INTRODUCTION
Introduction
The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a vital global crop, serving as a key source of calories, proteins, dietary fibers, minerals, and vitamins for millions across both developing and developed nations It provides nearly perfect nutrition when paired with cereals and other carbohydrate-rich foods Domesticated around 8000 years ago in the Americas, the common bean is valued for its affordability compared to animal protein and its long shelf life Additionally, as a legume, it offers economic and environmental advantages by partnering with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which helps reduce the reliance on synthetic fertilizers, promoting sustainable agriculture.
The common bean is a vital legume, providing essential nutrients to over 300 million people in Eastern Africa and Latin America, contributing 65% of total protein and 32% of energy intake, along with key micronutrients like iron, zinc, thiamin, and folic acid Global production of common beans reaches approximately 12 million metric tons annually, with Latin America as the leading producer, particularly Brazil and Mexico Africa follows as the second-largest producer, generating about 2.5 million tons per year, primarily in Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, and Congo In Asia, India and China are the top producers, each contributing over 4 million tons annually.
US, common beans are an economically important crop with 769,000 hectares of acreage planted for seeds in 2012 and have generated a value of 1.5 million dollars (Petry et al., 2015)
Common beans exhibit unstable yields primarily due to non-biotic factors like climate and soil conditions, as noted by CIAT (1991) These beans are typically cultivated in wet farming environments, where diseases significantly contribute to low and inconsistent yields To mitigate disease risks, farmers often adjust their planting times, either delaying or advancing them, which adversely impacts the flowering and fruiting capabilities of the common bean plants Consequently, this misalignment with optimal climatic conditions leads to reduced growth rates and ultimately results in lower yields.
Luque and Creamer (2014) collaborated with CIAT to identify key constraints and trends in common bean production and consumption They emphasized the importance of selecting bean varieties that exhibit traits such as resistance to adverse conditions, improved yield, pest and disease resistance, and nutritional quality to meet market demands In Brazil, where common bean is a major crop, it is essential for cultivars to combine desirable genotypes to satisfy both producers and consumers For producers, the ideal bean must offer high grain yield, robust plant architecture, resistance to key pathogens, and a grain type that is highly marketable (Lima et al., 2015).
Common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), part of the Fabaceae family, originated from wild ancestors in Central and South America They thrive in diverse climates, including moderately hot, arid, tropical humid lowlands, and cooler mountainous regions of South America.
The genus Phaseolus is the largest among legumes, comprising over 70 species native to Central and North America Notably, five species have been domesticated, including P vulgaris, P dumosus, P coccineus, P acutifolius, and P lunatus, with additional species beginning to be domesticated Common beans are derived from two major genetic centers: Mesoamerica and the Andes Within these domesticated genetic centers, various eco-geographic species have been identified based on morphological, isozyme, and molecular data.
Common beans in Northern Vietnam face limitations due to a short growing season from September to December, resulting in a restricted supply of vegetables in the Red River Delta Currently, there is a lack of suitable varieties that can thrive in the high temperatures of the region for early Autumn-Winter and Late Spring crops The newly-bred common bean lines BH1 and BH2 require further research on planting procedures, including density and fertilizer application, to establish standardized cultivation practices for each variety.
This research investigates the impact of fertilizer density and quantity on the growth and development of two common bean lines during the 2020 winter season in Gia Lam, Hanoi, addressing both practical agricultural needs and scientific principles.
Objectives and Requirements
Identity the optimal density and fertilizer level which give the best growth and yield of pod to two newly bred common bean lines BH1 and BH2
Describe or measure the morphological and agronomic characteristics of the two common beans
Measure yield and yield components of the two common beans
Calculate the effect of densities and the amounts of fertilizer on growth and development of the two common beans
Identify the optimal planting density and amount of fertilizer which give the highest yield or highest profit for the two lines of common beans.
LITERATURE REVIEW
General introduction about common bean plants
The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a member of the Fabaceae family, also known as the legume or butterfly family Its wild ancestor originates from Central and South America, thriving in diverse climates, including moderately hot, arid, tropical humid lowlands, and cooler mountainous regions Among legumes, the genus Phaseolus is the largest, encompassing over 70 native species.
Central America and North America are home to several species of beans, including five that have been domesticated: P vulgaris, P dumosus, P coccineus, P acutifolius, and P lunatus, with additional species beginning to be domesticated Among these, P dumosus and P coccineus, originating from Mesoamerica, are the closest relatives to P vulgaris, allowing for the possibility of distant hybridization Genetic studies indicate that P vulgaris diverged from P dumosus and P coccineus approximately 2 million years ago, as evidenced by α-amylase inhibitor gene sequencing data.
According to Paul Gepts (1998), the common bean is cultivated on every continent except Antarctica The main products derived from this plant include dry beans, which are harvested at full maturity, shell beans, collected at physiological maturity before complete desiccation, and green or snap beans, which are picked before the seeds fully develop.
In Vietnam, there is a lack of documented evidence regarding the historical introduction of common beans However, traders have been bringing "đậu cô ve" (green haricot vert) and "đậu cô bơ" (yellow haricot beurre) into the country for hundreds of years (Ta Thu Cuc, 2006).
Genomic data for other domesticated or wild Phaseolus species is limited or nonexistent However, the sequenced genomes of the common bean can facilitate the sequencing and assembly of genomes for other species within the genus Notably, the common bean is one of the five domesticated species in this genus.
Phaseolus is a diverse genus comprising numerous species that exhibit varying geographical distributions, with some specifically adapted to unique environments Among these, the tepary bean (P acutifolius) is one of the four domesticated species.
A Gray), runner bean (P coccineus L.), lima bean (P lunatus L.) and year-long bean (P dumosus Macfad.), all four originated and domesticated in America
The wild forms of the common bean originated in Mesoamerica around 165,000 years ago and spread to the Andes, leading to two independent domestication events that created distinct gene pools in these regions These gene pools evolved in isolation, resulting in parallel evolution characterized by partial reproductive incompatibility, which affected hybrid fertility This process facilitated the development of landraces with unique traits and adaptations The independent domestication of the common bean presents a unique opportunity for evolutionary studies, contrasting with other species that experienced multiple domestication events without reproductive isolation Similarities can be observed in rice, particularly between the indica and japonica subspecies.
The common bean serves as an excellent model for studying domestication and evolution, and this review aims to summarize its evolutionary history It analyzes the domestication process, emphasizing convergent phenotypic evolution Additionally, it discusses the genetic control of the domestication syndrome, particularly in light of the recent release of the Mesoamerican and Andean reference genome sequences.
Research by Mamidi et al (2012) and Bitocchi et al (2013) indicates that the common bean has been independently domesticated for nearly 8,000 years, leading to the development of distinct Mexican and South American varieties These local domesticated varieties have evolved into indigenous types with unique characteristics Notably, native Mexican beans were domesticated alongside maize and are integral to the 'milpa' farming system, which includes green beans, corn, and zucchini, and is widely adapted across America This domestication process has resulted in significant morphological changes in green bean plants, including increased seed numbers, larger leaf sizes, altered growth behaviors, and variable seed shell colors (Shree P Singh et al., 1991; McClean et al., 2002; Zizumbo-Villarreal & Colunga-GarciaMarin, 2010).
The wild common bean was initially identified in Argentina and Guatemala, with early descriptions provided by Burkart in 1941 and McBryde in 1947 This information was later compiled by Gept and Debouk in 1991, with further contributions from Debouck et al in 1993 and Freyre et al.
