The acquisition of english prepositional phrases containing to or for by gia dinh high school english majored students m a 60 14 10

However, the grammar taught to high school students is descriptive grammar in which English clauses, especially English declaratives containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase, are des

Vietnam National University – HCM City University of Social Sciences & Humanities

TÔ MINH THANH, Ph.D

- Ho Chi Minh City, January 2009 -

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify that this thesis entitled “THE ACQUISITION OF ENGLISH

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES CONTAINING “to” OR “for” BY GIA

DINH HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH-MAJORED STUDENTS” is my own

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Dr Tô Minh Thanh for her whole-hearted guidance and support in my looking for appropriate documents and materials for my thesis Under her constant enthusiastic guidance, her encouragement and careful proof-reading of the thesis, I confidently accomplish the thesis, step by step Her valuable comments, criticisms and advice have played a significant role in the preparation and completion of the thesis

My special thanks go to all the professors and lecturers of the graduate program, especially to the late Associate Professor Cao Xuân Hạo, Dr Nguyễn Thị Kiều Thu, Mr Trương Hớn Huy, M.A in TESOL and Dr Nguyễn Hoàng Tuấn who have provided me with useful materials in TESOL and helped me to come up with new concepts in methodology

I particularly express my heartfelt thanks to Mr Nguyễn Hoàng Linh, M.A

in TESOL for his encouragement and valuable advice in times of trouble during the time I was writing the thesis

I am also grateful to the Head Mistress, Mrs Nguyễn Thị Thu Cúc and two

of my colleagues, Ms Nguyễn Thị Minh Hồng and Ms Nguyễn Thị Thanh Phương

at Gia Dinh High School for their help, support and encouragement I also owe my students sincere thanks for their responses to the questionnaire and participation in the study; without their eager participation, my study would never have been accomplished

Finally, I would like to extend my affectionate gratitude to my beloved family for their warm love, unending help and support that have given me a source

of strength to finish this M.A thesis

Abstract

The teaching and learning of English at high school in Viet Nam still plays much stress on grammar, for grammar has always been the dominant focus of attention in course books and syllabuses However, the grammar taught to high school students is descriptive grammar in which English clauses, especially English declaratives

containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase, are described arbitrarily

with no explanation of why they are used in such a way This kind of grammar is concerned primarily with form, almost ignoring the close relationship between form and the meaning conveyed by such form Comprehension is acquired based on the meanings of individual words, not on their relationship with other elements in the grammatical structures containing them As a result, many problems related to the clauses have always been unsatisfactorily inexplicable to Vietnamese high school students, the students are forced to memorize the clause structures without understanding Consequently, there is no doubt that it is quite impossible for the students to do well at exams which still play much stress on grammar or use the knowledge to communicate properly and naturally in English

“Language is a system of meanings, accompanied by forms through which the meanings can be realized” [Halliday, 1994: xiv] In this vein, each grammatical structure realizes a meaningful function in the total linguistic system and the speaker or writer often conveys their intended meaning by their appropriate choices of forms or

structures From functional viewpoints, the to– or for–prepositional

phrase in English declaratives expresses different semantic roles in different positions

By describing all potential roles of the to– or for–prepositional

phrase in the clauses systematically and analyzing the differences in

meanings implied in its different positions in the clauses from functional perspectives, the M.A thesis helps explain many problems raised by descriptive grammar to some extent The thesis also helps promote students’ thinking skills in learning, releases them from the burden of memorization and from their bad habit of rote-learning In fact, the results of the student subjects of Gia Dinh High School after they approached the clauses from functional perspectives noted that the application of both functional and descriptive grammars is seen as

a more effective way of teaching English grammatical structures to Vietnamese high school students

By combining both descriptive and functional perspectives into

the teaching of English declaratives containing a to- or

for-prepositional phrase, this M.A thesis raises due attention to bringing a new way of teaching the clauses to Vietnamese high school students

It is hoped that the way will be beneficial to the teaching and learning

of not only the clauses but also other grammatical structures to Vietnamese high school students

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate of originality i

Acknowledgements ii

Abstract iii

Table of contents v

Abbreviations ix

INTRODUCTION 1

0.1 Background 1

0.2 Statement of purpose 5

0.3 Significance of the study 5

0.4 Limitations 5

0.5 Delimitations 6

0.6 Methodology 6

0.7 Organization of the thesis 8

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 10

1.1 Linguistic notions 10

1.1.1 Approaches to grammar 10

1.1.1.1 Descriptive approach to grammar 10

1.1.1.2 Functional approach to grammar 11

1.1.2 Clauses 11

1.1.2.1 From descriptive perspectives 11

1.1.2.1.1 Finite clauses vs non-finite clauses 11

1.1.2.1.2 Independent clauses vs dependent clauses 12

1.1.2.1.3 Embedded clauses vs subordinate clause 13

1.1.2.2 From functional perspectives 13

1.1.2.2.1 Clause as representation 14

1.1.2.2.2 Clause as exchange 14

1.1.2.2.3 Clause as message 16

1.1.3 Prepositions 16

1.1.3.1 From descriptive perspectives 16

1.1.3.2 From functional perspectives 18

1.1.4 Prepositional phrases 18

1.1.4.1 Internal structure of the English PP 18

1.1.4.1.1 From descriptive perspectives 18

1.1.4.1.2 From functional perspectives 19

1.1.4.2 Functions of the PP in English declaratives 19

1.1.4.2.1 From descriptive perspectives 19

1.1.4.2.2 From functional perspectives 20

1.2 Pedagogical notions 21

1.2.1 Language learning 21

1.2.2 Language acquisition 21

1.2.3 The question of internalization 22

1.3 Teaching methodology 23

1.3.1 The teaching of English grammar in the history of language teaching methodologies 23

1.3.2 Common ways of teaching English grammatical structures 24

1.3.3 Teaching and learning English grammar, especially English declaratives containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase at Gia Dinh High School 26

1.4 Prior researches on the teaching of English grammar in Vietnam 27

1.5 Summary 29

CHAPTER 2: POTENTIAL ROLES OF THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE CONTAINING to OR for IN ENGLISH DECLARATIVES 30

