Teachers beliefs about the role of culture in english language teaching and their classroom practices a case study m a 60 14 10

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY - HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY - HO CHI MINH CITY

UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE

TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT THE ROLE OF

CULTURE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

AND THEIR CLASSROOM PRACTICES:

A CASE STUDY

Submitted to the Department of English Linguistics & Literature

in partial fulfillment of the Master’s degree in TESOL

By TRAN QUOC THAO

Supervised by DANG VAN HUNG, Ph.D

HO CHI MINH CITY, SEPTEMBER 2011

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I certify my authorship of the Master’s Thesis submitted today entitled:

TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING AND THEIR CLASSROOM PRACTICES:

A CASE STUDY

In terms of the statement of requirements for Theses in Master’s programs issued

by the Higher Degree Committee of Department of English Linguistics and Literature, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University – Ho Chi Minh City

Ho Chi Minh City, September 2011

TRAN QUOC THAO

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, TRAN QUOC THAO, being a candidate for the degree of Master of Arts (TESOL) accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my Master’s Thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Librarian for the care, loan, and reproduction for theses

Ho Chi Minh City, September 2011

Signature ………

TRAN QUOC THAO

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would first like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr Dang Van Hung, my supervisor, for his patience, guidance, insightful advice, and constant encouragement through the whole research process Without his support and guidance, this thesis would never have been completed

Secondly, I would like to thank all lecturers in the M.A in TESOL program at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities (Prof Le Cong Duc, Dr Le Hoang Dung, Dr Nguyen Tien Hung, Dr Nguyen Thu Huong, Dr Trinh Sam, Dr Le Thi Thanh, Dr To Minh Thanh, Dr Nguyen Thi Kieu Thu, Dr Nguyen Hoang Tuan, and Dr Nguyen Thanh Tung) for their profound knowledge, professionalism, and dedication, which have greatly influenced and impressed me

Thirdly, I should also thank my friends for their comments, suggestions, and advice Additionally, I am very grateful to Ms Elizabeth West (M.A), Ms Judith Hunt (M.A), and Ms Moray Heather Banfield, who have helped me with ideas, proofreading, and encouragement

I am indebted to the Board of Directors of a foreign language center, who have granted me permission and support to conduct this research I am also thankful to the academic staff, particularly to Ms Van Thi Hong Trinh, academic manager at the center, who helped me during my data collection

Also, I owe a debt of gratitude to many anonymous participants in my research

They are always in my heart Their cooperation, support, and advice greatly facilitated the empirical research and helped me see this research through to completion

Finally, my greatest debt of thanks must be to my parents, brothers, and sisters who have given me unconditional love and strong support during my years of being a postgraduate student

