Using role play in teaching short stories to third year english majors at the university of technical education in ho chi minh city m a

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE ******************** THESIS USING ROLE-PLAY IN TEACHING SHORT STORIES TO THIRD-YEAR ENGLISH MAJORS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNICAL ED

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE

********************

THESIS

USING ROLE-PLAY IN TEACHING SHORT STORIES

TO THIRD-YEAR ENGLISH MAJORS

AT THE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

IN HO CHI MINH CITY

Submitted to the Department of English Linguistics and Literature

in partial fulfillment of the Master’s degree in TESOL

By

TRAN THI THIEN THANH – TESOL 2008

Supervised by DOAN HUE DUNG, Ph.D

HO CHI MINH CITY, 2013

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify my authorship of the Master’s Thesis submitted today entitled

“USING ROLE-PLAY IN TEACHING SHORT STORIES TO THIRD-YEAR ENGLISH MAJORS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

IN HO CHI MINH CITY”

In terms of the Statement of requirements for Theses in Masters’ programs issued by the Higher Degree Committee of the Department of English Linguistics and Literature, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University of Ho Chi Minh City

The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and it is not currently submitted in candidature of any other degree

Ho Chi Minh City, 2013

Tran Thi Thien Thanh

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that, I, TRAN THI THIEN THANH, being a candidate for the degree of Master of Arts (TESOL) accept the requirements of the University relating

to the retention and use of Master’s Thesis deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree to the original of my thesis being deposited

in the Library to be accessible for the purpose of study and research, in accordance with the normal condition established by the Librarian for the care, loan or reproduction of theses

HCMC, 2013

TRAN THI THIEN THANH

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would first like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Dr Doan Hue Dung for her great encouragement, sympathy and support during my research I appreciate her generosity and very detailed suggestions on various drafts of this thesis Without her guidance and support this research could not have been completed

In addition, I am thankful to the teachers who helped to answer the questionnaire and my students at Faculty of Foreign Languages at the University of Technical Education who assisted in data collection I would also like to thank Dr Nguyen Dinh Thu for his instructing me to teach literature and his care and encouragement

I want to express my gratitude to all of the professors who devotedly taught me during my postgraduate studies at the USSH In addition, I want to say thank you to all of my classmates, TESOL 2008 class, especially Mr Huynh Phong Nhuan,who have inspired and encouraged me, spiritually and practically, during the study process and compilation of this thesis

Finally I would like to send my special thank to my family who always encouraged and helped me during this study

ABSTRACT

This thesis is a study of applying role play in teaching American short stories The study aims to examine the effects of role play in teaching and learning American literature Its goals are set to find out (1) students’ attitude toward learning American literature and (2) the effect of applying role-play in the context of teaching and learning American short stories

As for the framework of analysis, the study involved 15 teachers in charge of American literature and 59 students majored in English at the Faculty of Foreign Languages at the University of Technical Education The research instruments included questionnaires for both teachers and students and pre-tests and post-tests for students only

The major findings of the study revealed that both students and teachers appreciate the various effects of role play in teaching American short stories, especially enhancing the comprehension of short stories; however, not many teachers apply it very often in their literature teaching for different reasons

Key words: role play, literature, American short stories, comprehension

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP ii

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

ABSTRACT v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

LIST OF FIGURES x

LIST OF TABLES xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiii

1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1Background to the Study 1

1.2Rationale 3

1.2.1.Teaching and learning literature at high school level 3

1.2.2.Teaching and learning British and American literature at English-majored tertiary level 4

