methods, principles, techniques, strategy, error correction, suggested activities and further reading Chapter 6 mentions how to teach listening with various aspects, i.e.. 13 CHAPTER 3
How to choose a coursebook 1.1 Criteria to choose a coursebook 2
The role of coursebook in language teaching 6
Textbooks continue to play a crucial role in language teaching, providing a foundational framework for both educators and students Despite the influence of new technologies, the precise function of textbooks in the language classroom remains complex and multifaceted.
Teachers are often required to use specific materials as mandated by program administrators, but incorporating these materials in language teaching is highly advantageous Materials are essential in enhancing the teaching and learning experience Textbooks, in particular, offer a cost-effective solution by providing ready-made teaching texts and learning tasks.
According to Allright (1981), materials are just one aspect of the cooperative management of language learning He emphasizes that textbooks play a crucial role in facilitating interaction among teachers, learners, and materials, which ultimately enhances learning opportunities.
Figure 1.2: A model of the lesson (adapted from Allwright 1981)
Allwright (1990) argues that materials should teach students to learn, that they should be resource books for ideas and activities for instruction/learning, and that they
7 should give teachers rationales for what they do From his point of view, textbooks are too inflexible to be used directly as instructional material
Cunningsworth (1995) highlights the significance of coursebooks in teaching and learning, viewing them as essential tools that serve both as syllabi for instruction and guides for student self-study Textbooks are pivotal in the educational process, acting as primary vehicles for knowledge delivery They present information in a structured, accessible manner, making it easier for learners to grasp concepts The roles of coursebooks in language education include providing presentation materials, facilitating learner practice and interaction, serving as reference sources for grammar and vocabulary, inspiring classroom activities, reflecting learning objectives, supporting self-directed learning, and assisting less experienced teachers.
The author also emphasized that coursebooks can serve as a resource in achieving aims and objectives set in advance in terms of learner needs
Textbooks play a crucial role in language teaching, serving as the backbone of language input for learners, as noted by Hutchinson (1994) and Richards (2001) They provide a balanced approach to skill development and language practice Additionally, for inexperienced teachers, textbooks offer valuable guidance in lesson planning and instruction.
Mention to this issue, Betsy Parrish (2004, p.227) describes benefits of using a textbook:
It assures a measure of structure, consistency, and logical progression in a class
It minimizes preparation time for teachers
It allows learners to review material or preview other lessons
It meets a learner’s needs or expectations of having something concrete to work from and take home for further study
It provides novice teachers with guidance in course and activity design
It may provide multiple resources such as tapes, CDs, videos, self-study workbooks, etc
Textbooks play a crucial role in language education, serving as a primary resource for students to enhance their knowledge While experienced teachers can occasionally teach without them, the lack of time to create supplementary materials often leads educators to rely on textbooks Consequently, selecting a high-quality textbook is essential for effective language instruction.
How to deal with content of language 2.1 Language form 8
Language function 9
Language serves specific functions, such as apologizing, expressing wishes, or seeking permission, to fulfill our communicative purposes Each of these purposes is categorized as a distinct language function.
Savignon (1983) defines a language function as the purpose behind an utterance rather than its grammatical structure This perspective shifts the focus of teaching from form to meaning, allowing students to use language to achieve specific goals, thereby enhancing the significance of their speech One fundamental function of language is informative, where words serve to convey information.
+ The informative function affirms or denies propositions, as in science or the statement of a fact
+ This function is used to describe the world or reason about it (e.g whether a state of affairs has occurred or not or what might have led to it)
Sentences possess a truth value, meaning they can be classified as either true or false, even if we may not always know which is the case This characteristic is crucial for the study of logic Additionally, words have the power to evoke emotions that extend beyond their literal meanings.
+ Poetry and literature are among the best examples, but much of, perhaps most of, ordinary language discourse is the expression of emotions, feelings or attitudes
+ Two main aspects of this function are generally noted: (1) evoking certain feelings and (2) expressing feelings
Expressive discourse should be understood as not strictly true or false, as it often serves a performative function where words act as symbols or actions The directive function, prevalent in commands and requests, typically does not fall under the categories of true or false, despite the existence of various logics surrounding commands.
+ Example of this function: "Close the windows." The sentence "You're smoking in a nonsmoking area," although declarative, can be used to mean "Do not smoke in this area."
What are some examples of functions of language?
Language serves multiple functions, with its primary role being informative, as it conveys information Additionally, it functions expressively, focusing on the emotions that words evoke rather than their literal meanings Poetry exemplifies this duality by blending both informative and expressive elements.
“The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew The furrow followed free
We were the first that ever burst Into that silent sea.”
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, “Rime of the Ancient Mariner”
“When Ajax strives some rock’s vast weight to throw, The line, too, labors, and the words move slow;
Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain, Flies o’er th’ unbending corn, and skims along the main.”
Alexander Pope, “Essay on Criticism”
“I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris and he;
I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three.”
Robert Browning, “How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix”
The expressive nature of language is evident in various contexts, from the rhythmic and sound qualities of poetry to the heartfelt whispers of affection between partners Words can evoke strong emotional responses, whether in prayer, casual expressions like "wow!" and "scram!", or in the persuasive language used by politicians, preachers, and salespeople.
