Roles of socio economic cultural and technical factors in on farm agro biodiversity via farmers seed choice

Evaluating the importance of socio-economic and technical factors in driving on-farm agro-biodiversity with a focus on vegetables via the seed choice of farmers .... 24 3.4.3.Evaluate th

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

Department : Horticulture and Landscaping

Hanoi, 2021

CONFIRMATION

I confirm that the research on assessing roles of different socio-economic, cultural and technical factors in on- farm _agro-biodiversity via farmer’s seed choice is the result of my own research and has never been published in any work of others During the implementation process of this project, I have seriously taken research ethics and all findings of this project are results of my own work; all references in this project are clearly cited according to the official regulations I bear full responsibility for the fidelity of the numbers, data and other contents of my research project

Hanoi 28, February 2021 Author

Tran Thi Thanh Van

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

To conduct my undergraduate thesis, the work would not have been

done without the help and support from my respectful people Foremost, I am deeply grateful to my supervisor, MSc Nguyen Thi Phuong, Department of Horticulture and Landscaping - Faculty of Agronomy, Vietnam National University of Agriculture for her help throughout my undergraduate thesis Her advice, guidance, professionalism, and understanding of the scientific process have greatly contributed to my learning experience Without their substantial support, it would be impossible to conduct this thesis

My sincere thanks also go to teachers in the Faculty of Agronomy, Vietnam National University of Agriculture, whose encouragement, guidance and inspiration supported me during my time at the university Besides that, I

am thankful to my dear classmates, the advanced crop science class (KHCTT, K61), for all the time we had within these five years Last but not least, special thanks are given to my parents for all their help, encouragement and love over the years

Thank you sincerely

Hanoi 28, February 2021 Author

Tran Thi Thanh Van

CONTENTS

CONFIRMATION i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii

CONTENTS iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

TABLE OF FIGURE vii

ABTRACT ix

PART 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Objective and requirement 5

1.2.1 Objective 5

1.2.2 Requirement 5

PART II LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 The importance of vegetable production to the socio-economic development 6

2.1.1 Origin of vegetable crops 6

2.2 The value of vegetables 7

2.2.1 The economic value of vegetables 7

2.2.2 Nutritional value of vegetable crops 9

2.2.3 The Social value of vegetables 12

2.3 Vegetable production and consumption 14

2.3.1 Vegetable production and consumption in the world 14

2.3.2 Vegetable production and consumption in Vietnam 18

2.4 The role of vegetable crops in ensuring food security and nutrition 21

2.4.1 Food Security Through Production of Vegetables 21

PART III MATERIALS AND METHODS 23

3.3 Research Contents 23

3.4 Research methods 24

3.4.1 Evaluating the importance of socio-economic and technical factors in driving on-farm agro-biodiversity (with a focus on vegetables) via the seed choice of farmers 24

3.4.2 Farmer’s choice in seed procurement in different ethnic groups 24

3.4.3.Evaluate the performance of the bush common bean varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) from two seed sources: local seed and improved seed 25

3.5 Measurements 26

3.6 Data analysis 27

PART IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 28

4.1 Evaluating the importance of socio-economic, cultural and technical factors in on-farm agro-biodiversity (with a focus on vegetables) via the seed choice of farmers 28

4.1.1 Vegetables group 29

4.1.2 Soybeans 36

4.1.3 Grain crops 36

4.1.4.Other crops 46

4.2.Vegetable production and farmer’s seed choice in ethnic minority farmers (Dao and Thai) in Sapa – Lao Cai and Mai Son – Son La 54

4.3 Interview farmers in Hung Yen to determine the decision in farmer’s seed choice 58

4.4.Evaluation of growth and development of two bush common bean varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) 64

4.4.1 Testing the germination rate of two bush common bean varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris) in laboratory 64

4.4.2 Growth and development of two bush common bean varieties from

two seed sources (local and improved seed) on-field 67

4.4.3.Ability to grow stems of local and improve varieties grown in the field in Hanoi, in Autunm-Winter season 2020-2021 68

PART V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 71

5.1 CONCLUSIONS 71

PART IV: REFERENCE 73

STATISTIC 78

vegetables types of Kinh people in Hung Yen province 62

Figure 4.4 The seed germination rate of bush common bean (Phaseolus

vulgaris) from two seed sources: local seed and improved seed that

were sourced in Gia Lam – Hanoi 64 Tables 4.6 The growth and development indicators of the bush common

bean varieties sourced from two seed sources: local seed and improved seed in Gia Lam – Hanoi in autumn -winter season, 2020 67

TABLE OF FIGURE

Figure 2.1 Comparison of global production of primary vegetables in 2008

and 2018, by major regions (Source: FAO,2018) 8

Figure 2.2 The growth rate of Vietnam Fruits and Vegetable market 9

Figure 2.3 Global production volume of vegetables from 2000 to 2018 15

Figure 2.4 Vegetable production for export of some nations in the world 15

Figure 2.5 Vegetable production for import of some nations in the world 17

Figure 2.6 The global vegetable production in 2019 17

Figure 2.7 The export value of fruits and vegetables in 2016-2018 18

Figure 2.8 Top 10 markets that Vietnam exports most fruit and vegetables in July (Source: General Department of Customs,2020) 19

Figure 2.9 Vegetable, fruits and other commodities’ export turnovers in the first quarter of 2020 (Source: General Department of Customs, 2020) 20

Figure 4.1 The crop groups according to distribution areas 29

Figure 4.2 The relationship between seed type and land area, main purpose and the age of farmers in Sapa 58

Figure 4.3 The types of vegetables grown and percentage of household interviewed in Hung Yen 60

Figure 4.5 Seed germination of two bush common bean varieties from two seed sources: local seed and improved seed, which were sown without water treatment 65

Figure 4.6 Seed germination of two bush common bean varieties from two seed sources: local seed and improved seed, which were treated with cold water prior to sowing 66