1.2.3.Teaching and learning British and American literature at HCMCUTE 4

1.3Aims of the study 6

1.4Research questions 6

1.5Hypothesis 7

1.6Significance of the study 7

1.7Limitations of the study 8

1.8Research Method 8

1.9Organization of the study 9

2 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 11

2.1Literature in English Language Teaching 11

2.2 Literary Text Selection 13

2.3 Short Stories 15

2.3.1 Definition 15

2.3.2Characteristics of a Short Story 16

2.3.2.1.Setting 16

2.3.2.2.Plot 17

2.3.2.3.Characters 17

2.3.2.4 Theme 18

2.3.2.5.Point of view 19

2.3.3 Problems When Using a Short Story 19

2.3.4 Approaches to Teaching Short Stories 20

2.3.3.1.Elements of the Short Story 21

2.3.3.1.1.Visualizing the setting 21

2.3.3.1.2 Seeing conflicts 21

2.3.3.1.3.Understanding decisions 21

2.3.3.1.4 Sensing tone and mood 21

2.3.3.1.5 Seeing character 22

2.3.3.1.6 Understanding character 22

2.3.3.1.7 Understanding the plot 22

2.3.3.1.8 Seeing the sequence of events 22

2.3.3.1.9 Understanding the story line 23

2.3.3.1.10.Understanding structure 23

2.3.3.2 Interpreting and Understanding the Short Story 24

2.3.3.3 Writing the Short Story 25

2.4Methodological Approaches to Teaching Literature 32

2.4.1Language-based approach 33

2.4.2 Information-based approach 33

2.4.3Critical literacy approach 34

2.4.4 Stylistic approach 34

2.4.5 Story Grammar approach 35

2.4.6 Reader Response approach 35

2.4.7 Integrated approach 36

2.4.8 Task-based approach 36

2.5 Role play 39

2.5.1 Definition 39

2.5.2 Reasons for using role play in English classes 40

2.5.3 Disadvantages of Using Role play 43

2.5.4 Types of role play 45

2.5.4.1 Role-playing controlled through cued dialogues 46

2.5.4.2 Role-playing controlled through cues and information 47

2.5.4.3 Role-playing controlled through situation and goals 48

2.5.4.4 Role-playing in the form of debate or discussion 49

2.5.4.5 Large-scale simulation activities 50

2.5.4.6 Improvisation 51

2.5.5The procedure to conduct a role play 51

2.5.5.1Preparation and explanation of the activity by the teacher 52

2.5.5.2Student preparation of the activity 54

2.5.5.3Carry out role play 55

2.5.5.4The discussion or debriefing after the role-play activity 57

3 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 60

3.1A Brief Overview on the Theory of Experimental Research 60

3.2Research Design 61

3.3The Experimental Teaching 62

3.3.1.Characteristics of Student Participants 62

3.3.2.Experimental Teaching 62

3.4Characteristics of Teacher Participants 64

3.5Instruments Used in Data Collection 64

3.5.1Questionnaires 64

3.5.1.1Pre-questionnaire 65

3.5.1.2Post-questionnaire 66

3.5.1.3Teachers’ questionnaire 68

3.5.2Pre-test 69

3.5.3Post-test 69

3.6Data Analysis 70

3.7Research Procedure 70

4 CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 73

4.1.Data Analysis 73

4.1.1Questionnaires for Students 73

4.1.1.1Pre-questionnaire 73

4.1.1.2Post-questionnaire 79

4.1.1.2.1Part 1: Same questions for both classes 79

4.1.1.2.2Part 2: Questions for the experimental class only 88

4.1.2Tests 97

4.1.3Teachers’ questionnaire 105

4.2.Major Findings 120

5 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS 124

5.1.Answering the research questions 124

5.2.Implications 126

5.2.1.Increase students’ interest in reading literary works 127

5.2.2.Enhance role-play’s effects in the literature lesson 128

5.3.Recommendations for Further Study 128

REFERENCES 130

APPENDICES 134

APPENDIX 1 Students’ Pre-Questionnaire 135

APPENDIX 2 Students’ Post-Questionnaire (Controlled class) ……137

APPENDIX 3 Students’ Post-Questionnaire (Experimental class) 139

APPENDIX 4 Teachers’ Questionnaire 142

APPENDIX 5 Test 145

APPENDIX 6 Sample lesson plan (Controlled class) 155

APPENDIX 7 Sample lesson plan (Experimental class) 167

APPENDIX 8 A sample role play script (A Gift of the Magi) 179

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1: Plot pattern of a short story 17

Figure 2-2: Anticipating student problems with short stories 20

Figure 4-1: Respondents’ opinions of their favourite skill 74

Figure 4-2: Respondents’ opinions of literature role 74

Figure 4-3: Respondents’ love of literature 75

Figure 4-4: Respondents’ opinions of the obstacles of studying literature 77

Figure 4-5: Respondents’ choice of favourite literature genre 78

Figure 4-6: Teaching activities in the previous literature course 78

Figure 4-7: Awareness of literature role before/after course in the controlled class 80

Figure 4-8: Awareness of literature role before/after course in experimental class 80

Figure 4-9: Comparison of obstacles to studying literature before and after the course in the controlled class 81

Figure 4-10: Comparison of obstacles to studying literature before and after the course in the experimental class 81

Figure 4-11: Time spent on reading a work before each lesson 82

Figure 4-12: Difficulty of reading the assigned works 83

Figure 4-13: Character Incarnation 84

Figure 4-14: Frequency of rereading the works after lessons 85

Figure 4-15: Feeling when studying the course 86

Figure 4-16: Favourite class activities 87

Figure 4-17: Level of understanding a lesson 87

Figure 4-18: Level of Enjoying Role-play 89

Figure 4-19: Course Recommendation 89

Figure 4-20: Role-play’s effect on memorizing story details 90

Figure 4-21: Role-play’s effect on understanding a story without reading it 91

Figure 4-22: Role-play’s effect on interest in literature 92

Figure 4-23: Role-play’s effect on story comprehension 93

Figure 4-24: Role-play’s effect on creativity 94

Figure 4-25: Role-play’s effect on team-work spirit 94

Figure 4-26: Role-play’s effect on confidence 95

Figure 4-27: Role-play’s effect on sense of empathy 96

Figure 4-28: Role-play’s effect on love of literature 96

Figure 4-29: Literature’s role 106

Figure 4-30: Favorite teaching genre 107

Figure 4-31: Obstacles of Teaching Literature 107

Figure 4-32: Frequency of using role-play 108

Figure 4-33: Reasons of using role-play 109

Figure 4-34: Reasons of disusing role-play 110

Figure 4-35: Role-play’s effect on the interest in literature 111

Figure 4-36: Role-play’s effect on the comprehension of literary works 112

Figure 4-37: Role-play’s effect on creativity 112

Figure 4-38: Role-play’s effect on confidence 113

Figure 4-39: Role-play’s effect on sense of empathy 114

Figure 4-40: Role-play’s effect on the love of literature 114

Figure 4-41: Suitable genres for role-play 115

Figure 4-42: Suitable lesson stage for role-play 116

Figure 4-43: Story summary before performance 117

Figure 4-44: Use of role-play in the future 118

Figure 4-45: Suggested improvements for applying role-play 119

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1: The outline of American Literature course at FFL, HCMCUTE 6