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate of originality ……… i

Retention and use of the thesis……… ii

Acknowledgements……… iii

Table of contents……… iv

List of abbreviations……… viii

List of tables……… ix

List of figures and charts……… x

Abstract……… xi

Chapter 1 Introduction……… 1

1 1 Rationale of the study……… 1

1.2 Aims and research questions of the study……….……… 3

1.3 Significance of the study……… ……… ………… 4

1.4 Theoretical framework……… ………… 5

1.5 Definition of terminology ……… ……… 7

1.6 Organization of the thesis……… ………… 9

Chapter 2 Literature review……… ….……… 10

2.1 Introduction……….……… 10

2.2 Language and culture……….……… 10

2.2.1 Definition of culture……… …… 10

2.2.2 The relationship between language and culture……… ……… 11

2.2.3 Culture in language teaching……… …… 13

2.3 Culture teaching in language teaching……….…… 17

2.3.1 Objectives of culture teaching……… …… 17

2.3.2 Common approaches to culture teaching……….…… 19

2.3.3 Techniques and activities for culture teaching………… …… 22

2.4 Teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices……… 27

2.4.1 Teachers’ beliefs……… ……… 28

2.4.2 Change of teachers’ beliefs……… 29

2.4.3 Teachers’ beliefs about culture in language teaching………… 31

2.4.4 Relationship between teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices……… 33

2.5 Summary……… 35

Chapter 3 Methodology……… 36

3.1 Introduction……….……… 36

3.2 Research setting……… ………… 36

3.3 Research design……… ……… 38

3.3.1 Case study……….………… 38

3.3.2 Research method……….………… 39

3.4 Research tools……… 39

3.4.1 Questionnaire……….………… 39

3.4.2 Classroom observation……… 42

3.4.3 Interview……… 44

3.5 Data collection procedures……… 46

3.6 Data analysis procedures……… 47

3.7 Ethical consideration……… 48

3.8 Summary……… 48

Chapter 4: Data analysis and discussion……… 49

4.1 Introduction……… 49

4.2 Data analysis……… 49

4.2.1 EL teachers’ beliefs about the role of culture in their ELT…… 49

4.2.1.1 EL teachers’ attitudes toward the role of culture in their ELT……… … 49

4.2.1.2 EL teachers’ beliefs about the role of culture in their ELT……… 52

4.2.3 EL teachers’ defining objectives of culture teaching in the ELT context……… ……….… 55

4.2.4 EL Teachers’ classroom practices……….…… …… 59

4.2.4.1 EL teachers’ beliefs in classroom practices……… 60

4.2.4.2 Teaching activities for culture teaching……… 65

4.3 Discussion of findings……… ……… 71

4.3.1 EL teachers’ beliefs about the role of culture in their ELT…… 71

4.3.1.1 EL teachers’ attitudes toward the role of culture in their ELT……… …………

71 4.3.1.2 EL teachers’ beliefs about the role of culture in their ELT……… …… …… 72

4.3.2 EL teachers’ defining objectives of culture teaching in the ELT context……….….……….…… 73

4.3.3 EL Teachers’ classroom practices……… ……… …… 75

4.3.3.1 EL teachers’ beliefs in classroom practices……… 75

4.3.3.2 Teaching activities for culture teaching……… 76

4.4 Summary……… ………… 77

Chapter 5: Conclusions and recommendations……… …… 78

5.1 Conclusions……… ……… 78

5.2 Recommendations……… 79

5.3 Limitations of the study……… 82

5.4 Recommendations for further research……… 82

References……… 84

Appendixes……… 94

Appendix A A cover letter for the questionnaire……… 94

Appendix B Questionnaire……… 95

Appendix C Classroom observation checklist……… 99

Appendix D Questions for interview (For VTE)……… 101

Appendix E Questions for interview (For NET)……… …… 102

Appendix F Summary of classroom observation checklists……….… 103

Appendix G Summary of interview transcripts (VTE: in Vietnamese)……… 106

Appendix H Summary of interview transcripts (VTE: translated in

Appendix K The results of EL teachers’ using culture teaching activities

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

TOEFL PBT The Test of English as a Foreign Language paper-based test

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 3.1 The general information of VTE and NET……… 40

Table 3.2 Personal information of observed EL teachers……… 43

Table 3.3 Personal information of interviewed EL teachers……… 44

Table 4.1 EL teachers’ interest in culture teaching……… 50

Table 4.2 EL teachers’ attitudes about cultural aspects……… 51

Table 4.3 EL teachers’ opinion about the importance of including culture 52

Table 4.4 EL teachers’ beliefs about the role of culture in their ELT……… 53

Table 4.5 Culture teaching objectives in order of importance as defined by EL teachers……… ……… ………

57 Table 4.6 EL teachers’ including cultural information into ELT………… 61

Table 4.7 EL teachers’ including cultural information into ELT (continued) 63 Table 4.8 EL teachers’ frequency of culture including……… 64