Figure 4.7 Seed germination of two bush common bean varieties from two

seed sources: local seed and improved seed, which were treated with warm water prior to sowing 66 Figure 4.8 The plant height (cm) of the bush common bean crop grown

from two sources of seed: local seed and improved seed in Gia Lam – Hanoi 68 Figure 4.9 The plant width (cm) of the bush common bean crop grown from

two sources of seed: local seed and improved seed in Gia Lam – Hanoi 69 Figure 4.10 The length of leaf (cm) of the bush common bean crop grown

from two sources of seed: local seed and improved seed in Gia Lam – Hanoi 70

ABTRACT

A literature review of papers relating farmer seed choice Validation of findings by analyzing farmer survey in different Ethnic groups and ecological regions and a controlled experiment Clearly that the on-farm agro-biodiversity maintained by farmers is directly influenced by farmer’s seed choice It was hypothesized that there would be multifaceted factors involving in this process, including either socio-economic, cultural or technical aspects Yet we lack a holistic how these factors work in specific farmers’ context and how they are interplayed The review part was presented in three main sections: social- cultural, social-economic, and environment factors mediating the choice of farmers in seed for use in each crop groups It also went on to unpack the benefits and challenges associated with the seed under these themes A further interview campaign with farmers in different ethnic groups (Dao, Thai and Kinh) and ecological regions (Sa Pa – Lao Cai, Mai Son – Son La and Hung Yen) was administered to validate and gain an evident-based findings supporting the outputs from the previous literature review The review results show that socio-cultural factors play a role in preferences of culinary taste, food quality and traditional customs of local varieties (also from local seed) while socio-economic factors such as markets, gender, education, age of household head, wealth, land size have different outcome effects on farmer’s choice of seeds This result was also proved in the further additional survey: seed quality per se may play an essential role in mediating farmer’s seed choice as the local seed we got from the local market does not guarantee the quality while the improved one does better

PART 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction

Biodiversity conservation is considered to be one of the most important issues discussed in sustainable agriculture development Biodiversity is a vital part of a healthy and sustainable environment and so with loss of biodiversity in

a region or an ecosystem, would be inevitable The global agro-biodiversity increasingly decreases due to the loss of diversity in genetic sources (e.g., species and varieties) of food crops which are partially attributed to the commercialization of crop production The intensive spreading and worldwide use of improved and/or modern crop varieties have led to genetic erosion, resulting in the loss of local crops, landraces and elite allele diversity Since the 1900’s, for example, an expense of 75% of the genetic diversity of farmers’ crops was lost in favor of genetically uniform, high-yielding varieties At the same time, high-yielding crop varieties may result in crop failure if they are cultivated under sub-optimal conditions and provided with inappropriate input requirements (e.g., fertilizers) on marginal locations, thereby increasing hunger rate, food insecurity and downgrade in sovereign food production in countries of the global South

Globally, vegetables are a group of horticultural crops of great importance which may improve the livelihoods of farmers and address the issues

of self-sufficiency, food security and economic development of remote areas Vegetables production may offer jobs, bring a stable income to farming communities, positively improve socio-economic conditions and also provides essential nutrients and minerals to ensure human’s health, nutrition security and

nutrition for humans Jordaan et al (2008) found that domestication of

indigenous fruit varieties was mean that ensure their contribution to income generation in rural communities To make certain that indigenous vegetables contribute to the sustainable development a basket of promotional strategies and

marketing ought of them should be developed implemented and empowered implemented

Vietnam's diverse agro-ecosystems allow the production of both tropical and temperate vegetables within the country Beside a number of improved and imported vegetables (e.g., cabbages, tomatoes, kohlrabi, cucumbers, peppers, beans and leafy peas), there are also many traditional and wild vegetables which

is maintained, cultivated but under-utilized Vietnam is known as one of countries which are richest in vegetable diversity with a large portfolio of vegetable crops grown countrywide It is noted that out of 403 crop species used

as vegetables in Vietnam, 293 (of 84 families) species are indigenous, of which

41 species are used as spices A richness in indigenous vegetables indicates a very substantive source of crop biodiversity while they are well adapted to local soil profiles and climatic conditions, and often can be grown with minimal

external inputs (De la Peña et al., 2011; Hughes & Ebert, 2013) Those varieties

often have high potential of good resistance to pests and diseases and external conditions

The Northern Uplands of Vietnam (NUV), also called Mountain Areas, constitute one of the largest and diverse ecological regions of the country The region covers 29% of the national land area and has 11 million inhabitants (GSO, 2009) It is characterized by a hilly and mountainous topography and a settlement of diversities in ethnic communities, cultures, and farming systems

(Castella & Quang, 2002; Wezel et al., 2002; Vien, 2003) Most people there

also mainly rely on farming and forestry for foods and livelihoods, which are highly vulnerable to natural hazards Sa Pa is the highly mountainous township

of Lao Cai province located on the east side of the Hoang Lien Son range- an extremity of the Himalayas, with the population of 53,580 people There are 6

Office, 2009) The Kinh group distribute mainly in Sa Pa town whereas other groups spread over 17 other rural communes The majority of the farmed area in