Table 2-1:Discussion input chart 21

Table 2-2: Lesson plan frame 32

Table 3-1: Implied Purposes from the Student Pre-Questionnaire 66

Table 3-2: Implied Purposes from the Student Post-questionnaire 67

Table 3-3: Implied Purposes from the Teacher Questionnaire 69

Table 4-1: The respondents’ reasons for little interest in literature in the controlled class 75

Table 4-2: The respondents’ reasons for little interest in literature in the experimental class 76

Table 4-3: Pre-Test and post-test results 97

Table 4-4: Test items categorized into comprehension skills 103

Table 4-5: Summary of post-test results according to comprehension skills 105

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

HCMUTE Ho Chi Minh University of Technical Education

USSH University of Social Sciences and Humanities

1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

This thesis studies Role-play as an approach in enhancing advanced learners’ comprehension of English and American short stories Primarily set in Literature classes of FFL of HCMCUTE the research employs the experimental method The first chapter of the thesis presents some factors that may affect the study, specifies the problems and aims of the study, and briefly describes the methodology

1.1 Background to the Study

Literature is a very versatile subject and is generally considered one of the most difficult subjects to teach and to study Studying native literature in native language is not easy at all; however, it cannot be compared with American and British literature in English, an extremely difficult task which challenge many Vietnamese students Understanding literary language requires more efforts than dealing with spoken language Therefore, literature subject is often in the list of the most unfavourable subjects When being asked about their opinion toward the subject at the beginning of the course, the students do not conceal their negative attitude toward literature subject They assume that studying literature is very boring; they gradually lose the sense of pleasure and enjoyment that go with the study of literature Their explanation is rooted from the high school time when they studied Vietnamese literature with fear or scare; likewise, English literature at university is not an exception To address this phenomenon, the problems in studying and teaching English literature may be listed as follows

The first problem is students’ lack of clear goals and objectives Undoubtedly,

if a student does not know the aims of studying literature, he or she will probably not get the pleasure or satisfaction in studying literature Numerous students claim that literature is useless in their daily life, and that they cannot use literary language in

The aim of literature is to help man to understand himself, to strengthen the trust in himself, and to develop in him the striving toward truth; it is to fight meanness

in people, to learn how to find the good in them, to awake in their souls shame, anger, courage; to do all in order that man should become nobly strong.1

Therefore, the teacher’s duty is to present the clear and practical objectives at the beginning of the course and the learning aims or outcomes in each lesson

The second problem may be blamed on the dissymmetry between the difficult language in literary works, especially of old English and students’ low level of English Unique literary words, transcendent ideas, or unusual writing styles are some noticeable hindrances to students’ understanding and interest in prose or poetry Choosing a masterpiece novel to teach is not a matter, but making the learners master its content, meaning and especially stylistic devices is a quite different story Due to the study timetable constraint, students cannot be required to read the whole novel and analyze it in less than a week Consequently, a short story should be used instead

of a novel

Last but not least, the most important cause for the students’ boredom is the teaching method A pensive class atmosphere and passive and sleepy students are all blamed on two continuous hours or more of listening to the lecturing in non-native language Students sit passively trying to struggle against sleepiness in order to take note every word transmitted to their ears They do not trigger their mind at all; they accept all opinions about the characters, themes, and so on presented by the teacher as

if they were undeniable facts As a result, students do not participate in the process of understanding and evaluating characters’ psychology and then refer the work to their real situations

All of the above problems can be solved only when the literature teaching approach is changed in a positive way This means that students will be involved in

1

Cited from “Maxim Gorky: A Political Biography” (1999:35) by Tova Yedlin

the lesson, searching a way to understand the meaning of the story by themselves The teacher plays the role of a facilitator who guides students to a thorough and correct comprehension With this discipline in mind, the teacher can motivate students by applying role-playing activities Role-play in which students are assigned certain roles

to act can enhance students’ comprehension of literature texts as well as their interest

in studying literature However the effects of applying role-play in teaching literature need to be verified by a research The findings of the research will help literature teachers to decide to what extent or whether role-play activities should be applied Moreover, the findings will be the answers to the problems above and bring pleasure

to English literature classes

1.2 Rationale

1.2.1 Teaching and learning literature at high school level

At high school level, literature is considered one of the core subjects with the scores multiplied by a factor of 2 However, “There have been various articles which reflected the critical decrease in the quality of the teaching and learning of literature in recent years.”2 The reasons for this disappointing fact include the followings First,

due to the social demands for technological or economic development, most of the high school students are in favour of natural sciences subjects like maths, physics, and chemistry instead of social sciences subjects like literature.3 They do not read the works before class and pay little attention to the teachers’ lectures Second, the purpose of teaching literature at schools is not to nurture their soul but to help them to pass exams, especially the high school graduation exam which is a burden for both teachers and students The teaching method and content focus on the format and content of the exams which have remained unchanged for years Students learn by heart sample answers, and guided analysis essays Other factors that hindrance students’ interest in literature consist of class time limitation and long and old works