In 1996, a detailed study of the behavior and genetic relationships of wild common beans in Ecuador, Colombia, and Bolivia revealed that coca beans thrive across a wide range, from northern Mexico to northwestern Argentina, at altitudes of 500 to 2,000 meters and with rainfall between 500 and 1,800 mm Two subgroups, P vulgaris var aborigineus and P vulgaris var mexicanus, have been identified, distinguished morphologically and at the molecular level An international conference in 2012 at the CIAT Tropical Agriculture Center highlighted the importance of utilizing wild common beans and their relatives to enhance crop varieties Despite their global significance, common bean yields are limited to 600 kg/ha due to biotic and abiotic challenges, impacting income and food security amid rising population demands and climate change threats Climate change exacerbates issues like high temperatures, drought, and diseases that adversely affect common beans To address these challenges, new genetic variations have been identified for breeding programs, as the current genetic diversity of cultivated legumes is narrow compared to the vast diversity found in wild species Enhancing common bean genetics by incorporating genes from wild relatives, such as P acutifolius, P coccineus, P costaricensis, and P dumosus, using advanced molecular genetic tools has shown promising results.
The common bean (indigenous and improved varieties)
Archaeological evidence has proven that common bean is known about 7,000 years ago and are the oldest tree in the Mediterranean (Aguilar-Benítez et al., 2012)
The common bean is cultivated in Latin America, thriving in regions with average temperatures ranging from 17.5 °C to 25 °C, with most areas averaging around 21 °C The domestication process has enabled these beans to adapt to warmer climates and extended daylight hours For instance, common beans in California experience an average growing season temperature of 27 °C (Paul Gepts, 1998).
The genetic diversity of indigenous common bean is extensive, as highlighted by various studies, including research by Raggi et al (2013) in Italy, which identified common bean as a significant crop native to Mesoamerica Italian native breeds are categorized into three distinct groups, which do not correlate with the original genetic pool, suggesting adaptation to environmental factors, including altitude The integration of morphological, biochemical, and molecular data revealed significant differences among most native varieties These findings could aid in the assessment of native breeds in Italy and support their registration in conservation lists and geographical indications in Europe, enhancing their commercial and agricultural value Additionally, leveraging the genetic diversity of indigenous resources is beneficial for breeding, organic farming systems, and traditional agricultural practices.
As of 2001, the common bean genome (Phaseolus) comprised approximately 65,000 samples in plant seed genetic banks, with over 90% being P vulgaris The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) houses the world's largest collection, spanning more than 40,000 acres, which includes 26,500 acres of cultivated common beans, around 1,300 acres of wild common beans, and the rest consisting of distant relatives of the common bean.
The East African highlands are a significant producer of common beans, showcasing a high diversity of varieties A study by Asfaw et al (2009) assessed the diversity and population structure of 192 indigenous varieties from Ethiopia and Kenya, utilizing morphological phenotyping and SSR molecular markers The findings revealed that these genetic resources represent various common bean-producing ecoregions, with indigenous varieties displaying diversity across two genomes: Andean and Mesoamerica Notably, gene transfer between these groups was minimal, with Mesoamerican genotypes predominating in Ethiopia and Andean genotypes in Kenya Additionally, indigenous varieties from the same country typically belong to the same genetic group, highlighting national-level differences in genetic resources The research indicated that Ethiopia's indigenous varieties exhibit greater genetic diversity than those in Kenya, suggesting a higher degree of diversity in the Mesoamerican genotype compared to the Andean genotype.
Bontany characteristics
The root system of common beans is typically underdeveloped, primarily extending within a soil depth of 20-30 cm and a radius of 50-70 cm While the main roots are generally short, they can reach depths of up to 1 meter in loose soil The lateral or secondary roots are shallow, and Rhizobium bacteria thrive on these secondary roots Additionally, the common bean root system is sensitive to waterlogging conditions.
There are two main types of plants: erect herbaceous bushes that can grow between 20 to 60 cm in height, and twining climbing vines that can reach lengths of 2 to 5 m The bushy varieties feature slender, pubescent, and highly branched stems, while the twining types typically have prostrate stems for most of their length, which rise towards the end.
The feathered double leaf type features three leaves that grow on long green or purple stalks with three grooves Leaflets measure between 6-15 cm in length and 3-11 cm in width, displaying colors that range from yellow to green The leaf surface is typically flat and slightly rough Varieties with smaller leaves can enhance density but often yield smaller fruit, resulting in lower overall productivity.
The flower features a complete structure with 10 stamens, where 9 are arranged around a taller, separate stamen These flowers, which can be white to purple and often have a papillary appearance, are typically found in pairs or solitary along the grooves While they primarily self-pollinate, some flowers also engage in cross-pollination facilitated by bees.
After pollination, flowers develop into fruits that vary in color, including green, yellow, black, and purple, and may have stripes These slender pods can be cylindrical or flat, straight or curved, measuring 1-1.5 cm in width and up to 20 cm in length The tips of the fruits can be round, long pointed, or needle-shaped, with young fruits typically appearing in shades of green or dark green.
The pods typically contain between 4 to 12 seeds, with significant variation in size and weight as they ripen Seed lengths range from 5 to 20 mm, and their weights vary from 0.15 to 0.8 g The shape of the seeds is determined by the specific variety, while the color of the ripe seed pods can be quite diverse, displaying either a uniform hue or a mix of colors such as white, ivory white, black, brown, red-brown, and coffee milk.
The requirements of cultivated condition
Common beans thrive in temperate climates, as they cannot tolerate extreme temperatures The optimal temperature range for germination is between 25-30°C, while the ideal growing temperature for the plants is 18-25°C Temperatures below 13°C or above 25°C can hinder growth, and prolonged exposure to these extremes may lead to plant death.
Table 2.2: Table shows the temperature of common bean during the growing periods
Germination Leaf stem formation Flowering Result
Suitable temperature conditions in agriculture (°C) 15-18 16-20 18-22 20-23
Global warming, characterized by rising temperatures, poses significant abiotic stress for plants, necessitating their adaptation for survival The critical challenge arises when temperatures surpass the plant's adaptive threshold, typically between 10°C and 15°C, which marks the onset of growth This threshold varies based on the cultivar and genotype of each species Notably, plants such as Arabidopsis, maize, and wheat exhibit morphological, physiological, and biochemical changes in response to heat stress (Hossain et al., 2013).
Global climate change is expected to increase temperatures by 1-3°C by the mid-21st century and 2-5°C by the century's end, significantly impacting agricultural production This rise in temperature affects plant growth, development, and yield Consequently, selecting heat-tolerant plant lines and investigating synthetic biochemical pathways are essential for understanding plant responses to elevated temperatures and their protective mechanisms This research can lead to the enhancement of various heat resistance mechanisms in crops.
Common beans thrive in cool climates, with optimal growth temperatures ranging from 20 to 25 °C Exposure to daytime temperatures exceeding 30 °C or nighttime temperatures above 20 °C can significantly reduce yields Research on the response of common beans to high temperatures is essential for developing breeding strategies and management techniques aimed at maximizing yield (Porch, 2006).
Hot dissonance during vegetative growth significantly reduces bean yield, as these crops are adapted to the cooler temperatures of Central and South America, typically ranging from 12 to 24°C Unfavorable hot conditions adversely impact the overall growth of common beans by hindering photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation, potentially damaging the plasma membrane and ultimately affecting yield.
Common beans thrive in bright light, necessitating the establishment of a climbing platform for optimal growth They require 10-13 hours of light daily to complete their growth stages effectively While common beans generally respond to shorter daylight, certain varieties can still achieve high yields under longer daylight conditions Insufficient light or planting in shaded areas can hinder their growth, leading to the loss of buds and flowers, ultimately resulting in reduced yield and quality.
Water is crucial for the germination and growth of common bean varieties, requiring 100-110% water volume during seed germination Optimal growth occurs at 70-80% humidity, and the plants need 300-400mm of rainfall throughout their life cycle Insufficient water leads to poor growth, stunted stems and leaves, bud drop, flower loss, smaller fruits, reduced fructification rates, and lower yields, while also affecting fruit color and firmness Conversely, excessive soil moisture can hinder root development due to soil adhesion and reduced porosity, particularly during the flowering period, which can lead to plant disease The water requirements of the plant vary throughout its growth stages.