Sa Pa township is terraced and cropped with rice during summer months and vegetables during winter months Other cropping systems also exist in this area include interchangeable temperate fruits - vegetables and vegetables - vegetables The following vegetables have been identified as the prioritized crops by the local farmers - Cải Mèo (H’mong mustard), Su Hào (kohlrabi), Cô

ve (common bean), Cà chua (Tomato), Măng Tây (Asparagus), Ngồng Cải (Flowering Mustard), Khoai Môn (Taro), Khoai Tây (Potato), Xà Lách (Lettuce), Súp Lơ Xanh (Broccoli), Ớt Ngọt hay Ớt Chuông (Sweet Peppers) and Bí Ngồi (Zucchini) These local vegetables are rich in nutrients, easy to grow, and well resistant to insects and diseases and highly adaptable to harsh ecological conditions (e.g., hail, chilling) Therefore, they can become precious genetic resources for the genetic improvement of cultivars to cope with unchangeable climate change The used seeds in many regions of the world are not improved but sourced from the informal seed sources such as farmer-to-

farmer seed exchanges, or gift (Meredia et al., 1999) The local seed production

and distribution would promote the maintenance of crop bio-diversity by

preserving locally adapted and often underutilized varieties in situ (Louette et al., 1997; Van Dusen, 2000; Bellon et al., 2003) Local vegetable varieties are

mostly grown for home consumption, but over the past decade they have been increasingly sold urban markets The high diversity of ethnic groups within a small region m ay result in an extraordinary diversity in indigenous vegetables

as different groups prefer specific but distinct culinary favors and agronomy systems Farmers in remote areas seem to use local seeds as the main source for their planting materials Hence, local seed systems are in the essence of in the maintenance strategy of crop diversity, transferring of knowledge and species and the sustainability of these agro-ecosystems At the present, the diversity and

abundance of these vegetables are being reduced by environmental impacts, land use changes farmers’ practices and importantly climate change In addition, vegetable seed quality is degenerated due to inappropriate cultural practices by farmers as sub-optimal production and storage conditions on-farm The quantity

of self-saved seeds normally is under the requirement of famers and seeds have been reported to be significantly lost during harvesting and storage at the household The process of seed saving of local crop varieties Deviates among farmers and crop species, and usually comprises of distinct cares and techniques For example, out-crossing pollinated crops (e.g., Brassicas vegetables, Pumpkins), requires some special care in pollination stage (e.g., bagging) to avoid crossing among individuals or cultivars or fields That is in contradiction with the self-pollinated crops (e.g., beans) that needs more special care in storage as bean seeds are very favored by insects (e.g., weevils and bruchids) Farmers recycle seed either by saving their seed from the previous harvest and/or obtaining it from fellow farmers by lending, selling and buying in market From the fact that, it raises the questions in relation to the differences in how farmers maintain and select seed what are the factors that drive the seed choice

of farmers, and what are the mechanisms by which farmers persist to and maintain a diversity local vegetable crops? I hypothesize that there are multifaceted factors that could affect the farmers’ decisions in seed and crop choices to grown on-farm, and the factors are not the technical side per se but also need to deal with socio-economic aspects that bound the farmers’ households

Therefore, I did a research on assessing roles of socio-economic, cultural and technical factors in on- farm _agro-biodiversity via farmer’s seed choice

We are more interested in vegetable crops, but not leaving out the other crop

were expected to be scared around and it is better to have a comparison among different crop groups

1.2 Objective and requirement

1.2.1 Objective

The overall objective of this study is to evaluate the roles of different socio-economic, cultural and technical factors in on- farm _agro-biodiversity via farmer’s seed choice Besides, making recommendations to improve quality of local varieties, maintain and enhance the local farm agro-biodiversity

PART II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 The importance of vegetable production to the socio-economic development 2.1.1 Origin of vegetable crops

Scientific evidences show that the currently used vegetables have not suddenly appeared on the earth but have evolved over a very long period of time thanks to natural selection, human selection, and more recently plant breeding and other forms of genetic improvements Conscious cultivation and trait selection of plants may have occurred in what is today Syria as early as 11,050

BC, but this appears to have been a localized phenomenon rather than a

definitive step towards domestication (Hillman et al., 2001) The earliest human

attempts at plant domestication likely occurred in Southwestern Asia and the Middle East about 10,000 years ago (Zohary & Hopf, 1988)

The Russian scientist Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov proposed 8 centers of origin of crop plants in the publication in 1926

 Chinese center: It is considered to be one of the earliest and largest

independent center of origin of cultivated plants This center includes mountain regions of central and western China A total of 136 endemic plants are listed from this center include Soya Bean, Radish, Turnip, Pear, Peach, Plum, Buckwheat, Opium Poppy, Brinjal, Apricots, Oranges, China Tea etc

 The Indian Center: This area has two sub centers: Main Center and

Indo-Malayan Center 117 plants were considered to be endemic in Main Center: Cereals and Legumes, Vegetables and Tubers, Fruits, Sugar, Oil, and Fiber Plants, Spices, Stimulants, Dyes, and Miscellaneous Cereals and Legumes, Fruits, Oil, Sugar, Spice, and Fiber Plants are main crops in the other sub-center

 Central Asiatic Center: Includes Northwest India (Punjab, Northwest

Wheats, The Others Are Peas, Lentils, Chickpeas, Mustard, Flax, Sesame, Cotton, Hemp, Onion, Garlic, Spinach, Carrot, Pistachio, Pear, Almond, Apple

 Near-Eastern Center: Includes interior of Asia Minor, all of

Transcaucasia, Iran, and the highlands of Turkmenistan Eighty-three species including Many Triticum (diplo‐ and tetraploid), two‐row Barley, Rye, Lentil, Lupine, Alfalfa, Persian Clover, Vetch, Fig, Pomegranate, Apple, Pear, Cherry

 Mediterranean Center: Includes the borders of the Mediterranean Sea

Eighty-four plants are listed for this region including Wheats, Barleys, Forage Plants, Vegetables and Fruits -especially also Spices and Ethereal Oil Plants

 Abyssinian Center: Includes Abyssinia, Eritrea, and part of Somaliland

In this center were listed 38 species Rich in Green Onions, Peas and Fruit Beans

(Vigna sinensis, Vicia faba)

 South Mexican and Central American Central: include southern sections of

Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and Costa Rica Important for maize, Phaseolus and Cucurbitaceous species, with spices, fruits and fiber plants

 South American Center: Three sub-centers are found: Peruvian,

Ecuadorean, Bolivian Center, Chiloe Center, Brazilian-Paraguayan Center Important for Potatoes, other root crops, grain crops of the Andes, vegetables, spices and fruits