The ceremonial aspect of language involves performative words that act as actions themselves rather than merely conveying information or emotions Examples include phrases like "I thank you," "I apologize," and "I promise," which serve as complete speech acts These expressions do not describe the actions they represent; instead, they embody those actions directly For instance, saying "I bid you good morning" fulfills the act of greeting, regardless of the speaker's feelings In this performative context, language functions similarly to gestures.
11 or symbol: the handshake, the military salute or the gestures of the baseball umpire Austin estimates that there are over a thousand performative verbs in English
Language serves multiple purposes, including storytelling, persuasion, and evoking emotions It can captivate, entertain, and express feelings, while also being a tool for inquiry and deception Through its diverse functions, language plays a vital role in human communication and imagination.
Language serves various functions, particularly in social settings like a dinner party Upon arrival, we introduce ourselves, express gratitude to the host, and inquire about coat placement During the event, we engage in conversations that include congratulating others, seeking advice, expressing affection, and complimenting the host on the meal Each of these interactions exemplifies the functional nature of language.
How can we teach functions of language?
Krashen and Terrell (1983) emphasize that effective communication goals should be framed around specific situations, functions, and topics Teachers play a crucial role in designing these situations, enabling students to apply their language skills purposefully within the classroom For example, when the topic is family and relatives, relevant situations could include making introductions or visiting relatives By establishing these contexts, teachers equip students with the necessary environment to practice language functions effectively.
Teachers should be ready to illustrate that there are numerous ways to express each function of language For example, the manner of greeting an elderly lady on the street varies significantly from greeting a peer at home The choice of expression is influenced by various factors.
1 Your social standing relative to the person you are talking to;
2 How well you know the person;
4 The circumstances under which the communication occurs
How to teach vocabulary 3.1 Methodology in teaching vocabulary 13
Principles of teaching vocabulary 20
Despite the various theories on the vocabulary learning process, memory remains a crucial factor There are several general principles for effective teaching that apply to any method According to Wallace (1988), these principles are essential for successful vocabulary instruction.
aim – what is to be taught, which words, how many
need – target vocabulary should respond students’ real needs and interests
meaningful presentation – clear and unambiguous denotation or reference should be assured
Mastering vocabulary is a multifaceted endeavor The primary goal for students in this process is to enhance their ability to effortlessly recall words and recognize them in both spoken and written contexts.
Generally, knowing a word involves knowing its form and its meaning at the basic level In deeper aspects it means the abilities to know its (Harmer 1993):
1) Meaning, i.e relate the word to an appropriate object or context
2) Usage, i.e knowledge of its collocations, metaphors and idioms, as well as style and register (the appropriate level of formality), to be aware of any connotations and associations the word might have
3) Word formation, i.e ability to spell and pronounce the word correctly, to know any derivations (acceptable prefixes and suffixes),
4) Grammar, i.e to use it in the appropriate grammatical form
Techniques in teaching vocabulary 3.4 Strategies in teaching vocabulary 23
Effective vocabulary teaching goes beyond simply providing definitions; it requires teachers to engage students in meaningful ways When educators recognize the value of specific words, they must employ diverse techniques and activities to enhance learning By motivating students and enriching their vocabulary, teachers can empower learners to communicate more effectively in English.
Effective vocabulary teaching involves various techniques and activities, including presentation, discovery methods, and practice Here are several strategies that educators should consider for enhancing vocabulary instruction.
Teaching vocabulary to younger students can be engaging through the use of coloring pages and picture books, which enhance comprehension by providing visual context Although older students may not find coloring or storybooks appealing, they also benefit from visual aids Writing words out and creating flashcards are effective strategies for helping students memorize vocabulary.
A great method for teaching vocabulary visually is to utilize videos that demonstrate the words covered in lessons Videos designed for English language learners are particularly effective for introducing younger students to unfamiliar vocabulary The Language Arts section on YouTube Teachers is an excellent resource for finding classroom-safe video content.
Building vocabulary is a cumulative process, and linking new words to those already known by students is a highly effective teaching strategy Educators who facilitate these associations enhance students' long-term retention of unfamiliar vocabulary.
A highly effective way to connect new vocabulary with familiar terms is through brainstorming sessions with students After introducing a word and its definition, teachers can write it on the board and encourage students to share related words For example, when the word "mare" is presented, students may respond with associated terms.
“horse,” “barn” and “hay.” By writing the words down together, it creates a visual reference for students
Younger children are particularly receptive to learning through games, while older students also appreciate a fun twist in their school activities Teachers can enhance vocabulary acquisition by incorporating engaging games, such as charades, into the learning process.
Students can engage in a fun vocabulary charades game where they take turns acting out words while their peers guess them To ensure the game is effective, it's essential that students have a foundational understanding of the vocabulary beforehand Therefore, teachers should plan to conduct the charades activity a few days after introducing the vocabulary words, such as releasing the word list on Monday and scheduling the game for Friday.