Table 4.9 A list of possible culture teaching activities……… 67

Table 4.10 The culture teaching activities arranged in order of frequency… 68

Table 4.11 Additional culture teaching activities mentioned by NET……… 70

LIST OF FIGURES

Page Figure 1.1 Teacher cognition, schooling, professional education, and

classroom………

5 Figure 1.2 Byram: Intercultural competence……… 7

ABSTRACT

Language and culture is inseparable, and the integration of culture teaching in language teaching has been widely recognized as an indispensable component in language education However, the perception of the role of culture in English language teaching (ELT) varies from one teacher to another Therefore, the aim of this study is to explore teachers’ beliefs about the role of culture in ELT and their classroom practices at a foreign language center in Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam, with three guiding research questions: (1) What beliefs about the role of culture in ELT do EL teachers hold? (2) How do they define the objectives of culture teaching? And (3) To what extent are their beliefs reflected in their classroom practices? This study involves with twenty-three Vietnamese teachers of English (VTE) and fifteen native English teachers (NET) to participate in the triangulation

of data collection (questionnaire, classroom observation, and interview) The results show that most VTE and NET believe that culture plays an important role

in ELT, and culture should be included in ELT Both VTE and NET define the objectives of culture teaching to provide cultural knowledge and skills The results also reveal that although VTE and NET’s classroom practices, to some extent, correspond to their beliefs, there is a small discrepancy between VTE and NET toward culture teaching activities VTE most often employ cognitive and skills activities, while NET frequently use activities in cognitive and attitudinal dimensions

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The English language (EL) has become an international language and a lingua

franca as people have used it for cross-cultural communication with others around

the world Therefore, many people have been seeking to be interculturally competent in multicultural situations This has lead to a significant growth in the English language teaching (ELT) profession and a demanding requirement for EL teachers to be not only culturally competent in teaching but also interculturally competent in ELT

In Vietnam, the EL has been in great demand for everyone since Vietnam opened its door to the world This demand has created a great number of job opportunities which attract not only Vietnamese people but also people coming from English speaking countries to become EL teachers One of the main tasks that those EL

culturally/interculturally competent However, not all EL teachers can succeed in this task, since different teachers have different views on the role of culture in their language teaching Moreover, because, as indicated, English is an international language, there has been much controversy and discussion about what the place of culture in ELT is, what kind of culture should be taught, and how culture should be taught (Kitao, 2000) The debate, in essence, relates to different belief systems among teachers as to the role of culture in ELT

1 1 Rationale of the study

In recent decades, the relationship between culture and language, and the important role of culture in language teaching have been widely recognised by many researchers Brown (2007) states that ‘a language is a part of a culture and a culture is a part of a language; the two are intricately interwoven so that one cannot separate the two without losing the significance of either language or culture.’ Additionally, Baker (2002) claims that every language reflects the values,

beliefs, and assumptions of the culture it comes from Hence, knowing a language involves knowing the culture that the language expresses

The importance of teaching language and its culture is also stressed: “The new linguistic and cultural competence will enable the learner to develop new perceptions of reality and to behave differently in the light of such perceptions” (Alptekin & Alptekin, 1984, p 14) Krasnick (1986) points out that learners cannot develop their communicative competence unless they are culture-bound For this reason, to have a successful conversation, learners must understand what is said to them Likewise, Jiang (2000) implies that it is impossible to teach the target language without teaching the target culture The students will be exposed to an empty frame of language if they do not learn cultural aspects of the target country

However, the role of culture in language teaching is not always acknowledged, so the integration of culture into language teaching is often neglected Stern (1992, p.206; cited in Corbett, 2003) notes that although a sustained and consistent body

of work draws attention to the importance of culture in language teaching, ‘the cultural component has remained difficult to accommodate in practice.’ Additionally, Fantini (1997; cited in Onalan, 2005) points out that one of the reasons for this oversight is that language teachers are more interested in the practical aspects of communication and often treat culture as supplemental or incidental to ‘the real task’