Common beans thrive in various soil types, particularly favoring light, porous, and well-ventilated soils that are nutrient-rich for optimal yield and quality They are especially well-suited for sandy and alluvial soils found along riverbanks A soil pH of 6 to 6.5 is ideal for cultivating common beans.
Production and research of common bean in the World
2.4.1 Production and research of common bean in the World
The common bean is a historically significant crop that has been cultivated by humans for centuries Farmers have long recognized the value of this versatile legume, leading to extensive research on beans globally, including in Vietnam.
In 1838, Boussinggauld studied legumes and herbaceous plants for their ability to absorb atmospheric nitrogen through nodules formed by microorganisms By 1875, Berthelot investigated the protein absorption capabilities of organic substances like cellulose and benzene in legumes In 1888, Hellriegel and Wilfavth confirmed that bean plants utilize symbiotic microorganisms in nodules to absorb nitrogen R.E Rho and J.B Sincole later researched rust in beans, while Truong Van Chau et al (1997) examined the properties of lectins and nutritional proteins in relation to legume species diversity Currently, global breeding efforts focus on adapting legumes to various ecological regions, collecting and cross-breeding materials to select superior varieties, testing adaptability across different environments, and employing physical and chemical agents to induce mutations for developing new, beneficial varieties.
By 2001, the pea genome set (Phaseolus) comprised approximately 65,000 samples in plant seed gene banks, with over 90% being P vulgaris The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) houses the world's largest collection, spanning more than 40,000 acres, including 26,500 acres of cultivated beans, around 1,300 acres of wild beans, and the rest consisting of distant relatives of beans (CIAT, 2001).
The East African highlands are a significant producer of common beans, showcasing a high diversity of varieties A study by Asfew et al (2009) assessed the diversity and population structure of 192 indigenous bean varieties from Ethiopia and Kenya, utilizing morphological phenotyping and SSR molecular markers The genetic resources analyzed represent various common bean-producing ecoregions and types within these countries Findings revealed that the indigenous varieties exhibited considerable diversity, belonging to the Andean and Mesoamerican genomes, with minimal gene transfer between the two groups Notably, Mesoamerican genotypes are predominant in Ethiopia, while Andean genotypes are more prevalent in other regions.
Kenya's indigenous plant varieties exhibit genetic differences at the national level, with a notable observation that Ethiopian indigenous varieties possess greater genetic diversity compared to those in Kenya This suggests that the Mesoamerican genotype demonstrates a higher degree of diversity than the Andean genotype.
A study by Zhang et al (2008) assessed the diversity of 229 indigenous common bean varieties in China using 30 SSR molecular markers, revealing a total of 166 alleles with an average of 5.5 alleles per locus The indigenous varieties were categorized into two groups, showing that native Chinese varieties of Andean origin exhibit a higher degree of diversity compared to those of Mesoamerican origin.
Advancements in research and the genetic diversity of green bean collections from various countries are poised to significantly increase global production, potentially doubling it in the coming years.
Research on the optimal growing density of common beans is limited, with farmers typically spacing rows 0.4 to 0.5 m apart for both indeterminate and determinate cultivars A study by Smith et al (1992) examined various row spacings (16, 36, 56, and 76 cm) and plant densities (100,000 to 400,000 plants/ha) across three growth habits, finding no significant yield differences among treatments Yield variations were primarily influenced by growth habit and year, with indeterminate types II and III showing yield reductions at higher populations, while determinate type I exhibited the opposite trend (Nienhuis & Singh, 1985) Additionally, low population densities were deemed inadequate for cultivar selection and yield testing (Singh & Gutierrez, 1990) Fronza et al (1994) reported optimal yields at a spacing of 33 cm and a density of 250,000 plants/ha.
& Myers (1992), in contrast, reported that seed yield decreased when population density was increased within the 56-cm row-to-row spacing (S P Singh, 2013)
2.4.2 Research about fertilizer and density of common bean in the world
Chantal et al (2019) demonstrated that increasing potassium fertilizer significantly enhances bean crop growth and yield parameters The research indicated that the NPK formula (18-46-30) was particularly effective, leading to notable improvements in plant height, stem diameter, leaf area, and leaf count Additionally, this fertilizer formulation positively impacted root length, the number of grains, pods, full pods, yield weight, and the weight of a thousand grains.
Research on the effects of potassium and magnesium applications on the vegetative growth of snap bean plants revealed significant interactions impacting plant height, leaf and branch count, fresh and dry weight, and total chlorophyll The findings indicate that the highest levels of vegetative growth were achieved with the application of 96 kg K2O per fed and the maximum level of magnesium.
In both growing seasons, the application of 6 kg MgO per feddan resulted in higher values, while the lowest values were observed with the addition of the minimum level of potassium (48 kg K2O per feddan) without magnesium application (Abou Hadid, 2010).
A study by Meaza Abebe revealed that the morphology, growth, yield, and quality of mung bean pods were significantly influenced by nitrogen (N) and boron (B) treatments The optimal combination of N and B resulted in slower flowering and ripening of green beans Additionally, higher rates of N and B fertilization promoted vegetative growth, enhancing above-ground biomass and overall mung bean yield Notably, the impact of increased N fertilizer was more pronounced than that of B, leading to improved quality of mung bean pods.
Higher nitrogen (N) ratios in fertilization significantly enhance the yield and quality of pea pods and green beans Additionally, applying 2 kg ha\(^{-1}\) of boron (B) is effective in improving the yield and quality of mung beans, especially when used alongside elevated N ratios.
(100 and 150 kg N ha -1 ) N Depends on source availability force to buy fertilizer Bean producers in the study area can use 100 -150 N ha -1 combined with 2 kg B ha - 1 (Meaza Abebe et al., 2019)
Plants face various adverse environmental conditions throughout their life cycle, which can be categorized into two primary groups: biotic and abiotic factors Abiotic stressors, including drought, salinity, heavy metals, acidity, nutrient deficiencies, and extreme temperatures, significantly impact crop yield and viability (Shaik et al., 2014).
Abiotic disparity reduces agricultural yields, so developing new genotypes adapted to unfavorable environments is essential (Wang et al., 2011; Wu et al.,
Production and research of common bean in Vietnam
2.5.1 Common bean production in Vietnam
The common bean is cultivated extensively in various northern provinces and select southern regions, including Da Lat, Ho Chi Minh City, and Binh Duong Notable provinces with significant cultivation areas include Hanoi, Hung Yen, Ha Tay, and Hai Phong.
In recent years, the North Central provinces have expanded the cultivation of common beans during both spring-summer and winter-spring seasons Although the spring crop yields are lower than those of the winter-spring crop, they command a higher market price Due to the fragmented and small-scale nature of common bean cultivation, specific statistics on the area and output are lacking, as they are often grouped with other vegetables Common beans are well-suited to rice farming systems and are considered the most significant vegetable bean in the country, offering substantial yields and a valuable source of income for farming households.
Harvesting common beans occurs 50-55 days after planting, with the initial yield being modest at about 50-60 quintals per hectare Subsequent harvests, typically conducted daily, can yield full batches, with collection occurring every 2-3 days for a total of 10-12 harvests, depending on care The yield during the rainy season ranges from 12-15 tons per hectare, while the winter-spring crop can produce 20-22 tons per hectare It is crucial to harvest at the right time when the fruit peel is green and smooth, as overripe fruit tends to be fibrous and of lower quality.