Expanding vocabulary significantly improves students' reading and writing skills, making storytelling an effective method for word retention Teachers can assign individual stories or organize a class project, allowing students to integrate vocabulary words into their narratives This approach not only helps students learn correct spelling and definitions but also teaches them how to use words appropriately in context.
Also, Celce-Murcia recommends every teacher to follow the “3 C’s approach (conveying meaning, checking understanding, and consolidation)
Stage 1 (conveying meaning), the items are presented to the students
The conveying meaning stage, to present new vocabulary to the learners, can be done in many ways, so that the learners can understand and grasp the words’ meanings
At the initial stages of learning, educators can enhance understanding by incorporating authentic materials into the classroom This approach involves bringing real objects, such as pens, rulers, and balls, to demonstrate concepts directly to students.
However, when that is impossible to bring the object to the classroom such as
Teachers can effectively convey meanings of various concepts, such as 'cars' and 'animals', by using visual aids and gestures For actions like running or walking, these methods are particularly effective At more advanced levels, educators can employ techniques involving word relations, including synonyms, antonyms, definitions, and examples For instance, when explaining the term "guided tour," a teacher might ask students to visualize a museum scenario where a guide leads a group through various artworks If clarification is needed, the teacher can provide additional examples, such as a guided city tour, to enhance understanding.
Stage 2 (checking for comprehension) exercises test how far the students have grasped the meaning of the items
After conveying meaning, teachers should assess students' understanding by preparing various exercises to evaluate vocabulary comprehension Celce-Murcia recommends activities like fill-in-the-blank exercises to effectively check students' grasp of the material.
The article discusses 23 pairs and sorting exercises designed for educational purposes In a fill-in-the-blank activity, teachers provide students with sentences or short passages that contain missing words Students must analyze the context to deduce the likely missing words, enhancing their comprehension and vocabulary skills.
In matching pairs activities, students engage in pairing verbs with suitable nouns, mini dialogues, definitions, idioms, or humorous definitions For instance, one activity involves matching a verb (A words) with an appropriate noun (B words).
In this activity, students match verbs with suitable nouns As they work individually or in groups, the teacher circulates around the classroom to assess their understanding.
Stage 3 (consolidation), students deepen their understanding of the items through use and creative problem-solving activities”
Error correction in teaching vocabulary 24
Before starting the reading session, inform the student, "If you encounter an unfamiliar word, I will assist you by providing the correct pronunciation while you listen and point to the word in the book Afterward, please repeat the word and continue reading, making an effort to minimize mistakes."
When a student makes a reading error, such as substitution, omission, or a brief hesitation, promptly provide the correct word and have the student repeat it before continuing It's important to minimize interruptions during reading; therefore, avoid correcting minor mistakes like misreading articles or dropping suffixes.
Word supply is an easy-to-implement error-correction method, making it suitable for tutors and parents However, this approach is less effective than other strategies for enhancing students' reading vocabulary (Singh, 1990).
According to Haring (1978), instructors should encourage students to utilize a hierarchy of word-attack skills when they misread words, providing cues in a descending order Once a student correctly identifies a word after receiving a cue, the instructor should cease further prompts and allow the student to continue reading It is important to minimize interruptions by not correcting minor errors, such as misreading articles or dropping suffixes like -s, -ed, or -ing.
Jenkins & Larson (1979) highlight the effectiveness of the Error Word Drill in enhancing reading vocabulary When a student misreads a word, it is important to document the error along with the date in an "Error Word Log." This process involves four key steps to systematically address and improve reading skills.
1 At the end of the reading session, write out all error words from the reading session onto index cards (If the student has misread more than 20 different words during the session, use just the first 20 words from your error-word list If the student has misread fewer than 20 words, consult your "Error Word Log" and select enough additional error words from past sessions to build the review list to 20 words.)
2 Review the index cards with the student Whenever the student pronounces a word correctly, remove that card from the deck and set it aside (A word is considered correct if it is read correctly within 5 seconds Self-corrected words are counted as correct if they are made within the 5-second period Words read correctly after the 5- second period expires are counted as incorrect.)
3 When the student misses a word, pronounce the word for the student and have the student repeat the word Then say, "What word?" and direct the student to repeat the word once more Place the card with the missed word at the bottom of the deck
4 Error words in deck are presented until all have been read correctly All word cards are then gathered together, reshuffled, and presented again to the student The drill continues until either time runs out or the student has progressed through the deck without an error on two consecutive cards.
Suggested activities in teaching vocabulary 25
3.6.1 Showing meaning visually (cited from Doff, A (1995) Teach English: A training course for teachers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
A Show the meaning of new words by showing a real object
Write these words on the board
Simply point at them and say ‘Look – this is a watch.’
In the classroom, various items are present, including furniture, clothing, and even parts of the body Additionally, many objects can be introduced, such as accessories like hats and ties, food items like oranges and rice, and small household objects such as soap, cups, and keys.