2.2 The value of vegetables

2.2.1 The economic value of vegetables

Growing populations and increased incomes, especially in urban areas, are already creating a rise in market demand as consumers seek to diversify their diets Increasing vegetable production to respond to this demand creates important economic opportunities, especially for smallholder farmers Data for Cambodia, Niger, and Vietnam show that profits per hectare are 3–14 times higher in vegetable production than in rice production while profits per labor-

day are double (Joosten et al., 2015) Vegetables also typically provide more

employment per hectare than cereals

From 2007 to 2018, the most notable rate of growth in terms of imports, amongst the main importing countries, was attained by the U.S., while the other global leaders experienced more modest paces of growth

In value terms, the largest vegetable importing markets worldwide were the U.S ($8.5B), Germany ($5.1B) and the UK ($3B), with a combined 40% share of global imports These countries were followed by Canada, France, the Netherlands, Russia, Belgium, Italy, Spain, Malaysia and Indonesia, which together accounted for a further 30%

Figure 2.1 Comparison of global production of primary vegetables in 2008

and 2018, by major regions (Source: FAO,2018)

Global primary vegetable production reached 1.09 billion tons in 2018, about 37% of global cereal production (2.96 billion tons) Asia is by far the largest producer of primary vegetables, responsible for three-quarters of global production (Figure 2.1) During the past 10 years (2008–2018), there was a 24% increase in global commercial vegetable production, mainly attributable to a

543 billion United States dollars (US$) in 2012–2013, about 65% of all food cereals combined, estimated at 837 billion US$

Figure 2.2 The growth rate of Vietnam Fruits and Vegetable market

In 2019, the export of vegetables and fruits in Viet Nam was not as expected when it decreased by 1% compared to 2018 and only reached 3.8 billion USD According to experts, one of the reasons for the decline in the export of vegetables, tubers and fruits is the US-China trade war In addition, the failure to take advantage of the opportunities from Free Trade Agreement and the internal shortcomings of the industry has caused fruit and vegetable exports

to miss the set target of USD 4 billion

Figure 2.2 shows that global demand for agricultural crops is predicted to increase until 2050 due to population growth, greater per capita purchasing power which translates into higher meat and dairy consumption, and biofuel use The statistics of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) cover 25 primary vegetable products

2.2.2 Nutritional value of vegetable crops

It is increasingly recognized that the global food system must shift its focus from food quantity toward dietary quality and health and environmental

outcomes Fruit, vegetables, and nuts are increasingly entering into the focus of the nutrition community for their potential in combating the triple burden of malnutrition Vegetables, like fruits, are low in calories and fats but contain good amounts of vitamins and minerals All the Green Yellow-Orange vegetables are rich sources of calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, beta-carotene, vitamin B-complex, vitamin C, vitamin-A, and vitamin K

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a population-wide daily intake of 400 g of edible fruit and vegetables for the prevention of NCDs,

as well as for the prevention and alleviation of several micronutrient deficiencies

Under consumption of vegetables and fruits is among the top ten risk factors leading to micronutrient malnutrition and is associated with the

prevalence of chronic diseases (Ezzati et al., 2002; WHO, 2003) Vegetables

and fruits contain a range of macro- and micronutrients, including vitamin A, iron, and zinc, which contribute to the prevention of malnutrition disorders Vegetables and fruits also are rich in bioactive phytochemicals that can reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as cancer While the nutritional importance of vegetables has long been recognized within the nutrition and medical communities, there is an increasing awareness among the general public of the health advantages of increased vegetable consumption The food and nutrition division of FAO and WHO have published a number of papers related to nutritional benefits of the consumption of vegetables and both organizations promoted in 2004 a vegetable and fruit consumption initiative for health (cf FAO, 2003, 2011)

Vegetables have a low energy value They generally provide between 10 Kcal and 50 Kcal (40-200 Kj) per 1 g; to obtain about 1000 Kcal, it would be

every national or international report on diet and health recommendations calls for an increase in fruit and vegetable consumption to replace high-energy foods All vegetables have high water content, which ranges from 79% in potato to 96% in cucumber They vary in chemical composition even within one variety, depending on the species, conditions of growth, and method of cooking Vegetables are generally rich in carbohydrates but not in proteins (1-5 %) and lipids (0.1-1%)

Table 2.1 Chemical composition of vegetables (content per100 g)

Vegetables are composed of carbohydrates, mainly simple sugars and complex carbohydrates (starch and dietary fiber) The content ranges from 1-2%

in the leaf and stem vegetables to 27% in sweet potato Root vegetables have the highest carbohydrate content Dietary fiber content ranges from 0.8% in cucumber to 8.0% in artichoke

Most vegetables contain substantial amounts of minerals, particularly calcium, iron, and potassium But mineral content is not an indicator of nutritive value as the presence of interfering substances (e.g., oxalic or phytic acid) can hinder bioavailability of these micronutrients (Godber, 1990) Much of the iron

in vegetables would be lost but for the presence of vitamin C which aids its absorption

All vegetables contain small amounts of the B-complex vitamins, but their nutritive value is mainly derived from the supply of ß-carotene, vitamin C, and

folic acid Although most vegetables contribute to the formation of vitamin A, their ß-carotene content varies and is generally linked to color

Fruits and vegetables contain anti‐oxidants, which have been credited with disease fighting properties, and assist the body to reduce the risk of many non-communicable diseases (FAO/WHO, 2004) Traditional, underutilized crops, especially those which are locally available and culturally acceptable, are ideally placed to play a much greater role in contributing to improved nutrition and health The mineral and vitamin contents of indigenous fruits and vegetables are equivalent to, or higher than that found in some popular species such as apples and cabbages (Abukutsa‐Onyango, 2003) Indigenous traditional food crops have broader nutritional application and benefits, including the potential for bioactive compounds that can contribute to antioxidant activity in the body Indigenous traditional food crops have been a source for traditional medicine for many years Even today, the seeds, leaves, bark, and roots of various plants are used in traditional, complementary