2.1 Potential roles of the to-prepositional phrase in English declaratives 30

2.1.1 The Recipient 30

2.1.2 The Receiver 36

2.1.3 Circumstances 38

2.1.3.1 The Circumstance of Place 38

2.1.3.2 The Circumstance of Quality 39

2.1.3.3 The Circumstance of Range 39

2.1.4 The Qualifier 40

2.2 Potential roles of the for-prepositional phrase in English declaratives 41

2.2.1 The Beneficiary 41

2.2.2 Circumstances 44

2.2.2.1 The Circumstance of Extent in Time 45

2.2.2.2 The Circumstance of Cause/Reason 45

2.2.2.3 The Circumstance of Purpose 46

2.2.2.4 The Circumstance of Behalf 47

2.2.3 Ambiguity in the semantic roles of the for-prepositional phrase 47

2.2.3.1 The Circumstance of Behalf, of Cause/Reason, or of Purpose 48

2.2.3.2 The Beneficiary or the Circumstance of Behalf 48

2.2.4 The Qualifier 49

2.3 Summary 51

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 52

3.1 Research setting 52

3.2 Study design 53

3.3 Participants 53

3.4 Instruments 54

3.5 Data collection procedures 57

3.6 Summary 59

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 60

4.1 Students’ results of the diagnostic test 60

4.2 Students’ responses to the survey questionnaire 64

4.2.1 Personal information 64

4.2.2 Information on the students’ results of the diagnostic test 65

4.3 Students’ results of the achievement test 66

4.4 Summary 73

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND TEACHING IMPLICATIONS 74

5.1 Summary of findings 74

5.2 Contributions 88

5.3 Teaching implications 89

5.4 Summary 92

CONCLUSION 93

BIBLIOGRAPHY 95

APPENDICES 101

Appendix 1: 60-minute diagnostic test 101

Appendix 2: Questionnaire (in Vietnamese) 105

Appendix 3: Questionnaire (in English translation) 109

Appendix 4: Achievement test 114

Achievement Quiz 1 114

Achievement Quiz 2 116

Achievement Quiz 3 118

Achievement Quiz 4 120

obA Obligatory Adverbial

opA Optional Adverbial

Post-Mod Post-nominal Modifier

MCQ Multiple Choice Question

INTRODUCTION 0.1 Background

Grammar has always been the dominant focus of attention in course books and syllabuses concerning language learning because

Communication cannot take place in the absence of structure, or

grammar, a set of shared assumptions about how language works, along

with the willingness of participants to cooperate in the negotiation of

meaning [Savignon, 1983: 226]

In the same vein, grammatical structures have drawn the attention of Vietnamese adult learners of English in general and Vietnamese high school students in particular

For students to be able to gain the knowledge of grammar in the limited time designed for each grammar lesson in selected course books and do well the task in the exams which still play much stress on grammar, “traditional lessons” are often given during in-class periods for grammar in Vietnam high schools, both junior and senior The teaching and learning of grammar at high school has been, in fact, nothing but the teaching of a new grammatical point, its form(s)/structure(s) and rule(s) for students to learn by heart Comprehension is acquired based on the meaning of individual words, not on their relationship with other elements in the grammatical structures containing them As a result, some grammatical structures have always been a haunt to Vietnamese high school students: they often fail to identify the meaning conveyed by the structures and thus, it is quite impossible for students to learn grammar as an accurate and efficient means to express what they would like to communicate

The teaching and learning of grammar at Gia Dinh High School is not an exception and its students have difficulty in understanding structures, especially those related

to prepositional phrases containing to or for

For example, the students are explicitly taught that ditransitive verbs are

verbs that require two noun phrases (abbreviated to NPs) as its complementation

[Burton, 1997: 83], one is the direct object (abbreviated to dO) and the other is the

indirect object (abbreviated to iO), the iO usually referring to a person and

preceding the dO Below are the structure and its typical examples:

(1)a He gave his wife a camera for Christmas

S + V + iO + dO

b I wish you a Merry Christmas [Swan]

Following the dO, the iO must be in the form of a prepositional phrase (abbreviated to PP) beginning with to or for, illustrated by the following structure

and its examples:

S + V + dO + for-/to-iO.

(2)a Mother bought the ice-cream for you, not for me

b I handed my licence to the policeman [Swan]

The students are then recommended to learn by heart a number of ditransitive

verbs that take the preposition for such as buy, book, keep, fetch, reserve, save, etc., and others that take the preposition to such as give, hand, offer, send, show, teach,

pass, etc., as a means of distinguishing for-iO structures from to-iO structures,

illustrated by (3-4)a-b:

(3)a I’ll find Ann a job

b I’ll find a job for Ann (not to)

(4)a I gave Tom the book

b I gave the book to Tom (not for) [Thomson & Martinet]

Such explanation on the structures of ditransitive verbs results in many problems Firstly, in spite of their great effort to memorize what they are instructed, the students can hardly come up with these structures properly in their written exams as well as use them in daily conversation, especially when the students meet

a verb different from those suggested in the learnt lists or when the structures they encounter appear to look alike at first glance but in fact convey different meanings

The students are uncertain of which preposition (to or for) to be used in the

structures Up to now, they have not known why (3)a has its alternative

prepositional structures with for and (4)a with to

Secondly, with verbs that can take either the preposition to or the preposition

for, the students are unable to tell the implied meaning expressed by the to-iO

structure in (5)a from that expressed by the for-iO structure in (5)b and thus, they are

in danger of using the two structures alternatively

(5)a Karen wrote a letter to her boyfriend

The matter seems more problematic to the students when a number of verbs

such as wish, give, explain, etc are classified as ditransitive verbs [Swan, 1995: 609]; however, these verbs cannot occur in both of the above-mentioned structures,

608-as shown in the c608-ase of the misused (6-7-8)a:

(6)a He wished me a happy birthday

b *He wished a happy birthday to me [Downing & Locke]

(7)a He gave the door a push

b *He gave a push to the door [Downing & Locke]

(8)a I’d like him to explain his decision to us

b *I’d like him to explain us his decision [Swan]

The students seem stranded on the proverbial plateau when they encounter

multiple choice question tests (abbreviated to MCQ tests) related to prepositional

phrases containing to or for as in (9)a-d:

a The waiter brought these guests cocktails

b Cocktails the waiter brought these guests

c The waiter brought cocktails for these guests

d Cocktails were brought for these guests by the waiter

Quite often, they cannot distinguish the implied meanings conveyed in these four choices and thus, do not know which choices amongst a-d are correct for