Demonstrate a presentation of the word ‘watch’
T: Look – this is a watch (pointing to his or her watch) A watch A watch
B Show the meaning of the words by showing a picture
This can be done in two ways, i.e (1) by drawing a picture on the board, (2) by showing a picture prepared before the lesson (a drawing or photograph)
E.g Teachers show the picture and say “This is a cottage Cottage”
C Show the meaning of the words by miming (for most action verbs such as sit, stand, open, write, etc.; some adjectives such as happy, worried, ill, etc.), using actions and facial expressions
E.g Demonstrate a presentation of the word ‘sneeze’ by the following way:
T: Look – (mime someone sneezing) Atchoo! I’ve just sneezed Sneeze Sneeze Can you say it?
3.6.2 Give examples (cited from Doff, A (1995) Teach English: A training course for teachers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
Another way to show what words mean is by giving an example, using the word in context Make these points:
Simple sentences can effectively convey meaning without the need for complex explanations This can be achieved by using clear statements or by illustrating concepts through relatable examples.
A well-chosen example should effectively illustrate the meaning of a word for those unfamiliar with it Additionally, providing supplementary information is essential for learners to fully grasp the word's significance.
Examples are especially useful for showing the meaning of abstract words, e.g love, happiness, imagine, quality, impossible, etc
E.g Demonstrate this by presenting the word ‘building’ and ‘lazy’
Buildings come in various forms, including houses, schools, hotels, offices, and cinemas In large cities, the skyline is often filled with a diverse array of these structures, showcasing the different types of buildings that serve various purposes.
Some individuals are diligent in their efforts, while others exhibit laziness For instance, my brother exemplifies this laziness; he wakes up late and spends his day unproductively I often encourage him by saying, "Don't be so lazy! It's important to engage in some work!"
3.6.3 Combining different techniques (cited from Doff, A (1995) Teach English: A training course for teachers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
To effectively convey the meaning of a word, a variety of techniques can be employed, including using engaging visuals like pictures on the board to enhance memory retention, utilizing clear facial expressions to communicate meaning, providing examples that illustrate the word's usage, such as demonstrating how 'smile' functions as a verb, and incorporating translations for better understanding.
(to make sure everyone understand)
E.g Demonstrate the word “smile” The teacher draws a picture on the board first
T: Look – he’s smiling Now look at me I’m smiling (show by facial expression) Smile We smile when we are happy Smile (gesture) Ss: smile
T: Good What does it mean?
3.6.4 Using a new word (cited from Doff, A (1995) Teach English: A training course for teachers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
The teacher can use a new word to ask a few questions which should be simple and require only short answer round the class to:
+ help the teacher to be sure that students really understand the word
+ give the students more examples of how the word is used, in a way that involves the class
+ give a chance to practise other language (big, small, present simple tense, cook, etc.)
E.g The teacher presents the word “market” She/he will ask questions using the new word like
+ Does your mother go to the market?
+ Do you live near a market?
+ When does she go there?
+ What do they sell there?
3.6.5 Vocabulary expansion (cited from Doff, A (1995) Teach English: A training course for teachers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
To enhance vocabulary, teachers can introduce new words by presenting sets of related terms, including synonyms—words that share the same general meaning—and contextually related words that may not be synonyms but are relevant in discussions about the new word.
- The teacher lists some methods of cooking such as bake, fry, boil, grill, etc
- The teacher can try to elicit the new words from the students and then write them on the board, e.g
+ How do we cook bread?
(cited from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/activities/spot-vocabulary)
This engaging visual activity enhances vocabulary recall, making it both motivating and memorable It is especially effective for lower-level learners and can be applied to thematically studied vocabulary This versatile activity can be incorporated at any stage of a lesson, serving as a warmer, filler, or lead-in.
To enhance your students' learning experience, select an image that represents a specific theme they have recently studied, such as furniture, food, or classroom items This image can be an illustration from a book, a photo from the web, or even your own sketch.
Prepare one copy per group of two or more students
The teacher captivates the students' attention by holding up a concealed picture and teasing their curiosity with phrases like, "This picture is intriguing, isn't it?" and "Can't you see it?"
The teacher then asks students if they want to see the picture, turning it round for them to see just for a couple of seconds
The teacher then 'accepts' to let them see it for a bit longer, walking round the class for each person to see the picture for a few seconds
Following the initial suspense phase, the teacher distributes a copy of the picture to students working in pairs or small groups They are instructed to observe and memorize as many details as possible from the image within a two-minute timeframe, without taking notes While some students may attempt to jot down their observations, this behavior can actually enhance their learning experience, even if they are unaware of it.
Once the time is up, the teacher takes back the pictures and asks students to write a list of everything they can remember
The teacher then pins up a few copies of the picture around the class for students to go up and check their list
Whole-class feedback can take different forms based on the students' mood and the teacher's assessment of their need for further vocabulary exposure.
- Students call out the items and the teacher writes them up
- The group with the most items reads out their list for the others to check against
- Each group contributes one item/ the item that forms the longest word on their list They can come up to the board to write this
- The teacher and/or students pick out any items that they found difficult to remember/pronounce and try to improve their knowledge of these items
Incorporating a 'grammar' element into vocabulary lists enhances learning For instance, after focusing on 'There is/There are', students can categorize their vocabulary under these headings Other effective grammatical classifications include singular/plural, countable/uncountable, and adjectives.