And in the context of Vietnam, according to Le (2007, p 1), although many Vietnamese learners of English have developed good linguistic competence, they still face communicative difficulties arising from the lack of sociolinguistic competence And learners are not fully aware of the fact that each language differs

in its ways of expressing feelings and constructing messages since many language teachers do not raise cultural/intercultural awareness in their learners Consequently, learners usually transfer their native language expression inappropriately into the target language An example of Vietnamese learners’ inappropriate use of English is that when they meet native English speakers, they

often tend to say “Where are you going?” or “What are you doing here?” as a sign

of greeting instead of saying “How are you?”, “Hello”, or just “Hi” This problem results from the influence of their Vietnamese culture Hence, it is obviously true that a lack of sociolinguistic competence can result in misunderstanding in cross-cultural communication, and the ability to use a foreign language effectively and socially requires not only linguistic competence but also sociolinguistic competence

It is undeniable that language teachers play a vital role in helping language learners acquire a language effectively Thomas (1983; cited in Wolfson, 1989, p.31) argues that it is the language teachers who should take over the responsibility

of facilitating and guiding language learners to interpret values and patterns which they would have difficulty in interpreting as well as help them to “express themselves in exactly the way they choose – rudely, tactfully or in an elaborately polite manner.” It is also the teachers who should endeavor to make their learners aware of and sensitive to the sociolinguistic variables that play a role in different types of situations (Yorio, 1980; cited in Wolfson, 1989, p 31) Nevertheless, research on teachers’ beliefs has showed that teachers’ beliefs play a critical role in affecting their teaching and the kinds of thinking and decision making that underlie their classroom practice (Richards, 1998; Richards & Lockhart, 1996; Trappes-Lomax & McGrath, 1999)

For this reason, this study tried to find out what EL teachers’ beliefs about the role

of culture in ELT are, and the extent to which their beliefs affect their classroom practices at a foreign language center in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

1.2 Aims and research questions of the study

This study aims at exploring teachers’ beliefs toward the role of culture in ELT and their current classroom practices at a foreign language center in Ho Chi Minh City The following are the specific objectives of the research:

 To explore EL teachers’ beliefs about the role of culture in ELT;

 To find out how EL teachers define the objectives of culture teaching;

 To examine the extent to which EL teachers’ beliefs are reflected in their classroom practices; and

 To draw conclusions on EL teachers’ beliefs about the role of culture and their classroom practices, and give some recommendations on how

to promote the quality of culture teaching in ELT

In order to achieve those objectives, the following research questions must be addressed:

1 What beliefs about the role of culture in ELT do EL teachers hold?

2 How do they define the objectives of culture teaching?

3 To what extent are their beliefs reflected in their classroom practices?

1.3 Significance of study

As mentioned above, this study focuses on EL teachers’ beliefs about the role of culture in ELT among many EL teachers at a foreign language center It is, therefore, hoped that the findings of this study will make some contributions to the teaching and learning of English as a second language

Firstly, since teachers play a central role in the delivery of language instruction and are responsible for motivating their students to learn, it is obviously essential that teachers themselves be aware of the beliefs they hold Through this awareness, teachers can also decide if their current beliefs and teaching practices are worth maintaining, or should be adjusted Therefore, this study hopes to provide research participants with a chance to reflect on their personal beliefs about the role of culture as well as their culture teaching in the classroom

Secondly, as the objective of this research is to determine the relationship between teachers’ beliefs about the role of culture in ELT and their classroom practices, this study tries to provide insights into the research participants’ beliefs about the role

of culture in ELT, the extent to which they are aware of the role of culture in ELT, and how much their awareness affects their teaching Hence, it is hoped to make a contribution to the reconsideration of the curriculum and the practices of ELT in order to enhance the quality of English language teaching at the center

Finally, by doing this research the researcher hopes that he himself also has a chance to reflect on his personal beliefs about the role of culture in ELT In addition, the researcher would like to share his views of the role of culture as well

as the theoretical application of culture teaching in ELT with his colleagues And

he also wishes to raise awareness of the role of culture in ELT among EL teachers

1.4 Theoretical framework

Borg (1997) has found that teachers’ decisions while teaching are influenced by a set of complex and conflicting cognitions, and he suggests a diagram (figure 1.1) which presents the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their classroom practices as well as other factors involved