2

Roughly translated from the article “BAO GIỜ CHẤT LƯỢNG DẠY VÀ HỌC VĂN ĐƯỢC CẢI THIỆN?”

by Thuý Hồng (Giáo dục và Thời đại, Tuesday 18 Aug 2009)

3

“Thực trạng học văn của học sinh trường THPT hiện nay” by Nguyễn Thị Bình

http://thptlanggiangso1.edu.vn/news/Hoat-dong-day-va-hoc/Thuc-trang-hoc-van-cua-hoc-sinh-truong-THPT-In conclusion, teaching and learning literature has not helped to increase students’ aspiration but has made them frightened at this subject

1.2.2 Teaching and learning British and American literature at majored tertiary level

English-According to an MA research carried out at the Department of English Linguistics and Literature, USSH in 2010, the majority of surveyed students are fairly interested in studying literature More than half of them study literature because it is mandatory to them It means that they are forced to study this subject and find it not very interesting As a result, they do not participate in the lessons positively Most of them blame their disinterest on the language of the studied works and the teaching methods They claim that some teachers with their passive style are unable to inspire them, causing them to learn it simply to pass the exam Some other teachers impose their own opinions and interpretation on the students, not allowing them to feel literature in their own way The students also complain that they are not provided with essential background information of the literary work

1.2.3 Teaching and learning British and American literature at

HCMCUTE

The thesis focuses on the context of the third-year students at the Faculty of Foreign Languages, HCMCUTE At the beginning of the junior year, after finishing the British and American civilization courses, students begin to study British literature followed by American literature course Both of the courses aim at providing the students with the essential literary terms, concepts, literature trends, authors and masterpieces On successful completion of the courses, students are expected to be able to (i) present their understanding of the characteristics of literature trends, authors’ styles and genres, (ii) systematize the aforementioned knowledge and analyze the chosen works in terms of meaning and literary devices The British literature course includes some introductions to the prose and poetry terms besides the knowledge of British literary trends, authors and works The American literature

course, on the other hand, focuses mainly on American literary trends, authors and works, especially short stories Therefore, the latter course is favourable for the study

to be carried out The course lasts 45 periods over 15 weeks with three minute periods each week as shown in Table 1-1

1 1-3 - General introduction of the course

+ Objectives + Requirements

- Overview of American history and Literature periods

- Characteristics of American Literature

Fiction

Nathaniel Hawthorn Edgar Allan Poe Herman Melville

H.W Longfellow

The Tide Rises The Tide Falls

Because I Could not Stop for Death

7 19-21 The Rise Of Realism: 1860-1914

Table 1-1: The outline of American Literature course at FFL, HCMCUTE

(Source: Syllabus of American Literature course at FFL, HCMCUTE, 2011)

The American Literature course is among the mandatory courses which require the students to read a lot and apply their critical thinking as well as the social and literature knowledge to understand the works The FFL teachers in charge of reading and writing complain that students are not very interested in reading and not very good at writing and they would like to do active activities more than to sit at one place reading or writing something These comments require the researcher to find out a method that can involve as many of these not very studious students as possible

1.3 Aims of the study

The aims of the study are:

(1) to investigate students’ interest in learning American short stories;

(2) to examine the effect of applying role-play to the teaching and learning of American short stories

1.4 Research questions

In order to achieve the overall objectives of the study, three guiding questions help the study go:

1 What are students’ attitude toward the teaching and learning of American short stories?

2 What are the benefits of the integration of role-play in teaching American short stories?

3 To what extent can Role-play enhance students’ comprehension of American short stories?

1.5 Hypothesis

Role-play is effective in enhancing students’ comprehension of short stories and bringing positive attitude toward literature class

1.6 Significance of the study

The current study attempts to elicit learners’ attitudes toward the teaching and learning of American Literature in general and the implementation of Role-play into the course, its significance can be seen as follows:

Firstly, the study gives an overview of the learners’ attitudes toward the teaching and learning of American Literature It could give a valuable insight into the teaching and learning of American Literature in particular and of literature in general Thanks to the revelation of how much students are interested in the subject, teachers can design appropriate lesson plans that can draw students’ attention and interest In other words, knowing students’ awareness of the subject enables teachers to students’ awareness in learning American/British Literature enables teachers to design proper activities, anticipate students’ behaviour in the classroom and thus to control the class more successfully

Secondly, the study expects to facilitate teachers to enhance their students’ involvement in learning a literary work by discovering the effects of a specific technique Based on the findings, the researcher hopes that teachers and students can recognize the advantages as well as the disadvantages of role-play activities applied in the context of literature in order to better their teaching and learning There will be,

hopefully, favourable teaching and learning conditions to maximize the effect of play as well as the results of literature learning

role-Last but not least, the current study, to some extent, provides data for further research on the field of study

1.7 Limitations of the study

Although the study has achieved its aims, there are still some unavoidable limitations:

The first limitation of this study is that the research is only carried out in a specific setting of two classes at FFL, HCMUTE The number of teachers and students participating in the study is very limited, which cannot give a full picture of the teachers and learners’ attitudes toward the teaching and learning of literature as well as the application of role-play in the course It is believed that if there were more participants involved, the results could be more impressive Moreover, it can be also inferred that the generalization of the findings may be limited to populations with similar nature, but may not be applicable so well for other learner groups with different native languages, educational settings, or cultural backgrounds