(cited from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/activities/spot-vocabulary)
Recycling new words and collocations multiple times in class is essential for them to become part of learners' active vocabulary The memory game pelmanism serves as an effective review activity, whether collocations are introduced through a text or taught explicitly.
Three example sets of collocations are included, as well as a template for producing your own
Give students, in groups of 3-4, a set of cut-up cards, and instruct them to place all the cards face-down and spread them out on the table
The first student turns over two cards If the two cards form a strong collocation, he keeps the pair and has another go
If the cards do not collocate, he turns them over again, leaving them in the same position on the table, and the next student has a turn
The winner is the person who has most pairs at the end
Further reading 35
The graphic illustrates various types of English vocabulary alongside the contexts in which they are commonly utilized The vocabulary types are listed vertically on the left, while the corresponding situations are displayed horizontally at the bottom.
Certain words are typically confined to specific contexts, as illustrated in the colored boxes For instance, the academic term "hence" (meaning "therefore") and the subject-specific term "denominator" (referring to the number below the line in a fraction) are rarely encountered in everyday conversation Conversely, informal terms like "cops" (meaning "police") and idioms such as "a piece of cake" (meaning "easy") would be unexpected in academic writing Neutral words, represented in the orange box, are versatile and can be used across various contexts.
3.7.2 Tips for building up your vocabulary
Struggling to memorize a vast number of vocabulary words? It doesn't have to be intimidating! Explore these effective strategies and practical tips to enhance your vocabulary skills.
Connect: It's easier to memorize words based on a common theme Make your own connections between words and possibly organize them in a spider diagram
Write: Practically using vocabulary can help it stick in your mind Write sentences with new vocabulary words or compose a story using a group of words or expressions
Draw: Expose the artist in you by drawing pictures related to the words you study Your drawings can help trigger your memory in the future
Act: Get your moves on by acting out words and expressions you learn Or, imagine and act out a situation where you would need to use them
Create: Design flashcards in English and study them in your spare time Each week make new ones, but continue to review all of them
Associate: Assign different colors to different words This association will help you recall vocabulary later
To enhance your pronunciation of complex words, consider listening for similar-sounding words By associating these familiar terms with the new vocabulary, you can improve your memory and retention of the correct pronunciation.
Selecting topics that genuinely interest you can enhance your learning experience Focus on choosing words that you find both useful and engaging, as this selection process itself serves as a valuable memory aid.
Limit: Don't try to memorize the dictionary in a day! Limit yourself to 15 words per day, and you'll gain confidence instead of feeling overwhelmed
Observe: Keep an eye out for the words you're studying when reading or listening to English
Allen, J (199) Words, Words, Words: Teaching Vocabulary in Grades 4 – 12 York, ME: Stenhouse
Gairns, R., & Redman, S (1986) Working with Words Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Morgan, J., & Rinvolucri, M (1986) Vocabulary Oxford: Oxford University Press
Nation, I S P (1990) Teaching and Learning Vocabulary New York: Heinle and Heinle
Nation, P and Newtom, J (1997) Teaching vocabulary In Coady, J and Huckin, T (eds) Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Schmitt, D & Schmitt, N (2005) Focus on vocabulary: Mastering the Academic Word List White Plains, NY: Pearson Education
Schmitt, N (1997) Vocabulary learning strategies In Schmitt, N & McCarthy, M (eds) Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition, and Pedagogy Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Stahl, S A (1999) Vocabulary Development Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books
Wallace, M., J (1982) Teaching vocabulary: A practical guide to vocabulary learning Heinemann Educational
How to teach pronunciation 4.1 Methodology in teaching pronunciation 38
Principles of teaching pronunciation 39
Effective pronunciation teaching relies on several key principles First, recognition practice must come before production practice Second, it is essential to clearly highlight the target sound within short utterances Third, students should be exposed to multiple voices modeling the same sounds Finally, demonstrating English sounds in contrast to other English sounds or to sounds from the students' native language can enhance understanding.
Nunan (2004) also mentions five principles of teaching pronunciation teachers should take into account as follows
(i) foster intelligibility during spontaneous speech,
(ii) keep affective considerations firmly in mind,
(iii) avoid the teaching of individual sounds in isolation,
(iv) provide feedback on learner progress and
(v) realize that ultimately it is the learner who is in control of changes in pronunciation
Techniques in teaching pronunciation 4.4 Strategies in teaching pronunciation 42
A summary of some techniques that can be helpful in encouraging and monitoring the learning of spoken language can be seen in Figure 1
Drills fell out of favor with audiolingualism due to their association with mindless repetition; however, they can be engaging and beneficial for learners When implemented confidently and not overly dominating the teaching process, drills provide a valuable opportunity for students to practice new language skills without the pressure of communication Most learners enjoy drills, especially choral drills, where the entire class repeats a model from the teacher for anonymous practice Individual drills also play a crucial role, allowing teachers to assess each student's progress after practicing in unison.