Extensive experience of

classrooms which defines early

cognitions and shapes teachers’

perceptions of initial training

unacknowledged, this may limit its

instructional activities, self

Influence practice either by of

modifying cognitions or else

incongruence between cognition

and practice may result

Defined by the interaction cognitions and contextual factors In turn,

through conscious reflection

Figure 1.1 Teacher cognition, schooling, professional education, and classroom

practice (Borg, 1997) Figure 1.1 represents a schematic conceptualization of teaching within which teacher cognition plays a pivotal role in teachers’ lives Teacher cognition, which includes their beliefs, knowledge, theories, attitudes, images, assumptions, metaphors, conceptions, and perspectives, has a close relationship with teacher learning (both schooling and professional education) and classroom practice The research also shows that teacher cognitions and practices are mutually informing

Schooling Professional Coursework

Contextual Factors

TEACHER COGNITION

Classroom Practice

with contextual factors playing an important role in determining the extent to which teachers are able to implement instruction congruent with their cognitions

Moreover, in this thesis teachers’ beliefs about the role of culture in ELT and their classroom practices are directly related to culture teaching which deals with cultural/intercultural competence Byram (1997, p.33; cited in Risager, 2007, p.122) presents a model (figure 1.2) of intercultural competence that shows the relationship between the language teaching and culture teaching The model includes components that have to do with knowledge, attitudes, and skills He also believes that when the development of intercultural competence takes place in a teaching context, cultural learning should have a more educative role: education which he specifies with the aid of the words ‘political education’ and ‘critical cultural awareness’ Below is the model for intercultural competence presented by Byram

Attitudes

relativising self valuing other

Beliefs

Beliefs are a “messy construct” and are often referred to by means of such varied terms as: attitudes, values, judgments, axioms, opinions, ideology, perceptions, conceptions, conceptual systems, preconceptions, dispositions, implicit theories, explicit theories, personal theories, internal mental processes, action strategies, rules of practice, practical principles, perspectives, repertories of understanding, and social strategy, to name but a few that can be found in literature (Pajares,

1992, p 309)

Teachers’ beliefs

The terms here refer to teachers' pedagogic beliefs (Borg, 2001), which are related

to convictions about language and the teaching and learning of it These beliefs are manifested in teachers' teaching approaches, selection of materials, activities, judgments, and behaviors in the classroom

Culture

In this study, the term ‘culture’ refers to “…ways of acting, believing, valuing and thinking which are shared by members of a community (social group) and which are transmitted to the next generation A culture is dynamic and open to change as

a result of a change in living conditions or through contact with other cultures.”

(Crozet & Liddicoat, 2000, p 22)

Cultural competence

Cultural competence involves knowledge, skills and attitudes concerning a specific cultural area such as that associated with (one of the) target language countries (Sercu et al., 2005, p viii)

Intercultural competence

Intercultural competence involves knowledge, skills and attitudes on the interface between several cultural areas including the students’ own country and a target language country (Sercu et al., 2005, p viii)

1.6 Organization of the thesis

This study is composed of five chapters

Chapter 1 provides the introduction, which includes the rationale, the aims and research questions, the significance, definitions of terminology, the theoretical framework and the organization of the study

Chapter 2 presents the literature review of this study, which includes the relationship between language and culture, the importance of culture teaching, teachers’ beliefs, change of teachers’ beliefs, teachers’ beliefs about culture in language teaching, and the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their classroom practices

Chapter 3 describes the methodology, which consists of the research setting, research design, research tools, data collection and data analysis procedures, and ethical consideration

Chapter 4 provides the data analysis and discussion of the findings

Chapter 5 deals with the conclusions, recommendations for culture teaching in ELT, the limitations of the study, and some suggestions for further research concerning this field

2.2 Language and culture

This section will give the working definition of culture uses in this study, review the strong relationship between language and culture, and explore the role of culture as well as the importance of incorporating culture in language teaching