Taught to high school students is descriptive grammar in which English clauses are described arbitrarily with no explanation of why they are used in such a way This kind of grammar is concerned primarily with form, almost ignoring the close relationship between form and the meaning conveyed by such form Therefore, this approach to English grammar makes it impossible for the students to comprehend grammar and communicate through English

“Language is a system of meanings, accompanied by forms through which the meanings can be realized” [Halliday, 1994: xiv] In this vein, each grammatical form or structure realizes a meaningful function in the total linguistic system and the speaker or writer often conveys their intended meaning by their appropriate choices of forms or structures In order to help the students acquire a comprehensive input of the language used in face-to-face communication as well as in written texts,

it is necessary for teachers to explain the meaning and/or usage of grammatical

structures From the standpoint of functionalists, the for-iO structure and the to-iO

structure are employed convey different meanings The former often expresses the

role of Beneficiary involved in a material process of benefiting [Downing & Locke, 1995: 86, 87] realized by such verbs as bake, buy, cook, fetch, make, pour, etc

while the latter expresses the role of Recipient involved in a material process of

transferring goods, services or information from one person to another [Downing & Locke,

1995: 86, 87] realized by such verbs as give, send, lend, grant, pay, etc The

beneficiary is the one who benefits from the process or the one that services are done for and the process itself has a benefactive implication on The recipient is the one that goods

are given to or the one who receives the services of the action Thus, “Karen wrote a

letter for her boyfriend” implies that her boyfriend wanted to send someone else a

letter and Karen was the person who actually wrote it (for him)” while “Karen

wrote a letter to her boyfriend” means that the letter was addressed to her boyfriend

and was for him to read [Collins, 1990: 161] In other words, a functional perspective should be made use of in the teaching of English declarative clauses

containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase to high school students

0.2 Statement of Purpose

This MA thesis aims at c explaining English declarative clauses containing a

to- or for- prepositional phrase from descriptive as well as functional perspectives and

d suggesting applying both descriptive and functional grammars to the teaching of these declaratives to Vietnamese high school students in an attempt to nurture their acquisition of the clauses

0.3 Significance of the Study

The teaching and learning of English grammar at high school, up to now, has almost paid no attention to either what a grammatical structure means or how and when the structure is appropriately used It is still believed that “the grammar and the semantics are two quite different systems with their own units and relations” [Jacobs, 1995: 26], and the role of grammar in communication has not been realized yet As a result, many problems, like those related to English declaratives containing a

to- or for-prepositional phrase, have always been a “myth” to high school students

The assertion of functional aspects into the explanation of English declaratives

containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase aims at laying bare “the myth” of the

problems in question and raising due attention to bringing a new way of teaching grammar to high school students in Vietnam from both descriptive and functional viewpoints

Hopefully, the fact that high school students understand the meaning and usage of grammatical structures not only helps promote their thinking skills in learning but also releases them from the burden of learning everything by heart and from their bad habit of rote-learning As a result, the students will not only do well

at current mid-term and end-of-term exams which still play much stress on grammar but also to communicate properly and naturally in English

0.4 Limitations

Due to the constraints of time and resources, the research has been done only

on English declaratives, i.e neither interrogatives nor imperatives are within its scope

Also, in question are the declaratives containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase of

monotransitive and one-word ditransitive verbs, excluding phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, and phrasal-prepositional verbs [Downing & Locke, 1995: 332] Carried out in a period of about 9 months, from January 2008 to October 2008, the study observes the clauses from both descriptive and functional perspectives in hope of identifying possible problems facing high school students in dealing with the clauses and drawing out some theoretical findings as well as practical solutions to the issue

Due to the nature of a descriptive and exploratory study of linguistic data as well as methods of data collection, the thesis’s generalizations and recommendations will be limited to the teaching of English declarative clauses

containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase of monotransitive and one-word ditransitive verbs to Vietnamese high school students, leaving others out of discussion

0.5 Delimitations

The focus of the study done for this M.A thesis is problems related to English

declaratives containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase of monotransitive and one-word

ditransitive verbs, basically common clauses that lay the foundation for 131 10P

and functional grammar to the teaching and learning of grammatical structures in general and English declaratives in particular at this institution

A number of quantitative methods are also employed in the study done for this M.A thesis in order to: c list all the potential frames describing English

declaratives containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase of monotransitive and one-word

ditransitive verbs, d number and give sources to examples illustrating all the frames,

e list all the possible problems facing the student subjects in dealing with the English declaratives in question and f list some suggested teaching and learning implications

The results of a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods are a succession of tests and quizzes on problems facing the student subjects in dealing

with English declaratives containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase Quantitatively

speaking, all the problems related to the clauses are numbered and classified

according to the two categories of to and for They are put into questions in 2 tests,

namely diagnostic test and achievement test (reflected by 4 quizzes) respectively, in the formats of both essay and multiple-choice exams All is carried out on 131 10P

th

P

and 11P

th

P grade English-majored students of Gia Dinh High School during the period

of 4 months, and the students’ scores of the successively 4 quizzes at the post-test phase are recorded and compared with those at the pre-test phase Qualitatively speaking, the students’ problems in dealing with the clauses as reflected by the results of their diagnostic test and through their responses to the questionnaire are analyzed and synthesized, then presented in the forms of close-ended and open-ended questions in 4 quizzes served as their achievement test The students’ results

of two tests and four quizzes are discussed; the significant difference in the students’ scores at the pre-test phase, compared with those at the post-test phase, are discussed to remark how much the students get improvements in acquiring English

declaratives containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase, exposed from both descriptive

and functional perspectives

The use of a variety of qualitative and quantitative methods in data collection allows triangulation in data analysis This triangulation permits ca sound analysis of the clauses in question, da clear understanding and esatisfactory explanations of the problems facing the student subjects in dealing with these clauses, and fteaching implications suggested by the thesis, all being induced from the findings

Done for the M.A thesis is the study that, as mentioned-above, is descriptive, analytic and statistical and that goes through the following steps:

c Describing English declaratives containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase of

monotransitive and one-word ditransitive verbs from both descriptive and functional perspectives;

d Identify the problems facing the student subjects in dealing with the clauses;

e Finding out possible solutions to the problems for the subjects’ best way(s) of solving;

f Suggesting teaching, from now on, the clauses based on both descriptive grammar and functional grammar to all the students of Gia Dinh High School, including English-majored students