2.2.3 The Social value of vegetables

Commercial vegetable production is a high-input and labor-intensive activity that requires a large labor force from cultivation to processing Furthermore, many vegetable crops require careful monitoring of plant health, and careful attention to weed control, irrigation, fertilization, harvest timing, and handling Since many of these activities cannot be mechanized, there may be very limited economies of scale, in production of crops that require high labor inputs The production of vegetables offers opportunities for poverty reduction and for overcoming food insecurity by creating and providing employment, because it is more labor intensive than the production of field crops Often vegetable production requires two to four times as much labor as the production

ha, respectively (Dolan, 2002) In Mexico, the vegetable sector accounts for more than 20% of the total labor days within the agricultural sector Shifting from cereal production to vegetable production therefore generates additional employment opportunities, which generates greater incomes for poor

households Lumpkin et al (2005) have shown that the per capita farm income

of vegetable growers was up to five fold higher than for cereal producers in Asia Maertens (2006) estimated that households participating in export-vegetable production in Senegal earned incomes that were 120% higher than the average household income in the region The relative profitability of vegetable crops compared to cereals has been shown to be a determining factor for crop

diversification into vegetable production in India (Joshi et al., 2003)

Diversification of vegetable production can affect both the structure and the level of employment However, where labor is scarce, availability of hired labor may actually be a limiting factor to vegetable production Labor demands also arise in the postharvest sector since transport, packing, sorting, grading and cleaning are all labor-intensive activities (Weinberger & Genova, 2005) Generally, the vegetable export industry also generates substantial employment Many work tasks, such as chopping, washing, labeling, and bar coding are increasingly being transferred to developing countries and are providing many new jobs, particularly among the unskilled segment of the workforce Usually employment increases are on farms owned by the major exporters and on independent large farms, producing for these exporters under contract (Maertens, 2006) Often these workers are landless women who have few other opportunities for earning an income The increasing feminization of vegetable production worldwide is well documented In a study conducted by Gill (2001)

in Punjab (India) during the mid-1990s, around three-quarters of all workers in the vegetable production sector were hired labor, and female-hired labor accounted for 49% Further, female labor in vegetable production accounted for

58% of total labor hours In tomato production alone, female labor accounted for almost 60% of the total labor hours In Africa, Asia, and Latin America, high-value vegetable exports are female intensive industries with women dominating most aspects of production and processing In Chile, Ecuador, Guatemala, Kenya, Mexico, South Africa, and Zimbabwe, evidence suggests that women occupy at least 50% or more of the employment in these export vegetable industries (Dolan & Sorby, 2003) Men move out of the sector more quickly than women and women are becoming the preferred labor type for many employers of the sector (Gill, 2001; Singh, 2003)

2.3 Vegetable production and consumption

2.3.1 Vegetable production and consumption in the world

The global vegetable market revenue amounted to $1,249.8B in 2018, picking up by 2.4% against the previous year The market value increased at an average annual rate of +4.1% over the period from 2007 to 2018; the trend pattern indicated some noticeable fluctuations being recorded in certain years The pace of growth appeared the most rapid in 2010, with an increase of 8.1% against the previous year Global vegetable consumption peaked in 2018 and is likely to continue its growth in the immediate term

Production 2007-2018: According to data from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Global production volume of vegetables from 2000 to 2018 increase 406,47 million metric tons (from 682.43 million metric tons in 2000 to 1088.9 million metric tons in 2018) The total output volume increased at an average annual rate of +2.8% over the period from 2007 to 2018; the trend pattern remained consistent, with somewhat noticeable fluctuations throughout the analyzed period

Figure 2.3 Global production volume of vegetables from 2000 to 2018

Exports 2007-2018: According to the new "World - Vegetable - Market Analysis, Forecast, Size, Trends and Insights" report in 2018, approx 47M tonnes of vegetables were exported worldwide; standing approx at the previous year The total export volume increased at an average annual rate of +1.7% from

2007 to 2018; the trend pattern remained consistent, with only minor fluctuations being recorded over the period under review In value terms, vegetable exports amounted to $42.3B (estimates) in 2018

Figure 2.4 Vegetable production for export of some nations in the world

Exports by Country: The Netherlands (6.1M tonnes), Mexico (5.8M tonnes), Spain (5.1M tonnes), China (4.3M tonnes), France (3.5M tonnes), Germany (2.7M tonnes) and the U.S (2.4M tonnes) represented roughly 64% of total exports of vegetables in 2018 The following exporters - Canada (1.4M tonnes), Belgium (1.3M tonnes), India (1.2M tonnes), Egypt (1.1M tonnes) and Italy (864K tonnes) - together made up 13% of total exports From 2007 to 2018, the most notable rate of growth in terms of exports, amongst the main exporting countries, was attained by Mexico, while the other global leaders experienced more modest paces of growth

In value terms, Spain ($6.7B), the Netherlands ($6.5B) and Mexico ($6.2B) constituted the countries with the highest levels of exports in 2018, together comprising 46% of global exports

Imports 2007-2018: In 2018, approx 47M tonnes of vegetables were imported worldwide; approximately mirroring the previous year The total import volume increased at an average annual rate of +1.8% over the period from 2007 to 2018; the trend pattern remained consistent, with somewhat noticeable fluctuations being recorded in certain years The growth pace was the most rapid in 2010, when imports increased by 7.2% year-to-year Over the period under review, global vegetable imports attained their peak figure at 49M tonnes in 2016; however, from 2017 to 2018, imports stood at a somewhat lower figure In value terms, vegetable imports totaled $41.9B (estimates) in 2018 The total import value increased at an average annual rate of +2.7% from 2007 to 2018; the trend pattern indicated some noticeable fluctuations being recorded throughout the analyzed period The pace of growth appeared the most rapid in