In Vietnam, the common bean exported as fresh and frozen goods to the
In June 2018, preliminary statistics from the General Department of Customs revealed that the export turnover to China reached $1.47 billion, marking an 18% increase compared to the same period in 2017 The United States followed with an export turnover of $61.9 million, up 15.9%, while the Korean market saw a turnover of $58 million, reflecting a 16.7% increase Notably, exports to China accounted for 77% of the country's total export turnover, highlighting the significant economic efficiency of these key markets, including the US, China, Japan, Taiwan, and Hong Kong.
2.5.2 Research of common bean in Vietnam
Recent research from the Fruit and Vegetable Research Institute highlights that tomatoes, cucumbers, and corn are among the key vegetables with significant potential for export development These crops are expected to grow substantially in both scale and output, with a notable increase in the proportion of products and goods available for export.
Vegetable production in Vietnam is primarily concentrated in specialized areas surrounding cities, towns, and industrial zones, which account for 46% of the total cultivation area and contribute to 45% of the national vegetable output, as noted by Assoc Prof Dr Tran Khac Thi et al in their 2007 publication, "Safe Vegetables and the Scientific and Technical Basis of Cultivation."
Vegetable production in this region primarily targets the domestic market, with a high land use coefficient of 4.3 crops per year Despite the intensive farming practices, there is a significant concern regarding the safety of green vegetable products and environmental pollution The region boasts a diverse range of vegetables, featuring 60-80 varieties during the winter-spring season and 20-30 varieties in the summer-autumn season The vegetable production area is strategically oriented towards commercial goods, with crop rotation alongside food crops in large deltas, contributing to 54% of the area and 55% of the national vegetable output The consumption of these products is highly varied, catering to local and external markets, the processing industry, and export needs Additionally, this area focuses on processing, exporting, and regulating vegetable circulation within the country.
High-tech agriculture is revolutionizing vegetable production through innovative methods such as screen houses, insect-proof mesh houses, and non-fixed plastic structures that mitigate environmental challenges Techniques like hydroponics and nutritional film cultivation are being employed, alongside the propagation of rare, high-yield plants utilizing Israeli greenhouse technology that ensures controlled environmental conditions.
The growing demand for high yield and quality in common bean cultivation has driven researchers and breeders to develop new varieties tailored to specific regional production conditions, enhancing economic efficiency Key areas of research include the collection and importation of genetic resources to support breeding efforts, hybridization and mutagenic treatments to create new varieties for fruit processing, and the establishment of production technologies that ensure nitrate levels, chemical residues, heavy metals, and microorganisms remain within permissible limits Additionally, there is a strong emphasis on developing superior common bean varieties and transferring vegetable production technologies to farms.
Common bean respond well to organic fertilizers and mineral fertilizers N,
P, K Nitrogen is an important component of chlorophyll, helping to increase the number of leaves and leaf area Phosphorus is necessary for the seedling stage, promoting the growth of the plant, helping the plant to flower early, and shorten the growth time Potassium increases the photosynthetic capacity of plants, which is essential for the fruit production period, increasing biomass and fruit quality Common bean have a cluster root system containing many nitrogen-fixing nodule bacteria mainly concentrated around the roots 10-20cm near the ground (Phân bón miền Trung, 2018).
Production and market of common beans
The common bean, a key crop in the legume family, ranks as the third most significant seed legume globally, following soybeans and peanuts, and is the leading choice for direct human consumption as a vegetable With its broad adaptability, the common bean is cultivated across various countries in temperate, sub-tropical, and tropical climates Notably, green beans are primarily found in Europe, America, and Asia, with Asia boasting the largest cultivation area.
Table 2.3: Production of common bean in the world since 2013 to 2017
From 2013 to 2017, the area dedicated to growing cocoa beans experienced a slight increase, with a minimal rise of 0.01 million hectares from 2016 to 2017 This trend indicates a growing focus on common bean production, signaling positive developments for the common bean industry.
From 2013 to 2016, the yield of green beans rose by 1.27 tons per hectare, indicating a significant increase Meanwhile, the yield of common beans has also reached a relatively high level and continues to show an upward trend.
In terms of yield, the yield of common bean is proportional to the productivity and production area in 2016 reached 23.59 million tons, in 2017 increased by 0.36 million tons to 24.22 million tons
Table 2.4: The production of common bean in some continents in the world
Asia dominates global common bean cultivation, covering an area of 1,300.58 thousand hectares, which represents 83.5% of the world's total production area, with China leading in cultivation Other significant contributors include India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh Europe and Africa follow, with areas of 107.24 thousand hectares and 77.38 thousand hectares, accounting for 6.9% and 5% of the total, respectively Australia has the smallest area dedicated to common bean cultivation at 7.66 thousand hectares.
In terms of global productivity, Asia leads with a common bean yield of 166.77 quintals per hectare, representing 37.9% of total production Africa follows as the second-largest producer, achieving 94.14 quintals per hectare, which accounts for 21.3% Notably, Australia, despite having the smallest cultivation area, ranks fourth in the world with a productivity of 53.20 quintals per hectare, thanks to advancements in agricultural science and technology The Americas have the lowest productivity at 50.48 quintals per hectare.
The common bean plays a significant role in human nutrition across Eastern and Southern Africa, driven by a rapidly growing population of 2.2-2.6 percent annually and low income levels Domestic use for food and seed accounts for 70-100 percent of production, with Kenya at the highest end, where consumption often surpasses production In contrast, Ethiopia's production has historically focused on export Per capita consumption in Kenya is estimated at 14 kg per year, highlighting the importance of this crop in the region's diet.
In western Kenya, the consumption of common beans reaches 66 kg per year, significantly higher than the national average of 13 kg Similarly, in Tanzania's Karagwe district, common beans are a staple, featured in every meal In contrast, Ethiopian consumers primarily favor highland pulses like faba beans and field peas, with common bean consumption varying between 1-16 kg per year However, recent anecdotal evidence suggests a growing trend in common bean consumption in Ethiopia.
Table 2.5: Demographic and economic indicators of growth
Fresh snap beans are primarily bought at supermarkets and enjoyed at home, with a growing variety of ready-to-eat products featuring snap beans as ingredients These items, available as frozen or shelf-stable meals, include options like citrus glazed chicken with snap beans and roasted turkey with vegetables Many of these convenient meals require minimal preparation and are marketed as natural or healthy food choices.
In the away-from-home market, family and high-end restaurants are key players in the food service sector for both fresh and processed snap beans Additionally, ethnic-based restaurants frequently incorporate fresh snap beans into their menus as main or side dishes However, despite this usage, food service outlets have a limited impact on the overall fresh snap bean market.
Snap bean producers and processors have struggled to increase their market share in the fast-food restaurant sector, similar to other vegetables like sweet corn and broccoli Currently, fresh snap beans account for less than 3% of sales in this channel, while canned and frozen varieties represent under 1% The low usage of fresh snap beans in restaurants is largely due to competition from processed options, which are favored for being less labor-intensive and more convenient for institutional markets such as schools.
The United States is the top importer and exporter of fresh snap beans in the global market, with the export season typically spanning from October to July During periods of reduced domestic supply, imports peak, primarily sourced from Mexico, while Canada receives the majority of U.S snap bean exports.
Common beans are economically significant vegetables due to their widespread distribution and impressive yield of 30-36 tons per hectare, providing a substantial source of income for farmers cultivating this crop.
Common beans have a rapid growth cycle, blooming 35-40 days after sowing and allowing for fresh fruit harvests within 45-50 days Additionally, they can be harvested multiple times, resulting in high productivity.
Common beans are valuable legumes that enhance soil quality and are ideal for crop rotation with rice, maize, and other crops Their roots contain numerous nodules that fix nitrogen, benefiting intercropped plants Additionally, common beans are a vegetable crop that boosts overall yield per unit area.
The cultivation of coca beans is economically advantageous due to its low production costs, reasonable pricing, and short growth cycle, making it a popular choice among farmers and resulting in significant economic benefits for farming households.