Another limitation is that the study is based only on the participants’ perceptions of using role-play without observations of teaching lessons by different teachers to see how the students actually participate in the lessons and how much they understand the stories

1.8 Research Method

In order to achieve the overall objectives of the study, the study uses a range of methods, including experiment teaching, questionnaires for students and teachers, and interviews with colleagues

Respondents of the study

The students

There are 2 classes of totally 59 students, who are English majors in their third year at the Faculty of Foreign Languages, HCM City University of Technical Education At the beginning of the course, both classes complete a questionnaire in order to reveal their attitude toward the literature subject in general and the literature courses they have already taken in particular Then, the researcher uses 4 short original American stories, namely The Story of an Hour (by Kate Chopin), The Gift of the Magi (by O.Henry), Hills Like White Elephants (by Ernest Hemingway), and The Lottery (by Shirley Jackson), and apply the traditional lecturing approach together with group or class discussions to one class and add some role-play activities to the other class At the end of the course, both classes will do a multiple choice test with questions about the details in the four stories and a questionnaire which shows the students’ attitude toward the two approaches as well as the learning of literature

The teachers

Teachers of American literature in Ho Chi Minh city participate in the research

sharing their thinking about applying role-play in their teaching in a questionnaire

Research tools

Questionnaires: A pre-questionnaire is delivered to both classes at the

beginning of the course Two versions of post-questionnaire are used at the end of the course The version for the experimental class consists of more questions relating to the application of role-play Another questionnaire is designed for the teachers of American literature

Pre-test and Post-test: the same multiple choice test designed for students of

both controlled and experimental class covers all of the four short American stories that they study during the course One is delivered at the beginning of the course, before the application of role play; the other at the end of the course

1.9 Organization of the study

The study is divided into five chapters; they are as follows:

Chapter One: Introduction deals with rationale, the objectives of the study,

scope of the study, significance, research questions, and organization of the study

Chapter Two: Literature Review presents the theories and researches related

to the topic of literature and role-play

Chapter Three: Methodology consists of the research design, sampling,

research instruments, validity and reliability of the instrument, data and methods of collecting data

Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Findings consists of the data presentation,

data analysis, and discussion

Chapter Five: Conclusion and Suggestion for Further Research

References

Appendixes

2 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 An Overview of Using Literature in English Language Teaching

Literature was initially the main source of input for teaching in language classes in the era of Grammar Translation Method but since other methods were developed, it has been dropped “down the pedestal” Since the mid-1980s once-neglected literature revived its position thanks to practitioners and language scholars such as Carter & Burton 1982; Maley 1985; Brumfit 1986; Carter & Long 1991 However, there have been intense controversies over whether to integrate literature in English language teaching curriculum, especially when there is an increase in the need

to learn English for specific purposes and an emphasis on the spoken more than on the written language Opposite ideas about this issue are fully and systematically summarized in the article “Literature in EFL/ESL Classroom” by Iranian scholars published in March 2011 Opinions against teaching literature argue in three major areas: linguistics, material selection, methodology and motivation First of all, the linguistic areas, including syntax, lexis, semantics, phonetics and phonology, hinder the reading and interpreting processes Syntactic structures in a literary text are far from the conventional English grammar In terms of lexis, for example, the meanings

of some words like “gay” in the modern time are totally opposite to the time they were written Second, selection of a suitable work is a hindering obstacle to the success of the literature class The teacher should examine a long list of different factors affecting learning including learners’ age, gender, language proficiency, background knowledge, the work’s genre, length, literature trend and the like Third, teaching language with literary texts often turns learning into a teacher-centered activity dominated by the teacher’s interpretations of the texts in the L2 situation Finally, the learners, especially those of ESP courses have little interest in literature McKay (1982) postulates that literature does not help the learners achieve their academic or career goals, and the cultural context in literary works is too foreign for students to

However supporters of the use of literature in the language learning curriculum give persuasive refutation First of all, linguists share the view that literature provides rich linguistic input Alan Duff and Alan Maley (1990:6) claim that literary texts offer authentic usage of the targeted syntactic, lexical knowledge with various levels of difficulty Literary texts consist of a profound range of language types from slang to formal over various subject matters The solution to the complexity of literary notions, concepts, and linguistic knowledge lies in the selection of a suitable text or in prior teaching of these matters Besides, literature is rich with innumerable authentic tokens

of language for the development of reading, writing, speaking and listening skills (Belcher & Hirvela, 2000, Crain, 1993, Erkaya, 2005, Fitzgerald, 1993, Knight, 1993, Latosi-Sawin, 1993, Nasr, 2001, Spack, 1985, Stern, 2001, Vandrick, 1996) Carter and Long (1991) put forward that literature that literature is made from language, and language is the literary medium, knowing about literature means approaching language in its beauty Second, a suitable literary text is no longer a nuisance with the clear eleven criteria proposed by Carter and Long (1991) Third, the ambiguity in the texts provides enough room for students to discuss and reflect upon, therefore enabling the teacher and the learners to create different sorts of learning activities which make learning interesting and appealing Fourth, motivation is one of the elements which can drive the learners to go ahead Literature deals with the thematic topics filled with human interest relevant to the students’ concerns in their lives (Paran