2010, when imports increased by 17% year-to-year Global imports peaked at

$42.5B in 2017, and then declined slightly in the following year

Figure 2.5 Vegetable production for import of some nations in the world

Imports by Country: In 2018, the U.S (7.4M tonnes), distantly followed by Germany (3.8M tonnes), the Netherlands (3.1M tonnes), Russia (2.2M tonnes) and the UK (2.2M tonnes) were the key importers of vegetables, together with achieving 39% of total imports The following importers - Belgium (1.9M tonnes), Canada (1.9M tonnes), France (1.9M tonnes), Malaysia (1.4M tonnes), Italy (1.2M tonnes), Spain (1.2M tonnes) and Indonesia (819K tonnes) - together made up 22% of total imports (Figure 2.5)

Figure 2.6 The global vegetable production in 2019

UNIT: MILLION TONS

GLOBAL VEGETABLE IMPORT PRODUCTION IN 2018

The figure 2.6 shows the global vegetable production in 2019, sorted by region In that year, some 84.37 million metric tons of vegetables were grown in Africa The majority of the vegetable production worldwide took place in Asian countries with 879.3 million metric tons

2.3.2 Vegetable production and consumption in Vietnam

In different regions of country, the growth rate of vegetable production was very divers depending on climatic condition and the dynamic of local demand The vegetable is cultivated mostly in Red river and Mekong river delta At Red river delta, in 2019, the total area of cultivated vegetable is 370.600 ha, representing 45,51% of vegetable total area of country While Maize (190 thousand ha), Sweet potato (14.2 thousand ha), Soybean (18.9 thousand ha), Peanut (21.6 thousand ha), Vegetables and legumes of all kinds (125.9 thousand ha) In Mekong river delta, the vegetable area is 244.000 ha representing 30 % of country vegetable area Vegetable area has slowly been diminishing now due to urbanization, especially in sub-area of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh cities

Figure 2.7 The export value of fruits and vegetables in 2016-2018

According to General Department of Customs the export of vegetables

down 6.7% over the same period in 2017 In May, export turnover of vegetables and fruits reached 1.66 billion USD, up 19.3% over the same period in 2017

In the first five months of 2018, the export of fruits and vegetables to the major markets has increased significantly In particular, led by the Chinese market with export turnover reached $ 1.2 billion, up 18.1%; followed by the United States with turnover of $ 50.9 million, up 14.6%; Japan reached $ 46.7 million, up 8%; Korea 46.5 million, up 15.4%; Thailand reached 26.1 million,

up 26.3% over the same period in 2017

Figure 2.8 Top 10 markets that Vietnam exports most fruit and vegetables

in July (Source: General Department of Customs,2020)

Top 10 markets that Vietnam exports most fruit and vegetables in July recorded that China accounted for nearly 49% of the total turnover of the country, reaching more than $ 108 million, down 14% from the previous month Following markets include the US, South Korea, and Japan with over 10 million USD each

Vietnam Fruits and Vegetable market is projected to grow at a CAGR of 4.5% during the forecast period (2020-2025) The growing demand for Vietnamese fruits and vegetables among countries such as China, Korea and an

increase in the number of free trade agreements to boost regional fruits and vegetable exports are some of the factors driving the market growth China accounts for more than 50% of Vietnam's total fruits and vegetable exports In recent years, the exports were reduced owing to China's tightening of import standards of fruits and vegetables However, Vietnam's effort to expand exports

to markets such as the European Union, the United States, the Republic of Korea and Japan has opened opportunities for its fruits and vegetables

Figure 2.9 Vegetable, fruits and other commodities’ export turnovers in the

first quarter of 2020 (Source: General Department of Customs, 2020)

Vegetables and fruits reached 831 million USD in in the first 4 months of the year, down by 11.5% but still ranked first among export items of Vietnam Vegetable and fruit exports in August 2020 reached 280 million USD, up 25.9% compared to July 2020 and 4.2% compared to August 2019 In the eight months

of 2020, fruit and vegetable exports are estimated at US $ 2.26 billion, down 11.3% over the same period in 2019 The main export vegetables are vegetables, chili, sweet potato, mushrooms, turmeric, carrot, corn, onions, garlic, ginger,

2.4 The role of vegetable crops in ensuring food security and nutrition 2.4.1 Food Security Through Production of Vegetables

Fruits and vegetables are important sources of vitamin A, vitamin C, folate, and phytochemicals Although minerals are less bioavailable in plant foods, vegetables provide a large proportion of minerals such as iron and calcium consumed in rural populations in developing countries In the Mekong Delta of Vietnam wild vegetables contributed 38% of vitamin A, 35% of

vitamin C, 30% of calcium and 17% of iron consumed by women (Ogle et al.,

2001a) In the same populations, all vegetable accounted for up to 33% of folate

consumed (Ogle et al., 2001b) The amount of vegetables consumed was found

to be the best predictor of over-all nutrient adequacy across multiple nutrients (Powell et al., 2012) Vegetables have shorter cycles, are faster growing, require little space, and thus can be considered less risk prone Besides, vegetable and legume harvests consumed micronutrient and less expensive non animal source protein needs of these less fortunate people and surpluses can be sold to generate

family income (Schreinemachers et al., 2014) Production of vegetables helps

intensify cropping systems by apply crop rotation, inter- cropping… The fast growth and quick time-to-harvest of vegetables and their ability to yield in normally fallow periods not only improves soil-protective land cover, but also helps break pest, disease, and weed cycles

Some crops belong to Leguminosae family can fix nitrogen and improve

soil health enhances farm productivity and smallholder incomes, while reducing the high costs of production incurred through exogenous application of inorganic fertilizers, improving soil fertility, organic matter status, and making some nitrogen available for subsequent crops