0.7 Organization of the Thesis

This M.A thesis consists of the following chapters:

for-prepositional phrase of monotransitive and one-word ditransitive verbs and an overview

of some teaching methodologies generally applied to teach the clauses to high school students Also included in this chapter is the analysis and discussion of the problems facing the student subjects, 131 10P

th

P and 11P

th

P grade English-majored

students of Gia Dinh High School, in dealing with the clauses

containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase from functional point of view

- Chapter 4 presents the results of the study and discusses the findings from its sources of data

to Vietnamese high school students based on descriptive grammar as well as

functional grammar

Chapter 1

LITERATURE REVIEW

This section consists of (1) definitions of descriptive grammar, functional approach to grammar, declarative clauses, prepositions and prepositional phrases, (2) an

analysis of the internal structure of the prepositional phrase containing to or for and (3)

an overview of the prepositional phrase containing to or for in English declaratives from

both descriptive and functional viewpoints Also included in this chapter is a brief review of (4) grammar teaching in the history of language teaching methodologies, (5) common ways of teaching grammatical structures and (6) prior researches on the teaching and learning of grammar in Vietnam

The review establishes a theoretical background for further discussion on potential problems facing the student subjects in dealing with English declaratives

containing a prepositional phrase beginning with to or for and how to teach the clauses

to Vietnamese high school students effectively

1.1 Linguistic notions

1.1.1 Approaches to grammar

1.1.1.1 Descriptive approach to grammar

As far as descriptive grammar is concerned, grammar represents linguistic competence and the grammar of a language is composed of its discrete soundsTPF

2

FPT and

sound patterns, basic units of meaning and rules to form sentences There is an internalized, unconscious set of rules that constitute the language we use to communicate In order to understand the nature of language, it is required to understand the set of rules The descriptive grammar of a language, in fact, attempts

to describe everything native speakers know about their language, stressing on forms

and structures of the language [Fromkin et al, 1999: 10-11]

1.1.1.2 Functional approach to grammar

“Grammar is functional in the sense that it is designed to account for how the language is used … A functional grammar interprets the wording by reference to what

it means and by reference to its functions in the total linguistic system.” [Halliday, 1994: xiii, xiv, xvii]

According to functional grammarians [Halliday, 1994; Butt et al, 2000], a

functional approach to grammar tends to give explanations on how language is used towards the applied rather than the pure, the actual rather than the ideal, the functional rather than the formal, the textual rather than the sentential This approach aims at leading to comprehension of (1) how language varies, according to the users as well

as the functions for which it is being used and of (2) the relation between language and its cultural context

In other words, the functional approach to grammar analyzes structures as configurations of functions, providing “means of understanding the relation of form to meaning and meaning to situation.” [Downing & Locke, 1995: xi]

1.1.2 Clauses

1.1.2.1 From descriptive perspectives

Clauses are “constructions with one phrase constituent, typically an NP that bears the subject relation, and another constituent, the verb phrase, bearing the

predicate relation.” [Jacobs, 1995: 49] For example, Clara delayed her graduation

is a clause in which the subject of the clause is Clara and the verb phrase is delayed

her graduation English clauses are of various types: finite vs non-finite, independent

vs dependent, or subordinate vs embedded

1.1.2.1.1 Finite clauses vs non-finite clauses

Finite clauses differ from non-finite ones in the form of the verb chosen: “If the speaker wishes to express tense, person or number, a finite form of the verb is chosen

such as is, eats, locked, went and the clause is then called a finite clause” [Downing

& Locke, 1995: 11]:

(10) She BROKE the dish

(11) He HAS GONE

(12) It IS unnecessary

By contrast, “a non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite (tenseless) verb

group Main clauses are always finite, so non-finite clauses can only be subordinate” [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 250]:

(13) For Sandra TO DELAY her graduation is unnecessary

(14) I let him DO it by himself

(15) The light HAVING GONE out, we lighted candles

1.1.2.1.2 Independent clauses vs dependent clauses

Linguists give definitions of independent clauses from their own perspectives:

“A clause that can stand alone as a sentence is called a main clause or sometimes an independent clause.” [Jacobs, 1995: 65]

An independent clause “does not depend on another clause, although it may be

linked to another independent clause, or to a dependent clause.” [Richards et al,

1987: 77]

“An independent clause functions independently of other messages…it is always Finite; that is, it contains a Subject and a verbal group with a Finite

element.” [Butt et al, 2000: 166]

Traditional term of independent clause is “simple sentence.” [Downing & Locke, 1995: 4]

Below are some examples of independent clauses, being marked (16-17):

(16) Sharon’s car HAD BROKEN down

(17) Sharon’s car HAD BROKEN down, and this ASTONISHED the mechanic

In the same vein, various definitions of dependent clauses are given:

“Dependent clauses do not stand on their own as sentences.” [Jacobs, 1995: 65]

A dependent clause is “a clause which must be used with another clause to form a complete grammatical construction It depends on the other clause and is

subordinate to it.” [Richards et al, 1987: 77]

“Dependent clauses function to provide circumstantial information about other clauses and projections from verbal and mental process.” [Butt et al, 2000: 167]

Examples of independent clauses are given in (18-19):

(18) The police REPORTED that Sharon’s car HAD BROKEN down

(19) They MISSED the flight because Sharon’s car HAD BROKEN down

1.1.2.1.3 Embedded clauses vs subordinate clauses

Of significance is the distinction between embedded and subordinate clauses:

“If embedded clauses are omitted from a sentence containing them, the sentence is usually ungrammatical This is because embedded clauses are arguments

of a higher predicate, very often the subjects or objects of their container clauses Any

finite sentence that loses its subject or object argument becomes ungrammatical So the embedded clauses are indispensable for grammaticality” while “subordinate clauses do not require arguments of a predicate, they are thus not used as subjects or

(20) That Sharon’s car HAD BROKEN down ASTONISHED the mechanic

(21) She LOCKED the door so as TO PREVENT any more intrusions

1.1.2.2 From functional perspectives

Clauses are combinations of three different structures deriving from distinct

functional components These components are the ideational (clause as

representation, a construal of some process in ongoing human experience), the interpersonal (clause as exchange, a transaction of information, goods or services

between speaker-writer and listener) and the textual (clause as message, a quantum of

information) [Halliday, 1994: 34, 179]