2.2.1 Definition of culture

There have been a great number of definitions of culture so far In his research, Moran (2001, p 23) has compiled definitions of culture in the field of anthropology and discovered that the definitions of culture range from cultural materialism to a host of various branches of anthropology: interpretive, psychological, cognitive, social, feminist, symbolic, linguistic, and reflexive Each has a different perspective on culture, but they all seem to make perfect sense and offer insights into the complex phenomenon of culture

For the purpose of this thesis, the following definition is used:

Culture is a concept referring to ways of acting, believing, valuing and thinking which are shared by members of a community (social group) and which are transmitted to the next generation A culture is dynamic and open to change as a result of a change in living conditions or through contact with other cultures (Crozet & Liddicoat, 2000, p 22)

This definition has two parts The first part contains a traditional and holistic conception of culture which is used at many points in the text by the writers, e.g

“…both learners’ first and target cultures … are put under scrutiny in the language class so as to make visible the differences which can potentially prevent the two cultures from relating successfully” (ibid., p 3) The second part draws on a more recent discourse about a dynamic and contextual concept of culture – one that is nevertheless still understood from an essentialist point of view (a culture, other cultures) They stress that: “culture is not a static, monolithic construct It is dynamic and both creates and is created by every attempt to communicate” (ibid.,

p 5)

2.2.2 The relationship between language and culture

The relationship between language and culture has been widely investigated and confirmed by many researchers This is proved by the fact that many new words have been coined to reflect this strong relationship: linguaculture (Kramsch, 1989; Fantini, 1995), languaculture (Agar 1994), language-culture (Galisson, 1991), language-and-culture (Byram & Morgan, 1993), etc

Gallison (1991) states that language and culture are naturally bound up with each other, and to try to separate them is artificial This relationship is as a symbiosis, and he argues:

[Symbiosis] is as a social practice and socio-historical product that language is permeated by culture The game of symbiosis in which language and culture function means that they are the reciprocal and compulsory reflections of each other Didactologists/didacticians clearly ought to take account of this commensalism, making sure they do not dissociate the study of culture – the study

of language, and vice-versa (Translated from Galisson, 1991, p 119; cited in Risager, 2007, p 88)

It is Galisson who uses the compound word langue-culture, and he also talks about

langue-culture-source and langue-culture-cible (Galisson, 1994, p 95) But even

though language is completely permeated by culture, it is the words that take centre stage:

If language is permeated by culture, it is not in a uniform manner As preconstructed receptacles and thus stable and economical in use compared to utterances which have to be constructed, words are the privileged places of permeation for certain cultural contents that settle there, that end up by sticking there, and thus add another dimension to the ordinary semantic dimension of signs (Translated from Galisson, 1991, p 119; cited in Risager, 2007, p 88)

Other researchers also confirm that language and culture are closely interwoven or inextricably interrelated and interdependent, or that culture is language, and language is culture (Brøgger, 1992; Roberts et al., 2001) “As they clarify the connection between language and culture, Roberts et al (2001) argue that

language is never culturally neutral They say that ‘cultural learning is language

learning, and vice versa” (ibid., p 5), and use the expressions culture learning’ (ibid., p 6) and ‘language-and-cultural practices’ (ibid., p 55) What is more, Brown (2007) describes the relationship between language and culture as follows: “A language is a part of a culture and a culture is a part of a language; the two are intricately interwoven so that one cannot separate the two without losing the significance of either language or culture” (p 189)

‘language-and-Furthermore, language is metaphorically considered to be the mirror of culture, in the sense that people can recognize a culture through its language Meanwhile, culture is like an iceberg The visible part is the language representing a small part

of culture; the greater part, lying hidden beneath the surface, is the invisible aspect

of culture This understanding of language and culture is conveyed through the following three new metaphors (Jiang, 2000):

From a philosophical view:

flesh blood

Language and culture constitute a living organism; language is the flesh, and culture is the blood Without culture, language would be dead; likewise, without language, culture would have no shape