English word stress patterns are unpredictable, necessitating the marking of stress in new vocabulary Teachers often use big dots for stressed syllables and small dots for unstressed ones, which can be particularly helpful in sentences Various methods, such as claps, clicks, or gestures, can be employed to indicate stress while speaking For learners struggling with the concept, using an elastic band to physically demonstrate stress can be effective, allowing them to feel the difference between stressed and unstressed syllables.
Demonstrating how sounds are made
While listening and imitating are the most effective ways to learn pronunciation, some learners benefit from analyzing sound production and comparing it to similar sounds in their native language For instance, understanding the distinction between the English sounds /l/ and /r/ can be enhanced by demonstrating that the tongue curls back without touching the roof of the mouth for /r/, while it does touch for /l/ This visual and analytical approach can aid learners in mastering these sounds.
41 represent the roof of the mouth, and using the other to demonstrate the action of the tongue in each case
To enhance English pronunciation, it's essential to provide individualized practice tailored to each learner's first language influence Tracking assigned practice utterances for students allows for targeted support For instance, if a student like Minh struggles with word-final consonants and liaison, assigning her specific phrases, such as "Can I pick it up?", can aid her improvement Using trigger questions, like "Oh, I dropped it!", encourages her to practice in a natural context Maintaining a record of these assignments helps address individual challenges effectively while promoting a conversational atmosphere in the classroom.
Not surprisingly, some useful techniques that have traditionally been used and are still being used
The Direct Method employs a technique called "listen and imitate," where students listen to a model provided by the teacher and then repeat or imitate it This approach has been significantly improved with the integration of tape recorders, language labs, and video recorders, enhancing the learning experience.
(2) Phonetic training: use of articulatory descriptions, articulatory diagrams, and a phonetic alphabet
Minimal pair drills are a technique from the Audio Lingual era designed to assist students in differentiating between similar and challenging sounds in a target language This method emphasizes listening discrimination and spoken practice, starting with word-level exercises and progressing to sentence-level drills.
Bowen's (1972, 1975b) contextualized minimal pairs technique addresses criticisms of traditional minimal pair drills by incorporating meaningful contexts In this approach, the teacher creates a specific setting, such as a blacksmith shoeing a horse, and introduces essential vocabulary Students are then guided to respond appropriately to sentence stems, ensuring their responses are meaningful and contextually relevant.
Visual aids significantly enhance a teacher's ability to describe sound production through various tools such as sound-color charts, Fidel wall charts, rods, pictures, mirrors, props, and realia These resources not only support the explanation but also serve as cues for producing the target sounds effectively.
(6) Tongue twisters: a technique from speech correction strategies for native speakers (e.g, “She sells seashells by the seashore”)
Developmental approximation drills are a technique derived from first-language acquisition studies, where second language learners retrace the steps of English-speaking children in sound acquisition For instance, just as children typically learn to produce the sound /w/ before /r/ or /y/ before /l/, adults struggling with /l/ or /r/ can start by practicing words with initial /w/ or /y/, gradually transitioning to /r/ or /l/.
The practice of vowel and stress shifts through affixation is a technique grounded in generative phonology, as proposed by Chomsky and Halle in 1968, and is particularly effective for intermediate to advanced learners In this approach, teachers highlight the rule-based relationships between vowel and stress shifts in etymologically related words to enhance students' awareness To facilitate learning, sentences and short texts featuring both members of a word pair can be utilized as oral practice material.
Vowel shift: mime (long i) mimic (short i) Sentence context: Street mimes often mimic the gestures of passersby Stress shift: PHOtograph photography
Sentence context: I can tell from these photographs that you are very good at photography
Reading aloud or recitation involves learners practicing passages or scripts to enhance their skills in stress, timing, and intonation This technique can include memorization and is commonly applied to genres meant for spoken delivery, such as speeches, poems, plays, and dialogues.
Recording learners' production through audio and video captures rehearsed and spontaneous speeches, free conversations, and role plays Playback of these recordings facilitates valuable feedback from teachers and peers, enabling comprehensive evaluations from teachers, peers, and self-assessments.
According to Brandi Junious in Strategies & Activities for Teaching Pronunciation from ehow.com, there are some strategies teachers should apply when teach pronunciation
Phonetics examines sound production and the modification of air through the vocal tract, as noted by the University of Iowa's Phonetics website It serves as a foundational approach for teaching pronunciation, starting with the mechanics of sound creation This is particularly beneficial for early readers and second language learners, who may not yet grasp the diverse sounds associated with each letter.
43 provides the basics of how to use the lips, tongue, throat and airstream to create the sounds of each letter in the alphabet
Students can enhance their pronunciation skills by identifying familiar parts within new words Teach them to recognize these familiar segments and pronounce them similarly to known words To facilitate this learning, implement a "like words" activity where students practice pronouncing familiar words before introducing a new one Have them underline the familiar portion of the new word and practice that segment Finally, encourage them to pronounce the entire new word using the insights gained from the comparison.
Students can enhance their pronunciation skills by practicing with rhyming words Engaging with familiar and interesting content, such as song lyrics, poetry, or rhyming books, allows them to relate to the material This approach helps students anticipate rhyme patterns and improves their understanding of the pronunciation of words that sound alike.