1.1.2.2.1 Clause as representation

Clauses express our experience of the world — what goes on around us and inside us — in terms of things and events and the various circumstances that

surround those events [Butt et al, 2000: 36] Our most powerful impression of

experience is that it consists of “goings-on” — happening, doing, sensing, meaning and being and becoming All these goings-on construe processes of our experience which are the fundamental constitutes of English clauses including Processes of material, mental, relational, behavioral, verbal and existential [Halliday, 1994: 106ff] As seen in the rest of the thesis, its scope only covers the Processes of material and verbal

Closely associated with the Processes (expressed by a verbal group) are their Participants (realized by nominal groups or prepositional phrases) as in (22-23), and Circumstances (denoted by adverbial groups, prepositional phrases or nominal groups) as

in (24-26) [Halliday, 1994: 106ff]

Participant: ACTOR Process: MATERIAL Participant: GOAL

(23) She always PRAISED him to her friends

Participant: SAYER Process: VERBAL Participant: TARGET Participant: RECEIVER

(24) And Jill CAME TUMBLING after

Participant: ACTOR Process: MATERIAL Circumstance: TEMPORAL

(25) He TOOK the children to the circus

Participant: ACTOR Process: MATERIAL Participant: PHENOMENON Circumstance: PLACE

(26) The old woman COMPLAINED all night

Participant: SAYER Process: VERBAL Circumstance: EXTENT IN TIME

1.1.2.2.2 Clause as exchange

Clauses are of three main speech functions — declarative, interrogative, and imperative, and the principle grammatical system to express these functions is that of mood types “These moods are realized in English by the presence or absence of

Subject together with the Finite elementTPF

3

FPT and the order in which they occur.”

[Downing & Locke, 1995: 164] As seen in the rest of the thesis, its scope only covers declarative clausesTPF

4

FPT The declarative is an independent clause in indicative moodTPF

5

FPT to express a statement and accompanied by falling intonation [Halliday, 1994; Downing & Locke, 1995]:

(27) Bears EAT honey Bears DON’T EAT honey [Halliday]

(28) Janice WILL GIVE Chris the address tomorrow [Downing & Locke]

A declarative typically begins with the Subject [Downing & Locke, 1995: 6] and the distribution of elements in the clause tends to follow the principle of end-weightTPF

6

FPT [Biber et al, 1999: 898]

In natural language use, the order of clause elements is speaker-selected: whichever element can be at initial position [Downing & Locke, 1995: 6]

As for thematic structure of a typical declarative, the Theme is unmarked when

it is conflated with the Subject and marked when speakers choose any other clause elements as the point of departure of the message [Halliday, 1994: 42ff]:

(29) Janice [Unmarked Theme] WILL GIVE Chris the address tomorrow

(30) The address [Marked Theme] Janice WILL GIVE Chris tomorrow

(31) Tomorrow [Marked Theme] Chris WILL BE GIVEN the address (by Janice)

[Downing & Locke]

As for information structure, a declarative characteristically follows the principle of end-focus: starts with the Given and progresses towards the New [Downing & Locke, 1995: 244] The unmarked locus of information focus often falls on the final lexical clause element [Halliday, 1994: 301] but elements in other positions in the clause may gain

focus also [Biber et al, 1999: 897-898] This focus is marked for the purpose of

TP

4PT Its shortened form, which is declaratives, is used for convenience in the rest of the thesis.

TP

5

PT The indicative is the grammatical category typically used for the exchange of information

[Downing & Locke, 1995: 165]

TP

6

PT In the principle of end-weight, the long and complex elements tend to be placed towards the end of the

clause [Biber et al, 1999: 898]

contrasting or correcting something which had been said or implied in the previous discourse [Downing & Locke, 1995: 245]:

(32) My brother HAS SOLD his motorbike to the vet

(33) My brother (not my cousin) HAS SOLD his motorbike to the vet

Once upon a time,

For want of a nail,

With sobs and tears,

IS the smallest English coin

there WERE three bears

the shoe WAS lost

he SORTED out those of the largest size

The choice of theme differentiates clauses of the same propositional meaning

in their communicative significance [Halliday, 1994; Downing & Locke, 1995]:

(38) A halfpenny IS the smallest English coin → I’ll tell you about a halfpenny

(39) The smallest English coin IS a halfpenny

→ I’ll tell you about the smallest English coin [Halliday]

1.1.3 Prepositions

1.1.3.1 From descriptive perspectives

As member of a closed classTPF

7

FPT, a preposition (abbreviated to P) is oriented more towards an internal linguistic relationship: either “relating to an NP to another unit” or “tied to a particular verb or adjective and to link that verb or adjective with its object.” [Jackson, 1990: 11]

When tied to a prepositional verbTPF

8

FPT as part of its complementation, the preposition

begins the prepositional object of the verb and is thus distinguished from the adverbialparticleTPF

(40) He BROKE up the party

(41) *WILL you SEE the children’s lunch to? [Downing & Locke]

• A pronoun follows a preposition but precedes the particle:

(42) He IS CALLING for me at eight so I must be ready then

(43) They HAD TO CALL it off as the ground was to wet to play on

[Thomson & Martinet]

• An adverb can be inserted between a prepositional verb and its prepositional object; no adverb is found between the verbal component and the particle of a phrasal verb:

(44) He BROKE completely with his girlfriend

(45) *He BROKE completely up the party [Downing & Locke]

• A Wh-interrogative or relative can be preceded by the preposition of a prepositional verb but not by the particle of a phrasal verb:

(46) With whom DID he BREAK?