From a communicative view:

Communication is swimming, language is the swimming skill, and culture is the water Without language, communication would occur only to a very limited degree (in very shallow water); without culture, there would be no communication

at all

From a pragmatic view:

Communication is like transportation: language is the vehicle and culture is the traffic light Language makes communication easier and faster; culture regulates, sometimes promotes, and sometimes hinders communication

2.2.3 Culture in language teaching

As discussed in section 2.2.2, the inseparable relationship between language and culture has been confirmed This section will review the role of culture in language teaching as well as the importance of incorporating culture in language teaching

As the strong relationship between culture and language has been confirmed, it can

be inferred that culture plays an important role and should be included in language

education However, the issue of with the role of culture in ELT has generated some debate over the questions ‘what kind(s) of English’ and ‘whose culture should be taught?’ (Kitao, 2000) One of the tendencies has been a proposal to de-culture teaching practices and materials to prevent the language taught from having any cultural implications that may transfer inappropriate cultural references which could be perceived as potentially dangerous to the cultural integrity of the learners

An international language is defined as a language used as a means of communication between people from different nations who do not share a common native language As McKay points out referring to some approaches to English as

an international language (EIL), ‘if an international language, by definition, means that such language belongs to no single culture, then it would seem that it is not necessary for language learners to acquire knowledge about the culture of those who speak it as a native language’ (McKay, 2000, p.7) Focusing on another aspect

of the issue, there are contrasting views: culture learning is considered an optional tool for promoting cultural awareness and intercultural understanding rather than a potential danger to the learners’ cultural integrity (Barrow, 1990; Clarke & Clarke, 1990; McKay, 2000) According to these hypotheses, Duenas (???) states that by excluding references to real domains of language use in ELT practices and materials, we will do the learners a disservice, as their knowledge of the actual dimension of the English language and its speakers in the world is distorted On the other hand, by offering language instruction interwoven with a variety of cultural references, we would provide learners with a most valuable and rational approach to their intellectual and cognitive development without risking their language acquisition The introduction of culture in foreign language teaching practice can provide an accurate framework for information and knowledge of the different English-speaking communities in the world and the role of culture in communication On the whole, embedding cultural aspects in ELT materials and practices, instead of excluding them intentionally, would help learners increase their cultural awareness as well as their language proficiency

Moreover, Damen (1987; cited in Graves, 2001) defines culture as “the fifth dimension” of language teaching in addition to the other four language skills Hymes (1972) views it as communicative competence Sarigul and Ashton-Hay (2005) state that understanding the cultural context of day to day conversational conventions such as greetings, farewells, forms of address, expressing gratitude, making requests, and giving or receiving compliments means more than just being able to produce grammatical sentences It means knowing what is appropriate to say to whom, and in what situations as well as understanding the beliefs and values represented by the various forms and usages of the language In addition, Kramsch (1993) asserts that culture is not just a fifth skill or even an aspect of communicative competence but the underlying dimension of all one knows and does

Since culture plays such an important role in language teaching, incorporating culture in language teaching seems almost inevitable Teaching cultural differences along with the structural and typological differences of the language is vital because it helps learners prevent misinterpretation caused by the confusion of cultural referents As linguistic competence alone is not enough for learners of a language to be competent in that language (Krasner, 1999), language learners need

to be aware of the culturally appropriate ways to address people, express gratitude, make requests and agree or disagree with someone Byram and Risager (1999; cited in Hong, 2008) suggest that “the aims of language teaching are to develop both linguistic and cultural competence, which can be called an intercultural communicative competence.” Kramsch (1993, p 8; cited in Hong, 2008) argues against those who consider cultural knowledge as ‘an educational objective’ in itself which is separate from language She claims that if we consider language as

a social practice, culture becomes the core of language teaching, and adds that

“cultural awareness must be viewed both as enabling language proficiency and as being the outcome of reflection on language proficiency.”