Error correction in teaching pronunciation 45
Paulston and Bruder (1976) emphasize the importance of immediate error correction during the single word drilling phase, advocating for modeling and student imitation of pronunciation In conversational exchanges, they recommend correcting only specific teaching points and focusing on errors that hinder comprehensibility while overlooking others It is crucial to assess content and form separately and to correct errors thoughtfully to maintain the motivation and self-image of adult learners Additionally, Doff (1988) identifies three distinct approaches to error correction utilized by teachers.
Focusing solely on correcting students' mistakes can hinder their fluency in English, as making errors is a natural part of the learning process Instead of emphasizing what students do wrong, it's essential to view their mistakes as opportunities for further teaching and growth A balanced approach that acknowledges both correct usage and errors fosters a more effective learning environment.
I occasionally correct students, particularly when focusing on a specific language point, but I avoid excessive corrections during freer activities When I do provide corrections, I aim to do so in an encouraging manner.
3 “I try to correct errors as little as possible I want my students to express themselves in English without worrying too much about making mistakes Sometimes
I notice points that everyone gets wrong, and deal with them later – but I never interrupt students to correct them.”
Most educators acknowledge the necessity of addressing language errors to aid students in mastering correct forms However, constant correction may discourage students from expressing themselves, potentially leading to reluctance or inability to communicate effectively.
Doff emphasizes the importance of encouraging students by highlighting their correct answers rather than focusing on mistakes Praising both correct and partially correct responses fosters a sense of progress and confidence It is crucial to avoid humiliating students or labeling mistakes as 'bad.' Quick correction of errors is essential, as spending excessive time on them can elevate their significance and disrupt the flow of the lesson.
Suggested activities in teaching pronunciation 46
4.6.1 Practising stress in words and short phrases
This engaging activity pairs effectively with a speaking exercise where the teacher and students pass a cushion around the circle The student holding the cushion introduces themselves by stating their name and where they live, using the format: "I’m _ I live in ." Additionally, the teacher can write their name on a card, highlighting the stress pattern for clarity.
Then the students each take a card and write their names, work out the stress pattern and mark the pattern on their card, for example:
Students group together based on matching stress patterns and display their cards on a whiteboard categorized by these patterns, such as • • / • • • The activity is then repeated using the names of suburbs.
Once your class understands how to mark stress using methods like dots or claps, you can implement various activities and games to practice stress patterns in words and phrases Hancock (1995) provides excellent examples, including a straightforward activity where students match the stress pattern they hear or see to the corresponding word or phrase Here is a brief list of useful phrases along with their stress patterns.
Learners can engage in matching phrases to the clapping patterns demonstrated by the teacher, either individually or in groups, where one student claps while others match the patterns to the words In pairs, they can organize a series of words or phrases into the correct patterns and then verify their answers by pronouncing them with the appropriate stress while other groups check their responses Utilizing separate cards for phrases and stress patterns can enhance this activity.
Explore 47 engaging matching games, including the classic favorite 'Snap' Enhance vocabulary through activities that pair items with their corresponding shops, and incorporate an additional challenge by matching stress patterns to further enrich the learning experience.
Learners often require focused attention on sentence stress, especially if their native language has different stress patterns It's essential for them to understand that certain words carry more significance in a sentence and will be stressed, while less important words remain unstressed Historically, this concept was illustrated using telegrams, but a modern analogy would be a mobile phone: when reception is poor, the words you emphasize are the ones you would shout, reflecting the natural stress in everyday speech.
After understanding word and sentence stress, as well as the concepts of stressed and unstressed words, learners can engage in a practical activity to reinforce their knowledge of how unstressed words are compressed in speech.
- Get four students to stand in front of the class and hand each a card with one of the following words: Kim cooked fried rice
- The four students have to arrange themselves so that the sentence has meaning Elicit the stress pattern of the utterance, i.e
To enhance understanding, practice the utterance using the correct pattern Next, invite four additional students to the front and provide each with one of the following phrases: "me" or "a lot of." The students should determine where to position themselves in the line to ensure the utterance remains coherent.
Kim cooked me a lot of fried rice
- Elicit which words are stressed and which are unstressed, i.e
LA LA LA la la la LA LA
- Demonstrate physically the ‘squeezing’ together of the three people holding ‘a lot of’, and how quickly we would say these words Practise the utterance with correct rhythm
- Repeat the activity with another group of learners and another set of cards with the words:
Tea or coffee? (LA la LA la?)
- Then add Do you want a, i.e
Do you want a tea or coffee? (la la LA la LA la LA la?)
- Then add a cup of, so that you end up with the line of learners holding cards in order of:
Do you want a cup of tea or coffee?
Jazz chants are rhythmic spoken chants performed in unison by learners, helping them grasp the rhythm of English This concept can be adapted to everyday language by creating chants that incorporate more routine expressions.