(47) *Up what DID he BREAK? [Downing & Locke]

• Typically, the preposition of a prepositional verb is not stressed while the particle of a phrasal verb is, receiving the main focus in sentence-final position:

(48) They WERE CALLED on

(49) They WERE CALLED UP [Swan]

TP

8

PT Prepositional verbs “must be complemented by a prepositional phrase.” [Burton-Roberts, 1997: 90]

The prepositional phrase that complements a prepositional verb is called the prepositional object

(abbreviated to prepO) Take glance as for example:

a.*Max GLANCED the falling acrobat.

b Max GLANCEDat the falling acrobat

1.1.3.2 From functional perspectives

Like a mini verb, the preposition in a PP expresses a minor process in which the nominal group complementing the preposition functions as a participant In a clause, the preposition acts as a kind of intermediary introducing the participant of the minor process into the clause as an additional/indirect participant or a circumstance of the major process

For example, the preposition in in (50) is like a non-finite verb taking expressing

the minor process having his wife’s car as its participant In the major process clause He LEFT the city, this participant serves as a circumstance of means [Halliday,

1994: 158, 159, 212, 213]

(50) He LEFT the city in (taking) his wife’s car [Halliday]

“Many prepositions can indicate more than one meaning or relationship”

[Yates, 1999: v]: for as a preposition of purpose in (51), of reason in (52), and of

behalf in (53)

(51) They all HAVE GONE for lunch

(52) They REWARDED her for bravery

(53) I’LL DO it for you

1.1.4 Prepositional phrases (abbreviated to PP)

1.1.4.1 Internal structure of the English PP

1.1.4.1.1 From descriptive perspectives

Prepositions are normally used before nouns, NPs or pronouns, e.g to Bill, to

us, for her parents, for two years [Thomson & Martinet, 1986; Swan, 1995]

Azar [1989], Authors of Collins [1990], Fromkin et al [1999] and Stageberg

& Oaks [2000] all confirm that the noun or NP or pronoun after the P is called

Downing & Locke [1995: 582] coin another term to call what is usually referred to as prepositional phrase: a prepositional group (abbreviated to PrepG) the main element of the group is called the head; required to complete the PrepG is a nominal unit named nominal groupTPF12

FPT, (abbreviated to NG), which is also called the completive

PrepG

1.1.4.2.1 From descriptive perspectives

A PP functions as the complement of its preceding adjective, noun, adverb or another preposition:

(54) I ’M interested in your offer

(55) There ’S great anxiety about his future [Jackson]

(56) They DO not LIVE far from here

(57) I ’M free all days except on Mondays [Downing & Locke]

A PP can realize other syntactic functions as the adjunct, subject, direct object, prepositional object, subject complement, object complement, predicator complement,

disjunct and conjunct of the clause as respectively shown in (58-66):

(58) They ’VE WALKED for seven miles [Tô Minh Thanh]

(59) After supper WOULD SUIT me best

(60) I DON’T CONSIDER next to a railway line as a good place to live

(61) She DECIDED on the detailed arrangements herself

(62) Monica MUST BE out of her mind to reject such an interesting offer

(63) His illness LEFT him without a job

(64) The procession CAME to a halt

(65) In all honesty, I DON’T BELIEVE a word he said

(66) I’M very fond of music, in particular, the piano [Downing & Locke]

1.1.4.2.2 From functional perspectives

A PP realizes a certain semantic roleTPF

13

FPT: the Recipient to John in (67), the Beneficiary for his wife in (68), the Circumstance of Direction to Sydney in (69), the Qualifier for the flu in (70) [Halliday, 1994: 145, 153]:

(67) She SENT her best wishes to John

(68) Fred BOUGHT a present for his wife

(69) He already WENT to Sydney [Halliday]

(70) I hope they ARE DEVELOPING a cure for the flu [Yates]

In English declaratives, the participant encoded by a prepositional phrase is in the

nominal group [Halliday, 1994: 44, 155, 168]:

(71) He SENT flowers to HIS AUNT

(72) He SENT his aunt flowers [Halliday]

TP

13

PT The semantic role of a clause element is the meaning and function which this element expresses in

relation to the others in the clause [Fromkin et al, 1999: 173]

1.2 Pedagogical notions

1.2.1 Language learning

Language learning, also called explicit learning, refers to the formal study of language rules It is a conscious learning process in which learners attend to form, figure out rules, being aware of them and being able to talk about them [Krashen, 1987: 10]

Error correction is an indispensable part in language learning, and learners’ output focuses on the accuracy of forms or structures, which leads learners to speak with difficulty and no real fluency as they are constantly self-correcting in the middle of their utterances with their learned rules [Krashen, 1987: 19, 20, 60]

Also from Krashen’s viewpoint [1987: 15ff], conscious learning plays a limited role in language performance; it functions only as a monitor or editor that checks and repairs the output of the acquired system only when learners have sufficient time to choose and apply a learned rule, are focused on correctness or forms of the output and know the rules

1.2.2 Language acquisition

Language acquisition is a kind of intuitive learning process of constructing the system of a language [Brown, 2000: 278] It refers to an unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understanding language and through using language for meaningful communication [Richards & Rodgers, 1986:131]

Acquirers attend consciously to the truth value of the message, focusing on the fluency in communication; surface structures have little or no effect on their output In language acquisition, grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable or “natural” orderTPF

14

FPT: certain rules tend to be acquired earlier than others and output has an indirect contribution to make to language acquisition; actual speaking affect the quantity and quality of the input people directed at the acquirer [Krashen, 1987: 10ff]

TP

14

PTFor more information about the predictable or “natural” order, see Principles and Practice in Second

Language Acquisition by Krashen [1987: 12-14].

1.2.3 The question of internalizationTPF

15

FPT

Krashen [1987: 83ff] makes a clear distinction between subconscious (acquisition) and conscious (learning) process and claims that learnt language can not become part of the acquired language store and learning does not directly help acquisitionTPF

16

FPT However, for other methodologists such as Harmer [1991] and McLaughlin [1990a], it is empirically impossible to differentiate what is conscious from what is unconscious or know whether someone has learnt or acquired a certain piece

of language

Gregg [1984: 82] comments on the absence of evidence in Krashen’s claim and asserts that if unconscious knowledge is capable of being brought to consciousness, then it’s reasonable conscious knowledge is capable of becoming unconsciousTPF

17

FPT About this matter, Brown [2000: 279, 280] points out:

… language learning is a process in which varying degrees of learning and of acquisition can both be beneficial, depending upon the learner’s own styles and strategies … Instructions in conscious rule learning and other types of form-focused instruction can indeed aid in the attainment of successful communicative competence…

According to Fromkin et al [1999: 347], one can acquire or pick up the

language in the learning process when they are provided with comprehensible inputTPF

PT The results of the study done for and reported in the MA thesis showed a contrast to this point

of view Although learning cannot help students “acquire” the language as native speakers; it creates an environment to facilitate students’ learning and when language input into their minds

is “meaningful,” they “use” it unconsciously In other words, to a certain extent, learning does help acquisition!

TP

17

PT Based on the results of my study and my own experience in learning and teaching English, I am

in favor of Gregg [1984] and Brown [2000] with their viewpoint that “ it’s reasonable conscious knowledge is capable of becoming unconscious” [Gregg, 1984: 82], for it sounds really positive and encouraging in the learning environment in Vietnam.