2008, p 469), for instance, romantic love, family conflicts, and making difficult choices in life Through class activities, literature is an effective stimulus for learners

to express themselves in a foreign language (Povey, 1967; Widdowson, 1975; McKay, 1982; Collie and Slater (1990); Lazar, 1996; Custodion & Sutton, 1998) Interestingly, reading literary texts foster emotional intelligence (Ghosn, 2002) and enhances critical thinking (Gajdusek & van Dommelen, 1993, Ghosn, 2002, Van, 2009) Literature really cares for the learners’ complete growth (Carter and Long, 1991:2) Fifth, in the era of globalization literature encourages the mutual understanding between cultures around the world Carter and Long (1991:2) explicate that literature is treated as a good source of understanding a country’s culture in the cultural model because

through literary texts readers not only know about historical background, social values and ideologies over a historical period but also analyze the differences of their native culture and the target one, of their present time versus the past “In this particular

‘human’ sense that gives literature a central place in the study and teaching of the humanities in many parts of the world” (1991:2) To sum up, as an effective tool for learners to develop linguistic competence, to have the right attitude toward the values

in the text and the world outside, to take personal pleasure in reading as well as other multifarious merits, literature must, with no debate, be introduced to the ELT curriculum

2.2 Literary Text Selection

Studying literature is the process in which learners directly interact with the text for interpretations McKay (1982:531) judiciously states that the key to success in using literature in the ESL class seems to lie in the literary works that are selected Reading a literary text is more likely to have a long-term and valuable effect upon the learners’ linguistic and extralinguistic knowledge when it is meaningful and amusing Therefore, choosing a text appropriate to learners’ language level, experience, interest, and the like is not a very easy task which involves a lot of factors A chosen text must

be not too linguistically difficult or easy to de-motivate learners It is also advisable to have learners provided with the background knowledge of the target culture presented

in the text Due to the complicated requirements for selecting a text, there is an urgent need for standard criteria Nuttal (1982) focuses on the three features of a text, namely readability, content suitability, and exploitability, which are then modified and made clear by Carter and Long (1991:141) with eleven criteria: (1) availability: students are able to get the printed text with ease; (2) representative: there should be a wide range

of texts covering different literary periods, which is agreed by R Carter and J McRae (1996); (3) familiarity: the text should be well-known enough to appeal learners; (4) restriction: the text will be chosen by an examining body or freely selected by the teacher; (5) cross-culture: learners have to be given background knowledge of an English-speaking country with which the chosen text is concerned; (6) language

update: linguistically complicated works (e.g old English works) may be unsuitable (e.g because of differences from modern English); (7) conceptual difficulty: the message in the text should not be too difficult to infer; (8) length: a very long text would be time-consuming because it takes learners a considerable time to read and interpret; (9) completeness: there should be a combination of a complete work and extract, but the more extracts the better; (10) connection: a link with other texts over a period of time needs more details of background introduced whereas a text with no such link can be an experimentation with a wide range of techniques; (11) theme versus genre: choosing a text bases on the subject matter or the genre

Supposing that the teacher has the complete power to control what to teach, and with the availability of online texts, the criteria 1 and 4 can be ignored Take the rest

of the aforementioned criteria, the literature trends, and the genres into consideration, short stories of the after-Shakespeare time may be the most ideal choice As McKay (1982:532) recites in her article that Donelson and Nilsen (1980:14-15) prefer literary works written for young adults because these works are often relatively short, containing a limited set of characters and tending to be stylistically less complex Researches on the students’ attitude toward text selection in Malaysia (2009:53) show the overwhelming choice of short stories among students “A total of 80% of the students agreed that they enjoyed reading the short stories chosen for the component Interestingly, none of the students strongly disagreed with the statement.” The students in the research found short stories the easiest to read and to understand, the plot interesting, and the language manageable An Investigation of the Student Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Studying Literature as a Major Component of the EFL / ESL Programme carried out in Sultan Qaboos University (2009:9) shows the same result A majority of students surveyed found short stories the most useful, enjoyable, and the least difficult or intimidating compared to poems, novels and dramas Charles

R Duke4 (1974:62) presents the advantages of using short stories in English classes under the point of view of both students and teachers: “Students find the short story

4

Charles R Duke (1974) “Teaching the Short Story” The English Journal, Vol 63, No 6, Sep., 1974

one of the most satisfying of all literary forms, and teachers agree that stories often

provide more challenge and hold students’ interest better than works from many other genres.”

2.3 Short Stories

2.3.1 Definition

The previous part has presented the advantageous reasons for choosing a short literary text in teaching literature However, it is a matter of question to know what a short story is or how long a story should be to be considered a short story This topic has been widely discussed but a single definition is still a mystery H.G Wells says a short story is any piece of fiction that can be read in half an hour, and Chekhov regards a story as a problem a writer must solve for a reader Marilyn Singer5, editor

of the two short story anthologies “STAY TRUE: Short Stories for Strong Girls” (Scholastic, 1998) and “I BELIEVE IN WATER: Twelve Brushes with Religion” (HarperCollins, 2000) receives different answers to the question “What is a short story” from 12 writers and editors Two of them define a short story as a photograph

or a snapshot – “a captured moment of time that is crystalline, though sometimes mysterious, arresting, though perhaps delicate.” Some other writers take the structure

of a story as an important criterion of a short story definition Jennifer Armstrong states that a short story is only one of many narrative structures A piece cannot be a short story without the structure of a beginning, middle, and end of a short story Peni Griffin adds the character/conflict element to the list of mandatory criteria of a short story Several opinions concern the length of a short story Jennifer Armstrong loves a short story of fifteen pages or less while Virginia Euwer Wolff prefers under 80 pages

It is really problematic to determine what exactly separates a short story from longer fictional formats Edgar Allan Poe in his famous essay "Thomas Le Moineau (Le Moile)" (1846) established the basic rules of a short story:

 A short story should create a single impression

 It must be capable of being read in one sitting

 Every word should contribute to the planned effect

 The effect should be created in the opening sentence and developed throughout the work

 The story should end at its climax

 Only such characters that are essential to the effect should appear

These rules have served as guidelines for short story writers for hundreds of years Alex Keegan6 (1999), a British crime and literary fiction author also uses these rules in his own definition:

A short story is a narrative, rarely, over 10,000 words or below 500 words, more commonly 1,500-5,000 words a single-sitting read, but with enough time and weight to move the reader It is narrow and focused to produce a singular effect, the story's meaning, most commonly thru events affecting some change or denial of change in an individual All aspects of a short-story are closely integrated and cross- reinforcing; language, POV, tone and mood, the sounds as well as the meanings of the words, and their rhythm.

2.3.2 Characteristics of a Short Story

As J McRae (1991:44) states “a short text must have a clear and readily identifiable setting, and/or situation, and/or characters Any one of these can be sufficient.” and that “there will almost always be a turning-point in the passage, something that will indicate a movement within the passage, implying a beginning, a middle and an end.”

Alex Keegan (1999) “What is a short-story?” The Internet Writing Journal, ISSN No 1095-3973,

Volume 3, Issue 7 Sept., 1999

a strong sense of setting A short story is restricted to one setting only (fixed place and time, social surroundings)

2.3.2.2 Plot

A plot is a series of events and character actions that relate to the central conflict The conflict may be the main character against another important character, against the forces of nature, against society, or even against something inside himself

or herself A common plot consists of five parts: exposition, rising actions, climax, falling actions, and resolution which are illustrated in a mountain pattern

Figure 2-1: Plot pattern of a short story

(adapted from a workshop powerpoint on “Understanding and Teaching Short Stories at Secondary

His/her background information

Characters are convincing if they are: consistent, motivated, and life-like (resemble real people)

2.3.2.4 Theme

The theme is the central idea or belief in a short story It is the author's underlying meaning or main idea that he is trying to convey The theme may be the author's thoughts about a topic or view of human nature

2) Detached observer - the narrator can describe the characters and what they

do and say but not their thoughts and feelings;

3) First person - the main character tells his own story and refers to himself as I;

4) Innocent Eye – the narrator is a child whose judgment is different from that

of an adult

2.3.3 Problems When Using a Short Story

Gillian Lazar (1993:62) shows a list of problems that a group of teachers believed their students to have when reading a short story The problems are categorized into 6 sub-topics, namely inadequate reading strategies, making interpretations, motivation, appreciating the style, understanding the cultural background to the study, comprehension

Figure 2-2: Anticipating student problems with short stories

2.3.4 Approaches to Teaching Short Stories

With such a wide range of story elements it is important for teachers to vary their classroom approach so that students are increasingly involved in the lessons Charles R Duke (1974:62-70) suggests some different approaches “that may inject a new life into the study and appreciation of the form.”

2.3.3.1 Elements of the Short Story

2.3.3.1.1 Visualizing the setting

- Select some vivid descriptive passages from a story

- Read it aloud while students close their eyes and try to visualize the scene

- After the reading, have students make brief notations of what they saw

- Ask students to compare and contrast their images

Table 2-1:Discussion input chart

2.3.3.1.4 Sensing tone and mood

- Ask students to bring in several different kinds of records—classical, rock, pops, etc

and play these for the class

- Ask students to suggest why some recordings are more effective than others in establishing a mood

- Apply this activity to analyzing the tone and mood of stories

2.3.3.1.5 Seeing character

- To demonstrate to students that character cannot always be determined from the face

or general physical appearance alone, select pictures from magazines and newspapers

of sports figures, ministers, lawyers, criminals and society figures

- Remove all identifying captions, and ask students to match the pictures with lists of the actual fads about each of the individuals shown

- Discuss with students their reliance upon physical stereotypes in making judgments

2.3.3.1.6 Understanding character

- To help students test their comprehension, provide them with a situation not covered

in a story and ask them to determine how a particular character might behave in this new situation

- Students should review what they know about the character, consider the situation carefully, and then select a course of action

- Students explain their choices of character, which provide considerable insight as to their comprehension of character

2.3.3.1.7 Understanding the plot

- Ask students to state in one sentence what happens in a particular story

After students wrestle with the one sentence format several times, they will begin to see that the action of story is really quite limited

2.3.3.1.8 Seeing the sequence of events

- Ask students to list the events in a story and write these on the board they are given

- Discuss with students the idea that a list of events in itself does not constitute the plot

- Have students show as much as possible how each event builds on the previous one and leads to the next

2.3.3.1.9 Understanding the story line

- Ask small groups of students to read different stories Each group is then responsible for developing a pantomime of the plot; these pantomimes may be presented to the class and a discussion of each story can spring from the interpretation of the pantomime

- Select a short story from a commercial magazine

- Cut the story into columns

- Paste these columns down

- Paste these columns down the left hand sides of plain paper; definite spacing should occur at the end of each scene and the scenes should be numbered Broader divisions are made at the end of the introduction and the body of the story; these spaces will be used for summaries

- At the top of the first sheet of paper, place the name of the chief character, his basic characteristics and his principal problem

- Take the structural divisions scene by scene; the blank space on the right side of the paper is used to note what has been accomplished in each scene

- During the above process, locate where each of the following is introduced in the story and label each appropriately

(1) problem or conflict

(2) crisis or crises

2.3.3.2 Interpreting and Understanding the Short Story

1 Use a jig-saw puzzle approach as a way of piecing together a story One student is selected as interrogator or detective while other students role play characters

in a story; the interrogator questions each character to receive that individuals version

of the incidents in the story The different versions must then be pieced tog ether by the interrogator and the rest of the class to solve the puzzle

2 Provide assistance to students’ reading

- Select a story that has a structure which falls into natural divisions

- Let the students read the selection in class, but stop them at each division and

discuss each section with them before going on to the next Ask students what in the

story leads them to answer the way they do; then, as they read the next section, write down your observations of reading difficulties and misinterpretations Using these notes as a guide you should be better prepared to help students with future stories and

to anticipate reading difficulties as you select materials

3 Assist students’ confidence in making interpretations

- Begin with simple exercises of interpretation For instance, tell or read to students Aesop’s fable of the fox and the crow Ask students to describe real-life situations which are similar, probing a bit for the details

- Follow with an unfamiliar fable such as the following: A pig ate his fill of acorns under an oak tree and then started to root around the tree A crow remarked:

‘You should not do that If you lay bare the roots, the tree will wither and die.”

“Let it die,” replied the pig ‘Who cares as long as there are acorns.” After reading

or telling that fable, be ready to suggest some instances of shortsighted wastefulness Students who suggest examples which are not applicable should not be immediately discouraged; gradual assessment in a group of the best examples will come through discussion and comparison

- As students become more confident of their interpretations of fables, move to parables and then to aphorism and maxims All of these materials are short and can be illustrated easily from student experience By letting students move through these experiences first and by giving them some success immediately in interpreting, they will gain confidence that should carry them without difficulty into a study of the short story

2.3.3.3 Writing the Short Story

Writing their own stories enhances students’ appreciation and enjoyment in literature However, take care to develop guidelines with them

 Discuss with students the following guidelines and perhaps work out each one with the individual student

(1) What do you want for a main idea in the story?

(2) Where’s the story going to happen?

(3) Who is going to be in the story?

(a) try to keep the number down to two or three (b) have students come up with key details for each character (4) What is going to be the turning point of the story?

(5) What details and incident will help lead the story to this turning point?

(6) Who is going to tell your story?

(7) Can you suggest a good closing for the story?

 Another approach used by some teachers is to provide choices for those

students who find it difficult to organize their story Such students may be given material like the following:

 Characters (choose one or more)

(a) A young man with a beard and long hair, not entirely clean, who plays a steel-stringed guitar He belongs to a commune but has difficulty getting along with the other commune members because he is always avoiding his share of the hard work

(b) A traveling salesman who sells and services vacuum cleaners He doesn’t earn much in commissions so his clothes are rather old and shiny from use; however the company provides his car—a 1973 Pontiac

(c) A professional football player 6’4”, 235 lbs Fresh from college; very conscientious about keeping in condition; married to his high school sweetheart

(d) A high school student who has just moved into a new neighborhood; can’t play sports well and doesn’t have any hobbies; has to work after school

(e) A young married woman who does not enjoy keeping house; gave up a career to get married, has no children

 Settings (choose one)

(a) A bus station in a city of about 100.000 people; besides the waiting room benches, the station has a lunch counter and a magazine stand

(b) A housing development; houses are still new and lawns have not grassed in yet; some houses are not occupied

(c) Small rural town with one main street; post office, town hall, church, grocery store and a filling station are the main establishments of the town

(d) Large apartment building; security guard at the front door; each apartment has a balcony overlooking a main courtyard

 Central Idea (choose one)

(a) Unfortunate experiences can often help a person remake his life

(b) Young people may be helped or hindered by the advice of older people (c) A seemingly innocent incident can have far-reaching effects

 Developing dialogue

Give students opportunities to reveal character through speech Ask them to write a short—five minute—script that deals with two or three characters; the scene should introduce a conflict, the conflict should be reacted to and then conflict should

be reacted to and then resolved in some way: emphasis should be placed on having the speech show something about the characters These scripts can be acted out to give further ideas about description and speech

 Improvising conversations

Present students with a situation that contains conflict Ask groups of students

to act the situation out, improvising the dialogue as they go; a discussion and then acting on the basis of the discussion can help to make students aware of the need for convincing dialogue and interplay among characters

re- Varieties of speech