2.4.2 Nutritional Security Through Consumption of Vegetables

Micronutrient deficiencies, including lack of vitamin A, iron, zinc, and iodine are among the most devastating problems facing the majority of the poor

people For example, vitamin A deficiency suppresses the immune system, increasing the risk of childhood mortality from infectious diseases (World Health Organization, 1995) It causes night blindness estimated to affect 5.2 million preschool-age children (0.9 % of the population at risk) and 9.8 million pregnant women (7.8 % of the population at risk), of whom the majority are found in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia Furthermore, an estimated 250,000–500,000 vitamin A deficient children become blind every year, half of them dying within 12 months of losing their sight (World Health Organization, 2013) Iron-deficiency anemia diminishes the stamina and work capacity of adults by as much as 10–15 %, and it is estimated that it results in losses in gross domestic product of up to 1.5 %, thus, exerting a high economic burden on society (World Health Organization, 2002)

Supplementing green vegetables for the body is the most essential way to provide adequate nutrition Vegetables such as amaranth, Green mustard, Moringa, and Jute mallow are rich in pro-vitamin A and vitamin C, several mineral micronutrients, health-promoting phytochemicals with antioxidant, antibiotic and anticancer properties, and other nutraceuticals (Yang, Fischer, Hanson & Keatinge, 2013) Legumes, such as chickpea, Groundnuts, Pigeon pea, Mung bean, Soybean, and Common bean, among others, are rich in protein, oil, minerals (P, Ca, K, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn and Se), vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, choline, E, and folate), phenolic compounds, and fiber Groundnuts are a good source of biologically active compounds: arginine, resveratrol, phytosterols, and flavonoids which good for people’ health Moringa leaves are

rich in vitamins A, C, E, folates, and iron (Yang et al., 2013) An intimate

relationship exists between minerals, trace elements and vitamins which, when combined in certain specific groupings, are bioavailable, inexpensive, and easily

PART III MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Object and Materials research

- Local seeds were purchased from Vang local market and an improved

seed were purchased from seed agency

- NPK fertilizers, manures, sterile soil

- Secondary data collected from 54 peer-reviewed journal articles

- Open-ended interview questionnaires

3.2 Experiment site and research time

- Experiment site:

+ Surveys in Sa Pa – Lao Cai and Mai Son – Son La

+ A controlled experiment was conducted at Department of Horticulture and Landscaping, Faculty of Agronomy, Vietnam National University of Agriculture

- Research time: 9/2020- 3/2020

3.3 Research Contents

- Literature reviewing on the multifaceted factors (technical and economic aspects) that drive on-farm agro-biodiversity (with a focus on vegetables) but not leaving out other crop groups through the view of farmer’s seed choice

socio Validating the review result by household survey in Sapa - Lao Cai and Mai Son – Son La

- Interviewing farmers in some other regions to further explore the gap in the surveys about the mechanism by which the decision in farmer’s seed choice was driven in an urban region beyond from rural/ remote regions

- Investigate the growth indicators of two bush common bean varieties

(Phaseolus vulgaris) (one local seed and an improved seed)

3.4 Research methods

3.4.1 Evaluating the importance of socio-economic and technical factors in driving on-farm agro-biodiversity (with a focus on vegetables) via the seed choice of farmers

The publications used in this review were available in the official journal gates: PubMed, Web of science, Scopus and Google scholars Some initial keywords (“agro-biodiversity” “agricultural biodiversity”, “crop*”,

“vegetable*” which were linked by “OR” were combined with other search terms linked by “AND”, including “farmer* seed choice”, “informal seed*”,

“formal seed*” A list of papers found were all downloaded and stored in Mendeley library All duplicated papers were checked A quick scan of papers’ abstracts to leave out the irrelevant ones A further exploratory searching step were followed to capture all relevant papers based on the new-found keywords

A new list of papers was formulated and sorted by names A thorough scanning was done throughout the paper list to gather all highly relevant ones The list was then split up in two sub-groups with one composing of highly relevant articles and one less relevant based on the abstracts The next step was to read the full papers to finalize the paper lists This step was parallel done by two independent persons (one is the author of this thesis, and one is her supervisor) The cross-check between two reviewers was made to get an agreement and consensus between two about the final papers to be reviewed in this thesis At the end, there were totally 54 peer-reviewed journal articles to be thoroughly

reviewed and presented below

3.4.2 Farmer’s choice in seed procurement in different ethnic groups

a Farmers’ seed choice by ethnic minority farmers (Dao in Sa Pa – Lao Cai, and Thai in Mai Son – Son La)

systems and farmer’s choice of vegetable seeds A part of this data was allowed

to use in this thesis and not allowed to be used by any other purposed The data were analyzed to evaluate the drivers of local farmers in making decisions on seeds for the next seasons There were 2 ethnic groups surveyed: Thai in Mai Son – Son La and Dao –in Sa Pa – Lao Cai Twenty farmers per ethnic group were randomly selected from the list of all farmers in all villages that are physically accessible Selected farmers’ information was kept confidentially, and they are completely voluntary to be involved in the survey An informed consent was read in front of the farmer and they felt free to answer the questions They could refuse to answer any questions that they did not feel comfortable and able to stop the conversation at any time

b Farmers’ seed choice by ethnic minority farmers (King in Hung Yen)

An additional interview campaign was conducted with farmers growing vegetables in urban areas in Yen My - Hung Yen (13 households), Van Lam – Hung Yen (12 households), Van Giang – Hung Yen (5 households) to fill some possible gaps in the previous survey and have a better overview and comparison between the minority communities and majority group (Kinh ethnicity) There were 30 farmers randomly selected in 3 communes in Hung Yen province and a short interview was made (the detail information of the questions, please see

appendix 2

3.4.3 Evaluate the performance of the bush common bean varieties

(Phaseolus vulgaris) from two seed sources: local seed and improved seed

a) Testing quality of local and improved seeds under laboratory conditions

Prior to testing, 810 seeds were determined by carefully removing all physical dirt from the seed samples, and around three sub-samples of 810