TP

18

PT “Comprehensible input” or “roughly-tuned input” refers to “the language that learners are exposed to certain structure just far enough beyond their current competence that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress.” [Brown, 2000: 278]

the mother tongue [Larsen-Freeman, 1986: 10-14] Long and detailed explanations

of the intricacies of grammatical rules and forms are supplied for students to memorize

and apply the syntactic rules to other examples [Brown, 2000: 15-16]

ƒ Direct Method and Audio-Lingual Method share the same features on grammar teaching Grammar is not as of great importance as in Grammar-Translation Method It is taught by inductiveTPF

20

FPT analogy from the examples presented orally in

the target language [Larsen-Freeman, 1986: 24-26, 43-46] Little or no analysis of grammatical rules is given Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time Structural patterns are taught using repetitive

drills [Brown, 2001: 45, 74-75]

ƒ In Silent Way Method, explicit grammar rules are not supplied Sentence structures

are perceived by students through situations set up by the teachers

[Larsen-Freeman, 1986: 62-66] Students’ output is helped with minimal corrective feedback from the teacher [Brown, 2001: 106]

ƒ In Suggestopedia, grammar is dealt with explicitly but minimally Grammatical

structures are displayed in posters and hung around the classroom for students to unconsciously perceive or absorb The posters are changed every few weeks [Larsen-Freeman, 1986: 81-84]

ƒ Grammar is not the focus area in Community Language Learning (abbreviated to CLL) Grammatical structures are perceived in the teacher’s transcription of the students’ conversations and examined in their native language with the teacher’s help [Larsen-Freeman, 1986: 99-104]

TP

19

PT Deductive approach is the one in which learners are given rules and then apply these rules to

exercises or when they use the language [Richards et al, 1985: 73]

TP

20

PT Inductive approach is the one in which learners are provided with examples from which they

discover or figure out generalizations Explicit grammatical rules are never given [Richards et al,

1985: 87]

ƒ Total Physical Response (abbreviated to TPR) does not lay emphasis on grammar Grammar is taught inductively and grammatical features taught to students mostly deals with structures of imperatives and interrogatives Action-based drills are employed in this method [Richards & Rogers, 1986: 87-94]

ƒ Grammar in Communicative Language Teaching (abbreviated to CLT) is taught as

a means to help learners convey their intended meaning appropriately The teaching of grammar can be managed either deductively or inductively but focuses on meanings and functions of forms in situational context and the roles of the interlocutors [Larsen-Freeman, 1986: 132-133] The overt presentation and discussion of grammatical rules are less paid attention to [Brown, 2000: 266-267]

Throughout the history of language teaching methodologies, the teaching of grammar can be summarized that (1) grammar rules are explained to learners; they know a lot about the language but unable to put the language to communicative effect, (2) learners are provided with practice in mastering grammatical patterns through a process of analogy; the learners may become fluent in the structures they have been taught but unable to use them appropriately in genuine communication outside the classroom or (3) learners are given the opportunity to use English in realistic situations but unable to explain grammatical rules of the target language [Nunan, 1998: 154]

1.3.2 Common ways of teaching English grammatical structures

According to Ur [1996: 75ff], grammar does not only affect how units of language are combined in order to “look right”; it also affects their meaning Grammatical accuracy on its own is a dead end, grammatical structures does not enable learners to produce real-life discourse Grammar should be taught as a means to improving mastery of the language, not as an end in itself and learners need to learn how to make meanings within real contexts Given by Ur [1996: 84], the following form-focused and meaning-focused practice activities are to get students to learn the structures from accuracy to fluency, enabling them to produce language correctly on their own:

ƒ Awareness: learners are given some kind of discourse, encounter the learned structures and do a task that focuses their attention on its form and/or meaning

ƒ Controlled-drills: learners are asked to repeat and practice a certain number of models: choral repetition, individual repetition and cue-response drills Correction takes place in this activity including self-correction, repeating, echoing, denial, questioning or expression and correction techniques-students correct students/ teacher corrects students

ƒ Meaningful drills: the responses are very controlled, but learners can make a limited choice of vocabulary

ƒ Guided, meaningful practice: learners form sentences of their own according to a set pattern, but exactly what vocabulary they use is up to them

ƒ Free (structure-based) sentence composition: either learners are provided with a visual or situational cue, and invited to compose their own responses, they are directed to use the structure or learners hold a discussion or write a passage according to a given task; they are directed to use at least some examples of the structure within the discourse

ƒ Free discourse: like free (structure-based) sentence composition, but learners are given no specific direction to use the structure; however the task situation is such that instances of it are likely to appear

In the point of view that “it is important to show what the structure means, how it is used and formed so that students can use it to make sentences of their own” [Doff, 1988: 33], Doff [1988: 33ff] suggests a number of activities to present

ƒ Giving a clear model and asking students to listen to and repeat

ƒ Writing the structure clearly on the board

ƒ Giving simple explanation of the structure

Doff [1988] also provides some practice activities of the structure These activities are divided into two kinds: mechanic and meaningful practices A little different from Ur [1996], Doff [1988] defines mechanic practice as a kind of controlled practice in which students just produce the correct form without understanding what the structure means or knowing what they are saying Mechanic practice includes:

ƒ Repetition drills: students do nothing themselves but repeat after the teacher

ƒ Substitution drills: students have to fit in the structure

ƒ Single word prompts: students have to add words besides these prompts to form the structure

ƒ Picture prompts: based on the picture, students have to think of the whole sentence using the structure

ƒ Free substitution: students have to invent a sentence

ƒ Meaningful practice is a kind of practice in which students have to think, have to understand what they are saying and in which they express meaning Getting students to say real things about themselves, giving situations which imply the structure, but leave students to decide exactly what to say or letting students add something of their own are kinds of meaningful practice [Doff, 1988: 73, 75]

In Krashen’s words, mechanical practice is a kind of rote learning and its goal is not “acquisition” while meaningful practice involving real meaning, if built to provide relevant and interesting information to students’ needs, aims at subconscious language acquisition [Krashen, 1987: 62-68]