Desired traits of new common bean variety
Two new common bean BH1 and BH2 were bred from 2 out of 15 selected varieties in 2013 in Gia Lam Hanoi, CV05 and CV41
As the global demand for vegetables and legumes rises, there is a significant focus on enhancing productivity, quality, and output in the vegetable sector, particularly in Vietnam.
In recent years, significant research has focused on the development of vegetables and legumes in our country, encompassing areas such as genetic resource conservation, seed improvement, and advanced farming techniques Despite promising outcomes, regional variations in climate and land characteristics necessitate tailored studies to enhance the quality of local vegetable and legume production These specific recommendations will guide farmers in optimizing their agricultural practices.
In Gia Lam district, Hanoi, the use of technology for cultivating vegetables and legumes remains limited, particularly regarding the application of fertilizers during the fruit development phase There is often confusion surrounding the selection of fertilizers and the appropriate dosage for plants at various growth stages Additionally, plant density plays a crucial role in determining both the yield and quality of crops.
Therefore, conducting the assessment of the effects of fertilizers and density on some local varieties of common bean is the main problem in my research.
MATERIALS AND RESEARCH METHODS
Research materials
The research material was conducted on two new common bean BH1 and BH2 were bred from 2 out of 15 selected varieties in 2013 in Gia Lam Hanoi, CV05 and CV41.
Location, time and research methods
Experiment was carried on the field area of Faculty of Agronomy, Vietnam National University of Agriculture – Hanoi, during Winter season, from September 2020 to December 2020
The study utilized a split-plot design to evaluate the effects of two primary factors: plant density and fertilizer application, with two replications The plant density treatments included A (15 x 60 cm, 111,000 plants/ha), B (20 x 60 cm, 83,000 plants/ha), and C (25 x 60 cm, 66,000 plants/ha) The fertilizer treatments consisted of four variations: F1 (100 kg N, 90 kg P₂O₅, 120 kg K₂O), F2 (100 kg N, 90 kg P₂O₅, 150 kg K₂O), F3 (100 kg N, 90 kg P₂O₅, 180 kg K₂O), and F4 (100 kg N, 90 kg P₂O₅, 210 kg K₂O) In total, 12 treatments were established within the split-plot design, analyzed using the Statistical Tool for Agricultural Research (STAR) Each experimental plot measured 5 m², with plants arranged in rows at specified distances.
60 cm, and plant distance is 15 cm, 20 cm, 25 cm equivalent to A, B, C density, respectively
Figure 3.1: Experimental layout table the RCBD method
To ensure optimal crop health, apply lime across the entire field before sowing to eradicate diseases from the previous crop Additionally, incorporate 100% basal phosphate fertilizer prior to planting For balanced nutrition, divide the application of Nitrogen, Phosphate, and Potassium fertilizers into three stages: the first application should occur when the plant develops 2-3 true leaves, the second when the plant is establishing its structure, and the final application should be made when the plant begins to bear fruit.
To successfully sow seeds, plant two rows per plot with a spacing of 60 cm between rows and 15 to 25 cm between plants After sowing, cover the seeds with fine soil and ensure regular watering, particularly during flowering, using a water-absorbing method to maintain soil moisture at 70-75% Insufficient water can lead to underdeveloped plants, smaller fruits, and increased susceptibility to diseases, ultimately reducing yield and quality When fertilizing, ensure adequate watering for proper fertilizer dissolution and prevent waterlogging Regularly remove weeds from beds and trenches, and combine weeding with tilling to aerate the soil Once the common bean plants develop tassels, begin constructing scaffolding using sturdy stakes arranged in an X shape, with a height of 2.5-3 m and a spacing of 1 to 2 m between them.
1 wire above and 2 wires below to be able to try wire, rope used to cling, to supplement the space between the frame piles
The winter season is ideal for cultivating common beans, as it typically experiences fewer pests and diseases However, growers should be aware of potential threats such as rust disease, white mold, root rot, flea beetles, stem borers, and fruit borers.
The classification of growth determination is first observed at the R6 growth stage, followed by a second classification at the R9 stage to indicate finite growth The rating scale effectively describes the behavior of growth during these stages.
Infinite weak dust body, body reclines on the ground and branching
Common bean infinitely climb, body length weak, falling and branching
Table 3.1: Discription of developmental stages of common bean
Source: Fermandez, F.; Gepts, P.; and Lopez, M 1986
Notes: V = vegetative growth stage; R = reproductive growth stage
The stage of individual plant will be monitored as description in Table 3.1 The stage of whole population was descripted when a half of individuals reach a developmental stage
V0 Sprout, absorb water, sprout roots and transfer to basic roots
V1 Germination: The sprout leaves appear on the ground and begin to divide
Beginning development of the asix of cotyledons V2 Cotyledons: cotyledons fully opened
V3 1 st real leaf: 1st real leaf opens and 2nd real leaf appears
V4 3 rd real leaf: The third true leaf opens and shoots at the lower burning creating branches
The R5 stage marks the appearance of flower buds on the first branch, with finite variety buds forming at the base of the burning head or on the first branch itself By the R6 stage, the first flowers begin to bloom.
R7 Fruit formation: The length of the first fruit approach to 2.5cm
R8 The seeds in the first fruit is filled Seed skin loss green and change it to typical color of variety Leaves start to fall
R9 Physiological ripening: The fruit changes color and begins to dry, the seeds develop and fully exhibit the characteristic color of the variety
Count 10 plants/repeat for the height of plant (measured by ruler, from ground surface to top of the plant until plant start its reproductive stage) when plant start its reproductive stage), the number of total leaves on main stem of plant, number of branches/ plant and measure until the plant begins to flower and number of bunch flower/plant (to count 10 plants/repeat, remove the plants at the top of the row, discard 1 plant and count 1 plant) Count 10 bunch/repeat for number of flower/bunch
Evaluation the final stem diameter of the two lines common bean BH1 and BH2
This section assesses the fragrance, softness, flavor, shell ratio percentage, and water color after boiling fresh fruits from the common bean varieties BH1 and BH2 The sensory evaluation criteria for these fresh fruits are detailed in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Sensory evaluation of fresh fruits
Odor Softness Tasted Watercolor after boiling
5 Very fragrant Very solf So sweet Very clear
3 Fragrant medium Slightly soft Light sweetness Slightly clear
2 Slightly fragrant Slightly stiff Not sweet Slightly opaque
1 Flavorless Stiff Other taste Opaque
Yield and its components include the number of flower bunches, the number of fruits per plant, the total weight of fresh fruit collected, and the number of seeds per fruit This allows for the evaluation of both individual yield and theoretical yield for the two common bean lines, BH1 and BH2.
Individual productivity (g/plant) = (average weight of fruit x total number of fruits)/( plant)
This article discusses methods for evaluating plant responses to diseases caused by fungi and bacteria, specifically focusing on white mold caused by *Sclerotinia sclerotiorum* and root rot resulting from soil fungi such as *Pythium spp.*, *Fusarium solani* f sp *phaseoli*, and *Rhizoctonia solani*.
Field surveys were conducted to evaluate the presence of Sclerotium rolfsii and Macrophomina phaseolina, utilizing the CIAT scale from 1987 for assessment Additionally, rust disease caused by the fungus Uromyses appendiculatus var appendiculatus (U.phaseoli) and infestations by the flea beetle Phyllotreta striolata Fabricius were also examined.