The seed testing experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design with considering seed samples (6 samples in total) as treatments and 3 replications per treatment and 270 seed per replication

Treatment 1: Seeds were soaked in warm water around 45 - 50o C for 20 minutes and then dried naturally in room condition

Treatment 2: Seeds were soaked in cold water (tap water) for 20 minutes, and then drier naturally in room condition

Treatment 3: Sowing seeds directly without water treatment

Dried seeds were sown in petri discs and each disc represents for a replication Numbers of germinated seeds were counted every day since the day after experiment started

A seed was considered as being germinated if a sprout of around 1- 2 mm long was formed and clearly visible to naked eyes The experiment ends when

no more seeds germinated after 6 days

b) Growth and development of two bush common bean varieties on the field

The local varieties were bought in Vang local market and improve seeds came from Hoang Nong company

The experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with two treatments (two varieties) and 3 replicates The area of each experimental plot is 6 m2 (1.2 m × 5 m) And there were total 12 experimental plot, making 72 m2 Seeds were sown in triples to minimize the risk of un-germinated seeds, per hole, and distance between two holes in a row was 30 cm, and distance between two rows was 60 cm, when the young plants emerged, one plant was pruned to keep 2 plants per hole The detailed cultural practices applied were described in the appendix 3

- Morphological characteristics (leaf length (cm, LL), leaf width (cm, LW), plant height (cm, PH), number of leaves per plant, number of fruit per plant: measure 1 time per week by ruler, cm

- Developmental stage duration (days): days from planting to flower initiation (DFI), days from flowering to maturity (DM), days

- Germination rate (%): Count the number of germinated seeds once a day, the germination rate is the percentage of seeds germinated over the total number

of seeds sown

- The seedling emergence rate (%): Count the number of seedlings once a day, the seedling emergence rate is the percentage of seedlings emerged over the total number of seeds sown

3.6 Data analysis

All data were stored and processed by MS EXCEL software 2010 and

Irristat 5.0

PART IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Evaluating the importance of socio-economic, cultural and technical factors in on-farm agro-biodiversity (with a focus on vegetables) via the seed choice of farmers

Identified articles

Total 349 articles were identified after scanning the title of articles After title and abstract scanning, sixty-three articles still remained, fifty-four articles were used after reading completely full texts Out of the 54 articles included in the review, the vast majority were observational studies (30 articles) and 14 articles had an experimental study design The remaining articles were either literature reviews, book chapters, reports, summaries (10 articles) and letters All

of the studies were conducted within developing countries with a majority

conducted in Africa (19 articles), and Asia (18 articles), South and Central America (5 articles), North America (6 articles), Europe (5 articles), Australia (1

articles) (Figure 4.1) All articles regard to traditional crops and the factors affect to farmer’s seed choice The literature gathered was categorized into three

keys: social economic factors, cultural characteristics, environmental/ physical factors and the storage aspects About 57.4 % of the included studies

Bio-focused on the economic characteristics (n=31), 50% highlighted the cultural impacts (n=27), 63% of the articles were focused on the storage characteristics (n=34) while 27.8 % were on the bio-physical factors (n=15) Articles often had multiple outcomes of interest These categories were chosen since they encompass the key elements related to the local farm agrobiodiversity All articles used indigenous seeds either as their primary study, out of which, 22 articles on cereal crops (n=22, 42.5%), Thirteen papers on vegetables (n=13, 24.1%), three papers on leguminous crops (n=3, 5.5%), mix

social-crops: grain crops, vegetables crops, legume crops and others (n=10, 18.5%), fiber crop (n=1), while some articles did not specify the type of seed used (n=4)

For further analysis, the identified articles have been divided into 4 sections, section 1 with vegetables crops (13 articles), section 2 with legume articles (3 articles), and section 3 with grain crops (22 articles) theoretical interventions on cereal crops, legumes and vegetables, fruit trees and fiber crops (15 articles)

Figure 4.1 The crop groups according to distribution areas

4.1.1 Vegetables group

This section presents findings from seed system interventions on vegetables (13 articles) These articles focused on local varieties (9 articles), both local and improved varieties (1 articles) and the others are not mentioned

specifically (3 articles) The factors affect to farmer decision are mainly social- economic (8 articles) and factors affecting the quality of seed (8 articles) while

social- cultural factors (6 articles) were much less frequently studied Six articles were observational studies, four others are experimental study design and the articles summarize from the previous studies account for 30.8% of total (n=4) All data were mention on tables 4.1

Africa Asia South and central America North America Europe Australia

Table 4.1 Summary of studies on vegetables seed system interventions

categorized according to their entries in the impact pathways

Local varieties and/or seed

Baniya et al., 2006 Kraft et al., 2010 Ngoze et al., 2005 Vorster et al., 2008

Personal preferences

in specific seed, favor

of fruit color, available of seed, habit of farmers,

Ethno-linguistic Summarize

from the previous studies

Local varieties and/or seed

Akinola et al., 2020 Pichop et al., 2014

2.Social-economic

factors

Household incomes, wealth category

Observational studies

Local varieties and/or seed

Baniya et al., 2006 Bicksler et al.,

2012 Garcia-Yi, 2014

Kraft et al., 2010 Ngoze et al., 2005 Vorster et al., 2008

Distance to markets, participation in commercial agriculture

Summarize from the previous studies

Local varieties and/or seed Pichop et al., 2014

Gender, education, experience as a farmer

Baniya et al., 2006 Bicksler et al.,

2012

Seed moisture, temperature, oxygen pressure

Experimental study design

Not further defined

Kamotho et al.,

2013

Maina et al., 2017 Suma et al., 2013

Improve varieties and/or seed

Barua et al., 2009

Summarize

Local varieties Pichop et al.,