1.3.3 Teaching and learning English grammar, especially English declaratives

containing a to- or for-prepositional phrase at Gia Dinh High School

According to a recent surveyTPF

21

FPT conducted at Gia Dinh High School, the teaching of English Grammar at this school is often presented either deductively or inductively Some teachers prefer to provide their students the patterns of PPs

containing to or for in English declaratives with some examples to illustrate the

patterns while others present to their students the examples first, then ask students

to draw out the patterns Though different in the ways to present the lessons, they all then ask students to apply the learned patterns to do some kinds of controlled-drill exercises such as filling in the blanks, rewriting the sentences or doing multiple choice exercises

The knowledge they have applied to their teaching is a kind of descriptive and prescriptive grammars; that is, they just describe or prescribe the structure elements of the clause: how they are arranged in sequence and which sequences are well-formed and do not pay attention to considering the nature of words and the relationships between forms and entities in the world The teaching of grammatical meaning tends to be neglected in favor of an emphasis on accuracy of form

In brief, the teaching and learning of grammar at Gia Dinh school is just for the purpose of doing exercises or taking exams rather than seeing grammar as providing a means of understanding the relation of form to meaning and meaning to situation As a result, students may get full marks on all the grammar exercises and tests, but then make mistakes in the same structures when they are composing their own free speech or writing

1.4 Prior researches on the teaching of English grammar in Vietnam

Some studies were carried out on the teaching of grammar to Vietnamese students Nguyễn Thị Huệ [2000] and Nguyễn Liên Hương [2005] did research on the difficulties that limited teachers to make use of the Communicative approach in their grammar teaching in order to find ways to teach grammar communicatively The main cause of these difficulties was the ways of presenting grammatical structures and rules Nguyễn Thị Huệ [2000] suggested an interactive approach in presenting grammar structures based on the curriculum designed for the entire school year and provided classroom activities for the teaching of grammar to primary pupils in Tra Vinh Province Somewhat similarly, Nguyễn Liên Hương [2005] suggested ways to present and practice new grammatical rules communicatively and effectively and to design communicative activities for

students of Nong Lam University to learn and enjoy grammar at the same time In other words, they both were in favor of recommending the Communicative approach to grammar teaching, suggesting communicative instruments/tools such as games, songs, realia, visual aids, etc to present grammatical rules and/or forms to students Their studies aimed at the exciting atmosphere of the learning class

Phạm Thị Kim Yến [2002] studied the difficulties facing Vietnamese learners at Nguyễn Gia Thiều secondary school in dealing with English articles and she raised the importance of the explanation of the semantic and syntactic functions

of articles in context as a solution to the problems; however, the pedagogical implications suggested in her study mentioned nothing about the semantic or syntactic explanation of articles to students Most of the activities recommended were substitution drills of words in given structures for words from pictures or imaginary situations

Huỳnh Thị Phương Thảo [2006] studied the effectiveness of “using realia in teaching simple grammatical items such as prepositions and imperative forms to young learners in Let’s Go series” According to her, realia is one of the useful visual aids

to illustrate simple structures and create an exciting and attractive learning atmosphere, however, realia could not help students see the differences between structures or understand the structures of abstract meanings

A little different from these researchers, Nguyễn Quang Tiến [2005] did research on “the influence of the semantic properties and syntactic structures of Vietnamese on Vietnamese learners’ use of English prepositions.” His study drew out the fact that the differences in semantics and structures between English verb phrases containing prepositions and those in Vietnamese led to students’ inappropriate ways of using prepositions to communicate in English His study just described lexical meanings of the preposition separately from other elements and its syntactic functions in Vietnamese, then compared with those in English For example, he explained the English preposition equivalent of Vietnamese preposition “để, đặng, hầu, hầu có, để mà, ngõ hầu” was for [Nguyễn Quang Tiến, 2005: 60] and gave

equivalent translations into English of many Vietnamese sentences as explanations

of the matter

Though different in the fields studied, all these researches aimed at solutions

to difficulties facing Vietnamese students in dealing with English grammar caused

by affective factors such as age, personality, learner/native language (L1), boring presentation of grammar lessons, classroom management or inappropriately applied teaching approaches in order to help teach grammar effectively and communicatively However, no attention was paid to the fact that students have great difficulty in learning and using grammar as a means of communication because they had to memorize many grammatical structures without a clear understanding of how to use them meaningfully in context

There will be no language acquired if learners fail to comprehend the message conveyed [Krashen, 1987: 63] and thus, if the meanings of grammatical structures are not taken into consideration, the teaching and learning process of grammar at school will be doomed to failure no matter how interestingly and communicatively the structures are presented Consequently, students can never use grammar as a means of communication appropriately

1.5 Summary

This chapter presents an overview of English declaratives containing a to- or

for-prepositional phrase of monotransitive and one-word ditransitive verbs from the

perspectives of descriptive and functional grammars Also included in this chapter

is a brief review of some potential teaching methodologies applicable to the teaching of the English grammar, common ways of teaching grammatical structures and prior researches on the teaching and learning of English grammar in Vietnam

Chapter 2

POTENTIAL ROLES OF THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

CONTAINING to OR for IN ENGLISH DECLARATIVES

As far as descriptive grammar is concerned, the prepositional phrase beginning

with either to or for may function as Indirect Object (abbreviated to iO) in (73), as

Adverbial in (74) or as Post-nominal Modifier in (75) in English declaratives:

(73) Bill HAS SAVED a placefor us in the front row

(74) She MARRIED him for his money

(75) He IS now FIGHTING his addiction to alcohol

As for functional grammar, the prepositional phrase may play the semantic roles

of either a participant in (76), a circumstance in (77) or a qualifier in (78) in material and verbal processes that have ever been found in English declaratives [Halliday, 1994:

145, 160, 174, 213]

(76) John IMPARTED the news to Mary [Verbal process]

(77) She SENT her luggage to Los Angeles [Material process]

(78) She SHOWS a natural aptitude for the work [Material process]

Included in this chapter are potential syntactic functionsTPF

22

FPT as well as semantic rolesTPF

23

FPT [Downing & Locke, 1995: 587ff, 591ff] that the prepositional phrase with to or

for may take in English declaratives

2.1 Potential roles of the to-prepositional phrase in English declaratives

2.1.1 The Recipient

In trivalentTPF

24

FPT material process clauses where the sense of the verb is

descriptively identified as an iO, functionally takes the role of the Recipient (and thus

TP

22

PT “Syntactic functions” are the grammatical roles of the preposition phrase in relation to other elements in the clause, such as adverbs, prepositional objects, predicator complement, etc [Downing & Locke, 1995: 587ff]