And I’ve got a new house • • • • • •
But I’ve lost all my money • • • • • • •
For younger adults, rap music, carefully selected to avoid offence, can be a motivating way to help learners develop a sense of rhythm in English
Stepping out is an engaging activity that helps learners develop a physical sense of rhythm in English By selecting any utterance, preferably a longer one for added challenge, small groups of three to five students can collaborate to identify the major stresses within the phrase.
I’d love to come to the party but I’m working on Sunday
Learners form groups and hold hands while they 'step out' the utterance, walking forward as they speak They can only take a step on stressed syllables, such as 'love', 'come', 'part', 'work', and 'Sun'.
Skeleton dialogues, formed from the major stressed words in conversations, can effectively create dialogues and role plays By selecting the key stressed words from any interaction, you can use them as a shorthand representation of the dialogue, as illustrated in the example of strangers conversing on a 'Train to Melbourne'.
In collaborative groups, students can determine the 'full version' of phrases, identifying which words naturally pair together and how they are pronounced This process requires making various grammatical and stress-related choices Subsequently, learners can practice the dialogue in pairs, following a structure that indicates the number of sense groups to be articulated with distinct intonation patterns.
A: Are you going to Melbourne? (1) B: Yes./Are you going there, too? (2) A: Yep./I’m going to an interview./Are you a student? (3) B: No./I’m a nurse./What about you? (3)
A: I’m unemployed (1) B: Oh!/Is it a job interview?/Are you nervous? (3) A: Yep./Very nervous! (2)
A similar kind of treatment can be given to everyday routines – for example, ‘Did you have a good weekend?’ – so that an exchange such as shown below:
A: Did you have a good weekend?
B: Yes/I went to the movies
B: Red Dragon/It was very scary
Contrastive stress can be effectively demonstrated and practiced through dialogues In the example provided, learners are tasked with identifying which of the two bolded words should receive the primary emphasis, thereby bearing the contrastive stress.
B: Yes there is I bought some yesterday
A: I know, but there isn’t any salt on the table
To practice contrastive stress, learners can engage in a game called 'Oranges at the Supermarket,' applicable to any language and topic In this activity, the class receives the initial segment of a statement starting with 'but…' to encourage effective use of contrastive stress.
You can buy oranges at the supermarket, but
Further reading 55
Many students struggle with unclear pronunciation because they primarily learn from textbooks or non-native English teachers To enhance your English pronunciation, consider these four effective tips.
To improve your English listening skills, immerse yourself in the language by hearing native speakers in various contexts Pay attention to their sounds and stress patterns, and make it a habit to listen frequently Utilize online videos, television shows, and downloadable content such as speeches, podcasts, and conversations You can enjoy these resources while driving, exercising, or doing household chores to maximize your exposure to the language.
As you listen to a native English speaker, repeat what you hear Try to sound the same Use the same sounds and stress patterns
English has some sounds that many other languages do not have Learn what those sounds are, and work on pronouncing them correctly
When you pay attention to speech, observe the movements of the lips, teeth, and tongue, as these elements are essential for producing the sounds of any language.
Mouth drawings illustrate the placement of the lips, teeth, and tongue for specific sounds By visualizing these positions, you can effectively associate the sounds with the corresponding movements of your mouth.
Stress in words is determined by identifying the stressed syllable, especially in multi-syllable words In English, syllables containing long vowels typically receive more stress compared to those with short vowels For example, in the word "reader," the first syllable "read" is stressed.
Stress in English occurs primarily on content words such as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and main verbs, while function words like prepositions, conjunctions, helping verbs, determiners, and pronouns are typically unstressed.
Carlos has acquired extensive vocabulary and grammar knowledge The focus is on the main verb "acquired" and the key nouns: Carlos, extensive, vocabulary, and grammar, while less emphasis is placed on the determiner "a," the preposition "of," and the conjunction "and."
Listen, practice, learn the sounds, and learn the stress patterns
Avery, P., & Ehrlich, S (1987) The Teaching of Pronunciation: An Introduction for Teachers of English as a
Second Language Oxford: Oxford University Press
Brazil (1994) English pronunciation for advanced learners of English Cambridge: CUP
Brown, A (1991) Teaching English Pronunciation: A Book of Readings London: Routledge
Brown, A (1992) Approaches to Pronunciation Teaching London: Macmillan
Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D., & Goodwin, J (1996) Teaching pronunciation: A reference for teachers of English to speakers of other languages New York: Cambridge University Press
Chela-Flores, B (1998) Teaching English rhythm: From theory to practice Caracas: Fondo Editorial Tropykos Dalton, C., & Seidlhofer, B (1994) Pronunciation Oxford: Oxford University Press
Hancock, M (1996) Pronunciation Games Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Hewings, M (2004) Pronunciation practice activities A resource book for teaching English pronunication
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Handbook for Language Teachers) (With audio-CD) Haycraft, B (1971) The Teaching of Pronunciation A Classroom guide London: Longman
Kenworthy, J (1987) Teaching English Pronunciation London: Longman
MacCarthy, P (1978), The Teaching of Pronunciation Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Roach, P (1991) English phonetics and phonology: A practical course (second edition) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Wong, R (1987) Teaching Pronunciation: Focus on English Rhythm and Intonation Englewood Cliffs, NJ: