This research aimed at examining some obstacles encountered by the 8thgraders of Ede ethnicity in learning English vocabulary at Song Hinh secondary high school who usually got poor resu
INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
Vocabulary is widely acknowledged as a crucial element in language acquisition, as highlighted by various researchers (Candlin, 1988; Krashen, 1989; Nation, 1990; Laufer, 1997; Yang, 2002) Despite its importance, many language learners struggle with vocabulary acquisition, often perceiving it as a significant challenge (Candlin, 1988) This deficiency in vocabulary not only hinders their learning process but also leads to serious comprehension issues, particularly in understanding English reading materials, ultimately resulting in lower test performance (Krashen, 1989; Nation, 1990; Yang, 2002).
In 1990, it was emphasized that effective communication in a second language (L2) relies heavily on vocabulary Mastery of grammar and pronunciation alone is insufficient; without a diverse range of words to convey meanings, meaningful interaction in L2 becomes impossible.
Statement of the problem
The researcher, an English teacher with nine years of experience at Song Hinh Secondary High School (SHSHS), has observed that Ede students in grade 8 struggle significantly with vocabulary acquisition This lack of vocabulary leads to frustration and low scores in both oral and written tests, ultimately causing many students to abandon their studies This issue highlights a broader educational challenge in mountainous regions, where there is a high dropout rate among students Recently, SHSHS has seen a notable decline in the number of Ede students enrolled.
Ede students communicate in their native language, Ede, while learning Vietnamese as a second language (L2) in primary school, where it serves as the official language for other subjects Although they gradually improve their Vietnamese fluency over five years, they still struggle academically In grade 6, they are required to learn English as a foreign language (FL) or third language (L3), with instruction conducted in Vietnamese, which complicates their learning process By grade 8, many students encounter significant challenges in English due to limited vocabulary, which adversely affects their test scores and overall performance in both receptive and productive skills.
The relationship between a limited vocabulary and students' low test scores was highlighted through two diagnostic assessments: the school-year entrance test and Vocabulary Test 1.
The initial assessment was structured around a standard matrix, primarily focusing on "Tiếng Anh 7." At SHSHS, this test is administered annually to all students in class 8A shortly after the new school year begins, alongside evaluations in Math, Literature, Physics, and Biology, to gauge students' proficiency As a regular assessment, all class 8A students approached it with significant effort during the scheduled time For the Ede students, this test also served as a diagnostic tool, with scores of 2.5, 3.5, 3.75, and 3.0 on a scale of 10, respectively (See App 2).
The vocabulary test 1, adapted from Nation’s (1990) and Yang’s (2002) checklist tests, comprised 55 items focused on key words relevant to the new school-year entrance test To enhance score reliability, two new requirements were incorporated The test aimed to explore the correlation between vocabulary knowledge and test scores Participants approached the test with significant effort, yielding scores of 10/55, 15/55, 17/55, and 12/55, which correspond to 1.8, 2.7, 3.1, and 2.2 on a scale of 10 These results indicate a substantial lack of essential vocabulary among the subjects for the upcoming entrance test.
A comparison of the second test scores with the first test scores reveals consistent gaps, with scores of 1.8 vs 2.5, 2.7 vs 3.5, 3.1 vs 3.75, and 2.2 vs 3.0, indicating a stable deviation between vocabulary test scores and new school-year entrance test scores, ranging from 0.65 to 0.8, with only a 0.15 point difference It is evident that the new school-year entrance test scores are consistently higher than the vocabulary test scores, suggesting that a lack of key vocabulary contributed to the lower test scores This finding aligns with the research of Nation (1990), Laufer (1997), and Yang (2002).
It is implied that the key obstacles encountered by the subjects in their learning vocabulary must be identified
The researcher aimed to investigate the challenges faced by 8th-grade Ede ethnicity students in learning English vocabulary at SHSHS He believed that identifying these key obstacles would enable teachers to implement effective solutions, ultimately enhancing the students' learning outcomes.
Purpose of the study
At the start of a teaching course, it is crucial for educators to establish clear objectives and identify strategies to achieve them, particularly the goal of reducing the number of underperforming students This study focuses on the high prevalence of Ede students in SHSHS who struggle with English in grade 8, prompting an investigation into the underlying reasons for their poor vocabulary learning outcomes The research aims to uncover these factors and develop effective methods to enhance vocabulary acquisition among these students.
(1) Identifying the obstacles encountered by the 8 th graders of Ede ethnicity in learning vocabulary at SHSHS; and
(2) Recommending some solutions that English teachers in case apply to help students overcome such the obstacles in teaching process.
Research questions and research propositions
This study investigates the factors contributing to the poor English vocabulary results among 8th graders of Ede ethnicity at SHSHS and proposes solutions to enhance their vocabulary learning in the teaching-learning process To achieve these objectives, the research is guided by two key questions.
1 What are the obstacles encountered by the 8 th graders of Ede ethnicity in SHSHS in learning vocabulary?
2 What should English teachers do to lessen the students’ obstacles?
To address the first research question, three research propositions were attached in the analysis process The propositions were chosen in light of the analysis at 2.2.6
1 The subjects do not have high motivation in learning vocabulary;
2 Their learning background obstructs their learning vocabulary; and
3 They lack necessary learning strategies.
Significance of the study
Teachers of English are expected to gain valuable insights from this study, enabling them to implement more effective strategies for enhancing students' vocabulary acquisition Meanwhile, students will be equipped with a variety of vocabulary learning techniques, empowering them to tackle vocabulary challenges with confidence and strengthen their overall language skills.
Understanding students' challenges is crucial for enhancing the quality of learning Identifying the specific obstacles faced by Ede students in learning English vocabulary is essential for effective pedagogy Additionally, teaching techniques that have been tested in real classroom settings and proven effective will be utilized for similar situations, benefiting not only Ede students but also learners from other ethnic groups.
The study highlights the critical need to address the challenges faced by Ede students, who represent over half of the weak performers in SHSHS each year, particularly in English This issue is compounded by a troubling trend of students dropping out due to poor academic results, especially in English Consequently, the decline in student enrollment is significant Improving English scores among Ede students is essential to tackling this pressing issue and enhancing their overall academic performance.
An overview of the current situation of teaching English in grade 8 at
SHSHS, established in 2005, is situated in Song Hinh Commune, an area characterized by poor living conditions Initially, the school lacked adequate facilities, including a proper library During the 2010-2011 academic year, SHSHS had six classes with a total enrollment of 176 students across four grades, with over half of the students (93 out of 176) belonging to ethnic minorities, including 38 Ede students.
Table 1.1: The description of the number of students in SHSHS
Grades Total classes Total students
Source: the school report of student number in the school year of 2010-2011
1.6.2 A description of the current situation of teaching English for the 8 th grade at SHSHS
The English program for secondary high school is structured over 37 weeks, divided into two semesters: 19 weeks for the first semester and 18 weeks for the second In grade 8, students attend three 45-minute English periods each week The textbook "Tiếng Anh 8" (Nguyen, V.L et al., 2010, 6th ed) features a theme-based approach with 16 units, similar to "Tiếng Anh 6" and "Tiếng Anh 7," but emphasizes communicative skills in each unit, which includes components such as getting started, listening and reading, and speaking.
Each unit of the curriculum, which includes listening, reading, writing, and language focus, is designed to be taught over two weeks The content is extensive and contains many challenging vocabulary words, making it difficult for students to grasp The book is structured based on the foundational elements of "Tiếng Anh 6" and "Tiếng Anh 7," encompassing both vocabulary and grammar.
Assumptions
To ensure the validity and credibility of research, it is essential to consider specific assumptions regarding data quality and real-world situations The collected data must exhibit seven key characteristics: first, subjects should be unaware of being observed; second, their attitudes and behaviors must remain stable; third, interviewees must provide accurate responses; fourth, documents and records should be precise and objective; fifth, tests must be designed for normal students, adhering to a consistent matrix model and format for class evaluation, with students completing them independently; sixth, evaluations of students' test answers and oral responses must be conducted accurately and objectively; and seventh, the final English results should align with the guidelines set forth in Instruction No 54 by the Ministry of Education and Training.
Eighth graders of Ede ethnicity at SHSHS face numerous challenges that English teachers struggle to manage effectively Without appropriate interventions, the students' performance in four key subjects is likely to decline As a Chinese maxim states, “Learning is like an upriver boat; without progress, there is regression.”
Delimitations
This study investigates three significant obstacles affecting students' vocabulary learning: (1) learning motivation, (2) learning background, and (3) learning strategies By analyzing these challenges faced by 8th graders of Ede ethnicity in learning English vocabulary, English teachers can develop effective solutions for successful teaching Addressing these key obstacles is essential for improving students' academic performance.
Organization of the study
This study is structured into six key sections Chapter One introduces the study, outlining its background, purpose, significance, research questions, propositions, and the current state of English teaching in grade 8 at SHSHS, along with assumptions, delimitations, and organization Chapter Two reviews relevant literature, summarizing related research that forms the study's framework, including theories on vocabulary teaching, motivation, learning backgrounds, cognition, and strategies Chapter Three details the methodology employed in the study Chapter Four presents the results of data analysis and findings, while Chapter Five concludes with recommendations for future research Finally, the appendices include various instruments used in the investigation.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definitions of terms
To ensure the study's validity, six key terms are defined both lexically and operationally Lexical definitions are derived from compatible entries in the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1995), while operational definitions are illustrated with examples or evidence This section specifically defines the terms "obstacle" and "weak score," while the remaining four terms, including "vocabulary" and three research variables, are defined during the literature review Operationally, a set of observable and countable signals is established for clarity.
Obstacles are defined as barriers that hinder progress and movement In the context of education, they refer to challenges that impede students' learning, including low motivation, insufficient learning background, and a lack of effective learning strategies.
A Weak score refers to a performance rating that is below expectations, typically falling between 3.5 and 4.9 on a 10.0 scale This classification is based on the evaluation guidelines established by the Ministry of Education and Training, indicating that the score is not satisfactory compared to standard benchmarks.
Some aspects of the theory in teaching and learning vocabulary
According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, the entry of vocabulary is understood with three meanings: (1) it is the total number of words in a language;
(2) it is all the words known to a person or used in a particular book, subject, etc e.g a wide/ limited vocabulary or active vocabulary or passive vocabulary; and
A vocabulary list, particularly one that accompanies a foreign language textbook, provides essential words and their meanings This definition is particularly relevant to our study As noted by Ur (1996, p 60), vocabulary is one of the four key components of language learning.
“what” in teaching and learning a foreign language which are (1) pronunciation,
Vocabulary encompasses the words taught in a foreign language, extending beyond single words to include phrases like "post office" and "mother-in-law."
Vocabulary is categorized into receptive and productive types, mirroring the distinction between the receptive skills of listening and reading.
The article discusses the distinction between productive and receptive language skills Receptive skills involve receiving and understanding language input through listening and reading, while productive skills focus on the ability to create language through speaking and writing to effectively communicate messages to others (Nation, 2001, p 24).
2.2.3 The roles of vocabulary in language learning, communicating, and testing
According to Nation (1990), insufficient vocabulary significantly hinders language learning and contributes to learner frustration Vocabulary serves as the essential building blocks for constructing sentences and expressions Without the necessary words, learners struggle to comprehend or communicate effectively Coady (1997) emphasizes that the primary focus in language teaching should be on facilitating effective vocabulary acquisition for learners.
Vocabulary is essential for effective communication, impacting both speaking and other skills Without a sufficient productive vocabulary, learners struggle to articulate their thoughts in speech or writing Conversely, a limited receptive vocabulary hinders their understanding of texts and spoken language As McCarthy (1990) states, “without words to express a wider range of meanings, communication in an L2 just cannot happen in any meaningful way.” Consequently, learners often find it challenging to communicate confidently when their vocabulary is restricted.
According to the instructions to test and evaluate students from the Ministry of
Education and training assessments commonly evaluate students' knowledge across three levels: recognition, understanding, and application, with a test matrix reflecting 50% recognition and 15% to 20% application For English tests, the matrix includes four components: listening skills (20%), reading comprehension (30%), writing tasks (25%), and grammar/vocabulary through multiple-choice questions (25%) It is crucial for students to possess a strong vocabulary related to the test topics, as a lack of necessary vocabulary can hinder their ability to comprehend questions and requirements, ultimately affecting their performance Laufer (1997) emphasizes that comprehension is impossible without a solid understanding of vocabulary.
Understanding a word goes beyond just recognizing its sound, appearance, or meaning; it encompasses both receptive and productive aspects of language knowledge (Nation, 2001).
According to Nation (2001), words are interconnected within various systems and levels, highlighting the importance of understanding three key aspects in teaching vocabulary: (1) form, which encompasses spoken and written forms as well as parts of speech; (2) meaning, which includes the relationship between form and meaning, concepts, and referents; and (3) usage, which covers grammatical functions, collocations, and usage constraints such as frequency.
According to Tran (2008), learners need to grasp seven key aspects of a word to fully understand it First, they must recognize its written form Second, they should be able to manage its spoken form, including pronunciation Third, understanding its meanings involves knowing both semantic features and connotations Fourth, learners need to comprehend the word's meaning in context Fifth, they must identify its parts of speech and grammatical functions for correct usage in sentences Sixth, they should be aware of collocations to form coherent phrases Finally, effective communication requires the ability to use the word appropriately in various situations.
Ur (1996, pp 60-62) included these aspects but focused the area of word meanings more carefully On knowing word meaning, learners should control denotation, connotation, appropriateness and meaning relationships
McCarten (2007) emphasizes the importance of using a corpus to effectively teach vocabulary, highlighting six key aspects to notice when encountering a new word: its frequency of use, differences in spoken and written forms, contexts of use, collocations, grammatical patterns, and strategic vocabulary use Additionally, McCarten summarizes the insights of Richard (1976) and Nation (2001), outlining nine essential aspects teachers should focus on to help students master new vocabulary These aspects include understanding the meanings of words, their spoken and written forms, word parts (such as prefixes and suffixes), grammatical behavior, collocations, register, associations with similar or opposite words, connotations, and frequency of use.
According to the Communicative Approach and Nation (2001), McCarten (2007) identifies nine components essential for presenting a new word, which can be categorized into three key areas: form, meaning, and usage Form encompasses the spoken and written forms, parts of speech, and register of the word Meaning includes its definitions, connotations, and associations, while usage refers to its grammatical behavior, collocations, and frequency of use Teachers often dedicate significant time to helping students understand and remember word meanings, as students typically inquire about the meaning of a new word before they can use it correctly.
Teachers focus on the pronunciation and usage of words, employing various techniques to convey their meanings effectively Each technique is tailored to specific types of words, and to prevent monotony, educators often alternate these methods The most prevalent strategies for presenting word meanings are derived from the research of Doff (1988) and Ur.
1 Showing meaning visually: According to Doff, A (1988, pp 13-14), this technique includes subtechniques such as using pictures, flashcards, charts, realia, acting, mime or gestures, drawing, etc It is very suitable with concrete nouns or verbs of actions Each subtechnique has its own advantages and disadvantages
For example, drawing is interesting but time-consuming; or realia help students know meanings quickly and exactly, but they may be trouble in transporting or in money
2 Giving examples: According to Doff, A (1988, pp 14-15), the meaning can be shown by simple sentences A good example should clearly show the meaning of the word to someone who does not know it already It is good for showing the meaning of abstract words
Motivation and learning achievement
Many of the current theories of FL motivation come from the early work of
Gardner and Lambert (1959) were pioneers in distinguishing between integrative and instrumental motivation, a distinction that has significantly impacted nearly all research related to foreign language learning.
Motivation is often regarded as a crucial factor in determining the success or failure of complex tasks, as highlighted by Brown (2000) While it is commonly assumed that motivation alone drives success, extensive research indicates that understanding the nature and components of motivation is essential Key questions arise regarding the definition of motivation, its subcomponents, and effective strategies for creating, fostering, and maintaining it Numerous studies in second language acquisition (SLA) and psychology provide valuable insights into these aspects.
Motivation is a complex and abstract concept that is best understood through the lens of the 'motivated' learner, who is eager to engage in learning activities (Ur, 1996) It represents an internal drive that propels individuals to take action (Harmer, 1991) Psychologists, such as Ausubel (1968), have identified six fundamental needs that underpin motivation: the need for exploration, manipulation, activity, stimulation, knowledge, and ego enhancement These needs highlight the various ways individuals seek to engage with their environment, gain understanding, and achieve personal recognition.
Constructivists emphasize the significance of social context and individual choices in motivation, recognizing that each person is uniquely motivated and interacts with their environment in distinct ways (Burden, 1997, p 120) Generally, motivation is understood as "the process of arousing, directing, and maintaining behavior" (Burden, 1994, p 261).
According to Naiman et al (1978), the most successful language learners are not always those who find learning easy; rather, they exhibit specific characteristics linked to motivation Key traits of motivated learners include a strong desire to learn, persistence in overcoming challenges, and an active engagement in the learning process.
1 Positive task orientation The learner is willing to tackle tasks and challenges, and has confidence in his or her success
2 Ego-involvement The learner finds it important to succeed in learning in order to maintain and promote his or her own (positive) self-image
3 Need for achievement The learner has a need to achieve, to overcome difficulties and succeed in what he or she sets out to do
4 High aspirations The learner is ambitious, goes for demanding challenges, high proficiency, top grades
5 Goal orientation The learner is very aware of the goals of learning, or of specific learning activities, and directs efforts towards achieving them
6 Perseverance The learner consistently invests a high level of effort in learning, and is not discouraged by setbacks or apparent lack of progress
7 Tolerance of ambiguity The learner is not frustrated by situations involving a temporary lack of understanding or confusion; he or she can live with these patiently, in the confidence that understanding will come later
Based on the seven characteristics outlined, the researcher interprets eight observable signals of a motivated learner to assess and compare students' learning motivation in this study.
1 Having purposes for learning vocabulary (of characteristic 5) Purposes for learning vocabulary are various such as to enrich their knowledge, to get good marks, or to win games, etc This is one of the most important signals because if students know why to learn vocabulary, they will spend great effort learning words On the contrary, without any purposes, they cannot spend their great effort to learn;
2 Copying lessons carefully (of characteristics 1 and 4) The act of copying lessons carefully is understood that students have to copy all lesson contents in their notebook with clear handwriting so that they can review the lessons easily later If students copy lessons carefully, it means they have a real need in learning by always paying attention to the lessons and spending great efforts to learning, and vice versa Every lesson includes learned words and new words If they copy lessons carefully, they have chances to review learned words which is essential in learning words and to practice writing new words to control their spelling
3 Usually taking part in learning activities in class (of characteristics 1 and 2)
Classroom learning activities encompass answering in-depth questions, engaging in individual or group work, and participating in role-plays Active participation in these activities demonstrates a commitment to serious learning and a positive attitude towards education.
4 Usually paying attention to the lessons (of characteristics 1 and 3) The act of usually paying attention to the lessons includes students’ various states and actions such as body position, eye direction, ear state (ready to listen), etc This act also shows their learning need
5 Usually preparing new lessons at home (of characteristics 1 and 3) Preparing new lessons in advance at home is one of students’ tasks, but not all students do in practice It includes reading texts, searching new words or ways of answers, finding anything new, etc This also shows students’ active learning need and attitude because they want to understand new lessons in class thoroughly When preparing lessons at home, students will meet new or strange words They can find them by their own ways to get available information If there are some words that are completely new for them, they will pay more attention to them in the next class or ask the teacher to discover On the contrary, the students will face a lot of new words and they may feel difficult to digest them during lessons;
6 Usually doing homework (of characteristics 1 and 3) Doing homework is also one of students’ regular tasks, but many students feel bored with it Because students have various kinds of homework, it will take them time and energy to deal with it Thus, usually doing homework proves that they spend time and energy on their learning or they lead a real learning motivation By doing homework they will review learned words as well as meet other new words Moreover, their work will be rewarded with good marks to encourage them to continue their task;
7 Attending classes (of characteristic 6) Attending adequate classes proves that students are interested in learning and afraid of missing lessons due to their absence This is shown by their number of days-off with English On the contrary, quitting classes is one of the highest responses of the boresome with learning;
8 Taking part in tutoring classes regularly (of characteristic 7) Tutoring classes are places where weak students have good chances to learn what they have not understood before, including word usages, the ways to learn words effectively, etc Taking part in tutoring classes regularly proves their patience to learn
Learning background
A person's background, as defined by Oxford (1995), encompasses their social class, family status, and educational level In the context of vocabulary, learning background refers to the quantity of words that students can recall and utilize in communication, as well as the resources they employ for learning, such as reference books and dictionaries.
Learning background encompasses specific states and abilities essential for 8th graders before studying English 8 It includes eight measurable and observable indicators, with the first five representing specific states and the last three reflecting specific abilities These conventions are grounded in logical inference.
1 His or her current vocabulary is at least 500 words As counted at the next part, 2.4.2, students can remember about 540 words in grade 6 and 470 words in grade 7 (totally 1010 words) So the average number after two years' learning for a normal student must be reached at 500 words This is the strongest requirement
2 His or her learning result in grade 7 is at least average A student who has an average learning result in general is regarded as the one with a normal cognitive ability If he or she is weak in general, their weakness in cognition or in learning vocabulary process will not be unusual
3 His or her result at English in grade 7 is at least 5.0 The final result of each subject at school is based on various tests As mentioned at 2.2.3 in this chapter, vocabulary plays a very important role in doing English tests; therefore, the final result reflects the vocabulary resource to some extent
4 His or her result of the new school-year entrance test is at least 5.0 This test result reflects the students’ current learning background effectively because if students handle their learned vocabulary, they can perform their test well
5 He or she is well equipped with learning tools and materials As mentioned at 2.2.6., learning equipment affects students’ autonomy and motivation which in turn affect their learning words; thus, learning tools and materials are regarded as a signal to measure the students’ learning background
6 He or she can guess the meanings of new words in contexts According to
According to Schmitt and McCarthy (1997), inferring the meanings of new words through context is an effective vocabulary learning strategy, but it is most effective under specific conditions They emphasize that understanding the meanings of surrounding words is crucial for accurately deducing the meaning of a word encountered in context This perspective is supported by the works of Sheffelbine (1990) and Garcia.
A 1991 study highlights that a significant challenge for learners inferring word meanings from context is their limited knowledge of surrounding words When students successfully deduce the meanings of unfamiliar words within context, it reflects their vocabulary source, serving as an important indicator of their learning background.
7 He or she oftenunderstands the lessons right in class This is shown by their ability to answer lesson questions It is easy to see that when students have necessary vocabulary for the lesson, e.g., words of a certain topic, they can easily communicate within that topic or learn more from that basis through reading right in class The idea is argued in Krashen’s (1981) Input Hypothesis
8 He or she can read texts fluently Obviously when students know most words in a text, they can read it quite fluently, and vice versa
The signals are utilized to assess the learning background of subjects, focusing on record reviews, diagnostic tests, observations, and interviews to evaluate the extent of their learning background This assessment is operationally categorized into five distinct scales (refer to section 3.3.6).
According to the textbooks "Tiếng Anh 6" and "Tiếng Anh 7," students are expected to acquire approximately 540 essential words by the end of grade 6, which includes around 407 lexical words and over 133 function and high-frequency words In grade 7, students will reinforce their understanding of the vocabulary learned in grade 6 while also expanding their knowledge further.
By the end of grade 7, students typically accumulate a vocabulary of over 1,000 words, including 302 lexical items, 103 function words, and 65 irregular verbs An average student is expected to retain at least 500 words At the start of grade 8, students who remember fewer than 500 words may be considered to have a limited learning background, with the severity of this limitation increasing as their vocabulary decreases The assessment of students' vocabulary retention is conducted through a diagnostic vocabulary test, detailed in section 3.3.4.3.4.
Students must gather essential learning materials, including textbooks, workbooks, and audio resources like disks or cassette tapes, along with dictionaries and reference books According to Brown (2000), textbooks and learning materials serve as crucial sources of input, akin to rain clouds that nurture the seeds of language acquisition.
294) A student who possesses relatively enough learning materials is clearly convenient in learning activities both in classes and especially at home because of various input channels, and vice versa
2.4.4 The relationship between learning background and learning achievement
The relationship between learning background and learning achievement is reciprocal, where the background serves as the initial cause and achievement as the result Subsequently, achievement can also influence the background, creating a dynamic interplay Numerous research studies and teaching principles have emerged from this understanding, notably including Krashen’s Input Hypothesis and Ausubel’s meaningful learning theory, as highlighted by Brown (2000).
As Brown (2000) cited, the Input Hypothesis claims that an important
Learning strategies
Strategies, as defined by Brown (2000), are specific methods for addressing problems or tasks, serving as planned designs for managing information These strategies act as contextualized "battle plans" that can change over time Each individual possesses multiple approaches to problem-solving, selecting one or more strategies based on the situation Consequently, learning strategies refer to the specific methods students employ to tackle learning tasks, which also vary among individuals.
A learning strategy is defined as a series of actions taken by a learner to complete a learning task, beginning with an analysis of the task and available resources (Gu, P Y., 2003) One of the most valuable resources for Strategies-based instruction (SBI) is Oxford's practical guide for teachers, which outlines effective learning and communication strategies (R Oxford, 1990a) Her comprehensive taxonomy includes both direct and indirect strategies, making it a practical tool for educators.
