30,481.76 hectares, primarily as a result of agricultural expansion.
Table 4.2: Land Use and Land Cover Changes in 1998, 2008 and 2018
The study area experienced significant changes in land use from 1998 to 2018, with paddy land expanding from 37,844.09 hectares to 60,919.95 hectares due to the conversion of forested areas into agricultural land The majority of this agricultural expansion is concentrated in the eastern part of the township, while the western regions remain largely forested, protected by various reserved and public forests, including Legan Reserved Forest and Satha Protected Public Forest Additionally, bare land increased from 9,919.96 hectares in 1998 to 16,401.45 hectares in 2018, and urban areas grew from 17,222.18 hectares to 24,928.55 hectares, driven by population growth.
Figure 4 1: Land Cover Classification of Pale Township in 1998 (FD 2018)
38 Figure 4 2: Land Cover Classification of Pale Township in 2008(FD 2018)
Figure 4 3: Land Cover Classification of Pale Township in 2018 (FD 2018)
Demographic and Socio-economic Characteristics of Respondents
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
A survey conducted with 211 respondents revealed that 48% of households reside within reserved forests, while 51.7% live outside these areas The gender distribution among respondents was nearly even, with 49.8% identifying as male and 50.2% as female Additionally, 51.7% of the respondents are heads of their households.
The respondents' ages were divided into five categories, with the youngest being 18 years old and the oldest at 76 Notably, the largest group, comprising 36.5% of participants, falls within the middle age range of 36 to 50 years.
Most (66.8%) of the respondents had formal education whilst (33.2%) did not have formal education But the majority of the respondents (47.9%) completed only primary school
The 2014 Population and Housing Census of Myanmar indicates that the average household size in Pale Township is 4.3 persons, while survey results show a slightly higher average family size of 4.72 Notably, households with 4 to 6 members constitute over half of the population at 56.4%, whereas larger households with 7 to 10 members account for only 17.1%.
The household survey reveals that agriculture is the primary occupation for the majority of local residents, with 34.6% of respondents involved in this field In contrast, only 17.1% of those surveyed indicated that forestry serves as their main source of livelihood.
Demographic characteristics of households and different livelihood activities of the local community in the study areas are described in Table 4.3
Table 4.4 indicates that a significant portion of respondents (33.2%) living outside reserved forests rely on agriculture for their livelihoods, while only 16.6% of those within the reserved forests depend on forest resources This suggests that households residing inside reserved forests have a greater reliance on forest resources compared to those located outside.
Table 4.3: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Table 4.4: Occupation of Respondents inside and outside RFs
Respondents’ Occupation Location of Village
Total Inside RF Outside RF
Main Income Sources and Monthly Income of Households
In households residing within reserved forests, the primary income sources are casual labor (19%) and forestry (15.2%), while those living outside these areas predominantly rely on agriculture (32.7%) and casual labor (8.5%) A statistically significant difference (p value=0.000