Table 3.3: Evaluate levels of Root rot
3 Discolored base, no necrosis or necrosis of lower stem and root tissue, approximately 10%
Nearly 25% of the lower stem and root tissue are damaged, but the tissues remain firm Symptoms of pigmentation disorder manifest in a severe level
7 Nearly 50% of the lower stem of the cotyledons and rhizomes are damaged and are rotten, deteriorating the root system
9 Approximately 75% of the cotyledon stems and root tissue damage are associated with severe root system decline
Table 3.4: Evaluate the impact of Flea beetle
Stem borer: Rate of damaged plants = Number of damaged plants/Total number of plants surveyed
Fruit borer: Rate of damaged fruits = Number of damaged fruits/Total number of fruits surveyed
Statistical analysis will be carried out by Microsoft EXCEL and STAR 2.0.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The growth stages of two common bean lines BH1 and BH2 in 2020
The common bean, like other legumes, germinates in the soil, requiring a minimum water absorption of 95% of its original seed weight to initiate the process Once water is absorbed, the seed transitions from its resting state, leading to significant metabolic changes essential for germination The ability of seeds to germinate is influenced by their maturity, with many species capable of germinating before reaching physiological ripeness However, seeds harvested prematurely tend to have a lower germination rate compared to physiologically mature beans Additionally, factors such as genetics, external conditions, seed quality, and origin play a crucial role in the water absorption capacity of the seeds.
Table 4.1: The germination time of the two common bean lines BH1 (A) and BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season (days) (A)
The statistical analysis indicates that the common bean lines BH1 and BH2 were not influenced by density and fertilizer during the sowing to germination period This resulted in a relatively uniform germination rate across the experimental plots, attributed to favorable weather conditions, including rain, humidity, and suitable temperatures On average, germination occurred 4.3 days after sowing for BH1 and 5.3 days for BH2, leading to a high germination rate in the experimental plots.
In general, this time period did not differ between the treatments, the time was relatively short
Flower formation marks the plant's shift from vegetative to reproductive growth, beginning with the induction of flower formation The transition involves a change from bud and leaf development to the formation of flower buds The duration from planting to flowering varies based on the plant's genetic variety and environmental conditions During the flowering phase, green beans are particularly sensitive to water levels, making it crucial to ensure adequate hydration for optimal growth.
Table 4.2: The flowering time of the two common bean lines BH1 (A) and
BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season (days) (A)
The survey revealed a variation in the time from sowing to the first flowering between the two lines of common bean Despite the BH1 line germinating earlier, it exhibited a later flowering time compared to the BH2 line Specifically, BH1 had an average flowering time of 31.89 days, while BH2 flowered earlier at 29.91 days.
The data indicates that both the amount of fertilizer and its density significantly influence the flowering time of the plant In the BH1 treatment, no notable differences were observed among the various density treatments, with flowering occurring consistently around 30 days.
The combination treatment of BF3, which includes density B and fertilizer F3, results in the latest flowering time of 30.3 days In contrast, the CF2 treatment, with density C and fertilizer F2, leads to earlier flowering at 29.7 days Additionally, the BH2 line with the BF2 treatment shows a flowering time of 30.15 days, while the AF4 treatment flowers significantly earlier than 29.7 days.
Statistical analysis of the BH1 line revealed a significant difference in density formulas, with a Pr(> F) Density value of 0.0562 Among the densities, Density C exhibited the earliest flowering time at 29.88 days, while the highest density recorded was noted.
The average flowering time was 30.16 days, with density A exhibiting an earlier flowering at approximately 29.8 days, while density B flowered later at around 30.01 days Although the BH2 line did not show a significant difference at the 5% level, variations in the density formulas were still observed.
After pollination, pods form, and the number of flowers on the plant directly influences the fruit yield, making this stage critical for overall production Typically, fruit develops 5 to 7 days post-flowering The time from planting to flowering varies based on the plant's genetic traits and external conditions Effective care, balanced fertilization, and proper water management are essential, as common beans are particularly sensitive to water availability during flowering Additionally, temperature plays a crucial role in the flowering process of common beans.
Table 4.3: The fruiting time of the two common bean lines BH1 (A) and
BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season (days) (A)
In the treatments of BH1, the combination of CF4 (density C, fertilizer F4) resulted in the latest fruiting time of 35.1 days, while the first combination of treatments BF1 recorded a time of 34.75 days For BH2, the first flowering of the combined treatment AF3 occurred at 34.4 days, followed by the combinations BF3 and BF4, which both had a flowering time of 35 days.
Statistical analysis indicated no significant difference at the 5% level between the common bean lines BH1 and BH2 Both lines exhibited uniform fruit results, with BH1 achieving an average of 34.86 days and BH2 showing a combined average of 34.8 days for treatment outcomes.
5-Nov 10-Nov 15-Nov 20-Nov 25-Nov 30-Nov
Height of plant line BH1
BH1AF1 BH1BF1 BH1CF1
BH1AF2 BH1BF2 BH1CF2
BH1AF3 BH1BF3 BH1CF3
BH1AF4 BH1BF4 BH1CF4
Effects of density and fertilizer on the growth and development of two
Figure 4.1: The dynamics of growth in main stem height of the two common bean lines BH1 (A) and BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season ( cm) (A) (B)
Figure 4.2: The dynamics of growth in leaves of the two common bean lines BH1 (A) and BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season (A) (B)
5-Nov 10-Nov 15-Nov 20-Nov 25-Nov 30-Nov
Number of leaves line BH1
BH1AF1 BH1BF1 BH1CF1
BH1AF2 BH1BF2 BH1CF2
BH1AF3 BH1BF3 BH1CF3
BH1AF4 BH1BF4 BH1CF4
5-Nov 10-Nov 15-Nov 20-Nov 25-Nov 30-Nov
Number of leaves line BH2
BH2AF1 BH2BF1 BH2CF1 BH2AF2 BH2BF2 BH2CF2 BH2AF3 BH2BF3 BH2CF3 BH2AF4 BH2BF4 BH2CF4
5-Nov 10-Nov 15-Nov 20-Nov 25-Nov 30-Nov
Height of plant line BH2
BH2AF1 BH2BF1 BH2CF1
BH2AF2 BH2BF2 BH2CF2
BH2AF3 BH2BF3 BH2CF3
BH2AF4 BH2BF4 BH2CF4
Figure 4.3: The dynamics of growth in branches of two common bean lines BH1 (A) and BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season
4.2.1 Effects of density and fertilizer on growth of main stem height of two common bean lines BH1 and BH2 in 2020 Winter season
Plant height growth dynamics serve as a crucial indicator of the growth rate during various developmental stages The increase in stem height is primarily driven by the growth of the apical meristem, with the stem elongating from the apical tip Additionally, internode length acts as another key indicator of growth rate throughout the plant's different stages.
The development of healthy stems is crucial for the growth of leaves, branches, flowers, and fruit Stem height is influenced by genetic traits specific to the cultivar, as well as external factors like care and nutritional conditions Additionally, the height of the main stem indicates the variety's ability to synthesize organic matter and reflects soil nutrition during the plant's growth Evaluating the relationship between height growth, plant density, and fertilizer formulas is essential for assessing growth potential and development, providing a foundation for effective technical strategies to enhance plant growth.
5-Nov 10-Nov 15-Nov 20-Nov 25-Nov 30-Nov
Number of branches line BH1
BH1AF1 BH1BF1 BH1CF1
BH1AF2 BH1BF2 BH1CF2
BH1AF3 BH1BF3 BH1CF3
BH1AF4 BH1BF4 BH1CF4
5-Nov 10-Nov 15-Nov 20-Nov 25-Nov 30-Nov
Number of branches line BH2
BH2AF1 BH2BF1 BH2CF1BH2AF2 BH2BF2 BH2CF2BH2AF3 BH2BF3 BH2CF3BH2AF4 BH2BF4 BH2CF4
The height of the common bean lines BH1 and BH2 showed a consistent increase throughout the experimental period Specifically, the stem height of BH1 started at approximately 75 cm on November 7, rose to around 120-150 cm ten days later, and reached about 250 cm by November 27 Similarly, BH2 began at around 72 cm on November 7, increased to approximately 142 cm after ten days, and achieved a height of about 258 cm by November 27.