This study investigates the extent to which students employ their own strategies in vocabulary learning by utilizing a set of criteria that signal practical learning application These criteria, derived from O’Malley et al (1985) and Oxford’s (1990) strategy classification system, are observable, collectable, and measurable for data analysis The research focuses on eight specific criteria to assess students' learning approaches effectively.
1 Asking questions: According to Oxford’s (1990a), asking questions is the first strategy of social strategies It involves in asking for classification or verification and asking for correction According to O’Malley et al (1985b), it is one of the
Sosioaffective Strategies that learners use to ask teachers or others for repetition, paraphrasing, explanation, and/or examples
2 Cooperating with others: In light of the two researchers, Cooperating with others is also of social strategies It is effective for most learners to work with one or more peers to obtain feedback, play games or model a language activity
3 Setting goals and objectives: This is one of Oxford’s metacognitive strategies
This helps learners plan and arrange their learning reasonably so as to reach the highest results
4 Creating mental linkages: For Oxford’s (1990a), it is of Memory strategies and consists of grouping, associating/ elaborating, and placing new words into a context However, O’Malley puts it in cognitive strategies under the terms of grouping, elaboration, and contextualization
5 Applying images and sounds: It is also of Memory strategies and consists of using imagery, semantic mapping, using keywords, and representing sounds in memory But O’Malley puts it in cognitive strategies under the terms of imagery, recombination, keyword, and auditory representation
6 Analyzing and reasoning: It is of cognitive strategies As Oxford’s (1990a), it includes five substrategies: (1) reasoning deductively, (2) analyzing expressions,
(3) analyzing contrastively, (4) translating, and (5) transferring However, O’Malley mentions only three substrategies of transfer, translation, and deduction
7 Guessing intelligently: As Oxford’s (1990a), Guessing intelligently, which is of
Compensation strategies involve two key approaches: utilizing linguistic clues and leveraging other types of clues According to O'Malley, this concept falls under the umbrella of inferencing, which refers to the process of using available information to deduce the meanings of unfamiliar items, anticipate outcomes, or complete gaps in information.
8 Self-evaluating learning: It is of Metacognitive strategies As Oxford’s (1990a), it is under the name of evaluating your learning It consists of self- monitoring and self-evaluating For O’Malley, self-monitoring means correcting one’s speech for accuracy in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, or for appropriateness related to the setting; and self-evaluating means checking the outcomes of one’s own language learning
According to O’Malley and Chamot, as cited in Brown (2000), learning strategies can be classified into three primary categories: Metacognitive, Cognitive, and Socioaffective strategies These categories encompass various techniques such as advanced organizers, directed and selective attention, self-management, self-monitoring, functional planning, repetition, translation, note-taking, transfer, cooperation, and questioning.
The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning, developed in 1990, identifies six key categories of strategies: memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies These categories encompass various substrategies, many of which align with those identified by O'Malley, such as asking questions, collaborating with peers, and utilizing repetition.
2.5.3 The relationship between learning strategies and learning achievement
The term "strategies" is widely used across various fields, including economics, sports, and warfare, and is essential for achieving success Effective learning strategies are closely linked to academic achievement, as they enable learners to manage tasks efficiently from initiation to outcome By employing the right strategies, individuals can save time and enhance their performance Conversely, the absence of strategies or the use of ineffective ones often leads to failure or setbacks.
Teaching learners how to learn is essential for fostering learner autonomy Wenden (1985) emphasized that learning strategies play a pivotal role in achieving this autonomy, making it a primary objective of language education to support and enhance learners' ability to take charge of their own learning process.
In conclusion, it is essential for teachers to acknowledge the diverse learning strategies present in the foreign language (FL) learning process By making informed decisions about each learner's needs, educators can effectively meet students at their current level and offer optimal learning opportunities.
2.5.4 Learning-strategy techniques in ET
Teachers can enhance student success by understanding the factors that contribute to both successful and unsuccessful learning experiences Creating a supportive classroom environment is essential for implementing effective strategies, but teachers should not expect immediate results, as students often arrive with preconceived notions about classroom dynamics Consequently, it is beneficial for educators to provide students with technical skills and strategies for language acquisition.