On November 7, the combine treatment AF3 at line BH1 recorded the lowest tree height of 68.83 cm, while the highest was observed in treatment CF3 at 85.56 cm In line BH2, the combine treatment BF2 reached a minimum height of 67.24 cm, whereas BF3 achieved a maximum height of 78.47 cm Data analysis revealed that the average stem height for line BH1 was 74.65 cm, surpassing the average of 72.36 cm for line BH2.
On November 17, the results from the 12 treatments of line BH1 indicated that the combined treatment BF1 yielded the lowest average height of 120.6 cm, while the highest was observed in combined treatment BF3 (fertilizer F3 and density B) at 199.35 cm In contrast, line BH2 showed a generally reduced main stem height compared to line BH1, with the lowest value recorded at 136.75 cm for density B and fertilizer F4, and the highest at 149.65 cm for density B and fertilizer F1 During this period, plant height increased rapidly but unevenly, with average heights of 141.1 cm for line BH1 and 142.18 cm for line BH2.
On November 27, the plant transitioned from the vegetative to the reproductive growth stage, resulting in a significant increase in main stem height, which then slowed The combined treatment AF1 of line BH1 recorded the lowest average height at 239.05 cm, while formula BF2 achieved the highest at 265.05 cm In density treatment A with fertilizer F1 of line BH2, the height was also at its lowest, measuring 242.5 cm, whereas density C yielded the highest average main stem height of 272.7 cm The height difference between the two lines was minimal, with line BH1 averaging 250.67 cm and line BH2 at 258.37 cm.
However, the statistical analysis showed no difference at the 5% significance level for both the common bean lines BH1 and BH2
4.2.2 Effect of density and fertilizer on growth of leaves per plant of two common bean lines BH1 and BH2 in 2020 Winter season
Leaves are the primary nutrient organs of plants, playing a crucial role in photosynthesis and energy production for their life activities The characteristics and longevity of leaves are influenced by both genetic traits and environmental conditions In common beans, the initial leaves are cotyledons, followed by true leaves, which begin to exhibit varietal characteristics approximately 10 days after germination.
The number of leaves for the common bean lines BH1 and BH2 consistently increased throughout the experiment Specifically, BH1's 12 treatments started with approximately 5 leaves on November 7, increased to around 10 leaves after 10 days, and reached about 18 leaves subsequently.
On November 27, there was no significant difference in leaf numbers between the treatments of BH1 and BH2 The leaf dynamics of BH2 closely resembled those of BH1 While stem height remained consistent across BH2 treatments, it was observed that BH2 had a greater number of leaves compared to BH1 treatments.
On November 7, the number of leaves per plant began to increase gradually At this stage, line BH1 had a slightly lower average of 5.33 leaves compared to line BH2, which had 5.66 leaves The combination treatment AF1 of line BH1 recorded the lowest number of leaves at 4.75, while the highest was observed in combination treatment BF2 with 5.9 leaves In contrast, line BH2 exhibited the highest values for combination treatments CF2, AF3, and BF3, each averaging 5.8 leaves per plant, while combination treatment BF4 had a minimum of 5.5 leaves.
On November 17, the line BH2 (Appendix 5A) has more deviation than the line BH1 (Appendix 5B) The line BH1 had the number of leaves ranged from 10-
In the study, the BH2 line exhibited a greater variation in leaf numbers, with the highest count of 12.68 leaves recorded in the combined treatment AF1, while the lowest was 9.85 leaves in the combined treatment BF3 Additionally, the average leaf count for the 12 treatments of BH1 was 10.7 leaves, which was lower than the average of 11.08 leaves observed in the 12 treatments of BH2.
On November 27, significant differences were observed between the treatments of BH1 and BH2 The BH1 line exhibited the highest leaf count with the CF2 treatment, averaging 19.13 leaves, while the lowest count was recorded with the BF1 treatment at 14.78 leaves In contrast, the BH2 line had its lowest leaf count of 16.45 leaves with the AF1 treatment and the highest at 23.72 leaves with the CF2 treatment Additionally, the mean leaf count for line BH1 was 17.47 leaves, compared to 18.65 leaves for line BH2.
Beside, through processing the statistical analysis, there was no differences in the level of significance in the formula of density and fertilizer in three stages
4.2.3 Effects of density and amount of fertilizer on branch formation of two common bean lines BH1 and BH2 in Winter 2020
Lentil plants develop branches from the septum alongside the main stem, which support leaves and flowers, thereby enhancing the plant's energy production Factors such as external conditions, density, and segmentation significantly influence the number of branches and their growth rate.
Figure 3 illustrates that the number of branches per plant increases at different growth stages Both common bean lines, BH1 and BH2, exhibited the same average of 2.05 branches.
On November 7, all plants in both lines or different formula have not yet branched
On November 17, the plant exhibited initial branching, with the number of branches varying across treatments The BH1 line produced between 0.5 to 0.7 branches, while the BH2 line ranged from 0.5 to 1 branch Although BH2 had a slightly higher average of 0.65 branches per plant compared to BH1's 0.59 branches per plant, the difference was minimal.
Effects of density and fertilizer on other indicators of fruit such as shape,
4.3.1 Fruit length of two common bean lines BH1 and BH2 in 2020 Winter season
Table 4.4: The length of fruit in different density and fertilizer treatments of two common bean lines BH1 (A) and BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season
The survey revealed that the common bean lines BH1 and BH2 exhibit similar fruit lengths, ranging from 15 to 17 cm Statistical analysis indicated no significant differences in density treatments or fertilizers Specifically, the fruit length for common bean line BH1 is 16.05 cm, while line BH2 measures 16.27 cm.
4.3.2 Fruit width of two common bean lines BH1 and BH2 in 2020 Winter season
Table 4.5: The width of fruit in different density and fertilizer formulas of two common bean lines BH1 (A) and BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season (cm) (A)
The survey revealed no significant differences in fruit width across various fertilizer levels and densities The fruit width for the BH1 bean line ranged from 1.14 to 1.27 cm, while the 12 treatments of the BH2 bean line yielded similar results Among the combined treatments of density and fertilizers, CF1, CF2, and AF4 achieved a maximum fruit width of 1.22 cm, whereas the lowest measurement was recorded for the BF1 treatment at 1.16 cm.
Both common bean lines, BH1 and BH2, exhibit similar fruit widths, measuring 1.18 cm and 1.19 cm, respectively Although the mean values for treatments follow the order C > B > A in both lines, statistical analysis revealed no significant differences at the 5% level, with P-values of 0.3745 for BH1 and 0.4050 for BH2.
4.3.3 Fruit diameter of two common bean lines BH1 and BH2 in 2020 Winter season
Table 4.6: The diameter of fruit in different density and fertilizer formulas of two common bean lines BH 1 (A) and BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season
The density and fertilization treatments showed no significant differences in the two common bean lines monitored, with fruit diameters ranging from 0.8 to 0.89 cm The mean fruit diameters for line BH1 and BH2 were 0.84 cm and 0.85 cm, respectively, as detailed in Tables 4.6A and 4.6B.
4.3.4 Number of seed per fruit of two common bean lines BH1 and BH2 in
Table 4.7: Number of seed per fruit in different density and fertilizer formulas of two common bean lines BH 1 (A) and BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season (cm) (A)
The evaluation of seed yield per fruit is crucial for breeding assessments In the BH1 treatments (Table 4.7A), the highest seed count was observed in the combined treatment BF2, yielding 7.3 seeds per fruit, while the lowest was found in the combined treatment AF3, with 6.7 seeds per fruit Conversely, the BH2 treatments (Table 4.7B) demonstrated a higher average seed count per fruit, ranging from 7.0 to 7.5 seeds, with the lowest again in the combined treatment AF3 at 6.7 seeds, and the highest in the combined treatments CF2 and BF4, reaching 7.55 seeds per fruit.
Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences between the common bean lines BH1 and BH2 regarding density and fertilizer treatments The average height of line BH1 was 7.04 cm, while line BH2 measured 7.25 cm.
Effect of density and fertilizer on yield of two common bean lines BH1
Productivity is a crucial factor for producers and scientists, serving as the ultimate measure of a plant's growth and development It reflects the yield obtained per unit area in a crop, which is essential for assessing the viability of cultivation practices High productivity indicates good growth and adaptability to external conditions, highlighting the resilience of the crop.
To maximize yield, it is essential to implement suitable techniques tailored to each plant's specific conditions The yield potential of common beans is influenced by several key factors, including the number of flower clusters per plant, the number of flowers per cluster, the fruiting rate, the total number of fruits per plant, the number of seeds per fruit, the rate of firm seeds, the weight of fresh fruit collected, and the individual productivity of fresh fruits.
4.3.1 Effect of density and fertilizer on the number of flowers on the two common bean lines BH1 and BH2 in 2020 Winter season
Table 4.8: Number of flowers/bunches of two common bean lines BH1 (A) and BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season (A)
The survey results indicate that among the 12 treatments of line BH1, the combined treatment of AF3 produced the lowest average of 5 flowers per bunch, while the CF2 treatment yielded the highest at 5.8 flowers per bunch In contrast, the 12 treatments of line BH2 showed a higher overall flower count, with the BF2 treatment recording the lowest at 5.1 flowers per bunch and the BF3 treatment achieving the highest at 6.2 flowers per bunch Notably, the average flower count per bunch for line BH1 was 5.6, slightly higher than line BH2's average of 5.5, indicating a more consistent flower production in line BH1 Additionally, there was no significant difference at the 5% level between the density formulas and the fertilizers used.
4.3.2 Effect of density and fertilizer on the number of fruits on the two common bean lines BH1 and BH2 in 2020 Winter season
Table 4.9: Effect of density and fertilizer on the number of fruits/plant on the two common bean lines BH1 (A) and BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season (A)
The survey and statistical analysis revealed no significant difference in the number of fruits per plant between the two common bean lines, BH1 and BH2 Line BH1 produced the highest yield of 37.5 fruits per plant under treatment density B and fertilizer level F3, while the lowest yield was 33.25 fruits in the combined treatment of density and fertilizer (CF1) In contrast, line BH2 achieved a maximum of 35.8 fruits per tree with treatment density A and fertilizer F1, and a minimum of 31.45 fruits in the combined treatment CF4 The average number of fruits per plant for BH1 and BH2 was 34.47 and 33.89, respectively, indicating a slight difference between the two lines.
4.3.3 Effect of density and fertilizer on the average weight of fruit and individual productivity yield on the two common bean lines BH1 and BH2 in
Table 4.10: Average weight fruit of two common bean lines BH1 (A) and
BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season (gram) (A)
The average fresh fruit weight significantly influences the yield of different bean lines In the comparison between lines BH1 and BH2, line BH2 exhibits a higher average weight of 8.32 g/fruit, compared to 7.81 g/fruit for line BH1 Among the combined treatments for line BH1, the lowest fruit weights were recorded at 7.25 g/fruit and 7.28 g/fruit for treatments BF2 and CF2, respectively, while the highest weight was observed in treatment CF1 at 8.34 g/fruit For line BH2, the fruit weights varied insignificantly, ranging from 8.0 to 8.7 g/fruit, with the highest weight of 8.75 g/fruit in treatment CF1 and the lowest at 7.92 g/fruit in treatment CF1.
Table 4.11: Individual productivity fruit yield of two common bean lines
BH1 (A) and BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season (gram) (A)
Individual yield refers to the total weight of fresh fruit harvested per plant and serves as the foundation for theoretical yield Individual productivity, measured in grams per plant, is calculated by multiplying the average weight of the fruit by the total number of fruits and dividing by the number of plants The productivity of each individual plant plays a crucial role in determining both the potential and actual yield of the variety.
The individual yield varied across different density and fertilizer treatments, with the BH1 treatment demonstrating the highest yields of 270.44 g/plant and 278.72 g/plant for F1 and F4, respectively.
In treatment F1 and F3, the line BH2 achieved the highest yield, recording 289.44 g/plant and 282.50 g/plant, respectively Additionally, under density conditions, the line BH1 at density C produced a yield of 264.21 g/plant, while the line BH2 at density B yielded 286.39 g/plant.
The combination of density B and fertilizer F4 (BF4) in line BH1 resulted in the highest yield of 286.15 g/plant, while the lowest yield was observed with the combination of density C and fertilizer F2 (CF2) at 245.91 g/plant In line BH2, the highest yield of 295.93 g/plant was achieved with the combination of density B and fertilizer F3 (BF3), whereas the lowest yield was recorded at 267.77 g/plant with the CF4 treatment Overall, the average yield for line BH1 was 261.96 g/plant, which was lower than the average yield of 281.17 g/plant for line BH2.
Some quality indicators of fresh fruit of two common bean lines BH1 and
Table 4.12: Some quality indicators of fruit collected when fresh
Odor Softness Tasted Watercolor after boiling
The odor, softness, taste, and the color of the water after boiling are important criteria in common bean breeding
Table 4.11 is the aggregate result of 4 examiner evaluating some indicators (listed in table 3.2)
The common bean lines BH1 and BH2 are characterized by their soft, pulpy texture and a sweet aroma and taste, making them highly favored in the market Both varieties are not only fragrant but also sweet, highlighting their quality advantages and strong market suitability.
Steam diameter final of two common bean lines BH1 and BH2 in 2020
In common bean cultivars, the final stem diameter is a crucial indicator of plant growth, with a larger diameter signifying a well-developed plant This measurement is particularly important in the seedling stage, as it reflects the plant's resistance to falling and serves as a key characteristic of the variety.
Table 4.13: The final stem diameters of the two lines common bean beans
BH1 (A) and BH2 (B) in 2020 Winter season (mm) (A)
Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences between the formulas; however, treatment BH1 showed a notable deviation with a P-value of 0.0533 for fertilizer The highest value was observed in density formula A with fertilizer level F1 (5.9 mm), while the lowest was in density formula C with fertilizer level F2 (5.55 mm) In contrast, line BH2 exhibited relatively uniform results across density and fertilizer formulas, averaging 5.54 mm, compared to 5.67 mm for line BH1.
Pest and disease situation of two common bean lines BH1 and BH2 in
Table 4.14 Pest and disease situation of two common bean lines BH1 and BH2 in different density and fertilizer formulas in 2020 Winter season
Line Min Max Mean Pr(>F) Density Pr(>F) Fertilizer
In the Winter crop of 2020, the common bean lines BH1 and BH2 demonstrated significant resistance to pests and diseases, exhibiting minimal harm as indicated in Table 4.14 Specifically, these lines showed resilience against root rot, which typically causes wilting and plant death; however, they presented either no symptoms or only mild lesions, with severity levels ranging from 1 to 3, affecting approximately 10% of the plants.
Both common bean lines is attacked by stem borer and fruit borer (Figure
In the Winter 2020 crop, the incidence of stem borer attacks ranged from 0% to 30%, with the overall rate of diseased plants being relatively low However, the combination treatment AF3 of the BH2 line exhibited the highest disease severity at 40%, while the BH1 line ranged from 0% to 30% The experimental setup was conducted without pesticide interference, revealing a significant presence of fruit borer with uneven density across treatments The combination of treatment density A and fertilizer F1 (AF1) in the BH1 line recorded the highest disease rate at 45%, while the AF4 treatment of the BH2 line reached 35% Most treatments showed disease rates between 5% and 20%, with some results indicating no significant effect from fruit borer in treatments AF3, AF4, and BF1 (line BH1).
Figure 4: Symbols of Fruit borer disease