Many standards for incorporating culture in language teaching have been issued by many international and national foreign language associations in order to address

the importance of incorporating culture in language teaching TESOL (1996, p

17; cited in Onalan, 2005) stipulates the third goal in ESL Standards for Pre-K-12

Students “to use English in socially and culturally appropriate ways” Likewise,

the national standards for foreign language education, which were developed in part with the American Council on Teachers of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), were based on “knowing how, when, and why to say what to whom.” ACTFL (1996)

education:

Through the study of other languages, students gain a knowledge and

understanding of the cultures that use that language and, in fact, cannot truly

master the language until they have also mastered the cultural contexts in which the language occurs (ibid., 1996, p.27)

And the ultimate goal of foreign language teaching according to the national standards is “the ability to communicate in meaningful and appropriate ways with users of other languages.”

Although the importance of culture teaching in foreign language teaching is obvious, it has been and is still ignored for many reasons According to Reid (1995, p 3; cited in Onalan, 2005), “only one third of [language teaching] programs offer a course in culture” The reason has been that language teachers are more interested in practical aspects of communication Even if they are aware of the importance, there is still a problem regarding how to incorporate culture in the language classroom Moreover, Hong (2008) argues that language teachers feel that they do not have enough time to talk about the target culture in regular language classes This is a common complaint in language teaching, but teachers realize that without bringing in the cultural aspect of the language, teaching language alone cannot bring about the intended results, and learners do not fully understand the language in context

1

The five goals (five C’s) of foreign language education are Communication, Cultures, Connections, Comparisons, and Communities (ACTFL, 1996)

In short, culture is an important component in language teaching, and the notion of culture should be intensively and extensively (implicitly or explicitly) included in the process of language teaching since to know a language is like knowing a culture and to describe a culture is like describing a language

2.3 Culture teaching in language teaching

This section will try to examine how culture is taught in terms of objectives, approaches, techniques and activities, and factors that affect the choice of culture teaching methodology

2.3.1 Objectives of culture teaching

As culture teaching is indispensable and inseparable from its language teaching, the focus should be shifted from questions regarding the inclusion or exclusion of culture in a foreign language classroom to how the objectives of culture teaching can be defined Many researchers have established a variety of goals for teaching culture

Nostrand (1966) proposes some objectives of culture teaching, which are related to the ability to react and describe social situations; recognize, explain, predict, and evaluate social patterns; manifest attitudes to be accepted in a foreign society; identify basic human purposes; and describe defensible methods of analyzing culture In specifying those objectives, Nostrand summarizes the overall goals of culture teaching: cross-cultural understanding and cross-cultural communication Learners approach the target language community and its culture with certain presuppositions and expectations, so culture teaching would help learners overcome prejudice and break stereotypes

It is assumed that the objective of culture teaching is to facilitate intercultural communication and understanding Seelye (1984, p 29) sets an overall goal for the teaching of culture: “All students will develop the cultural understanding, attitudes, and performance skills needed to function appropriately within a segment of

another society.” Also, Chastain (1988, pp 299-300) adds that in language classes where intercultural understanding is one of the goals, students become more aware

of their own culture and more knowledgeable of the foreign culture In such classes, students learn to recognize cultural patterns of behavior and communication, and function within the parameters with those new expectations Furthermore, Tomalin and Stempleski (1993, pp 7-8) modified the aims of culture teaching, which are based on Seelye’s (1984, p 9) Cultural instruction should help students:

 demonstrate an understanding that people generally act the way they do because they are using options society allows for satisfying basic physical and psychological needs;

 demonstrate an understanding that social variables such as age, sex, social class, and place of residence affect the way people speak and behave;

 indicate an understanding of the role convention plays in shaping behavior

by demonstrating how people in the target culture act in common mundane and crisis situations;

 indicate an awareness that culturally conditioned images are associated with even the most common target words and phrases;

 demonstrate the ability to make, evaluate, and refine the generalities concerning the target culture;

 show that they have developed the skills needed to locate and organize information about the target culture from the library, the mass media, people, and personal observation; and

 demonstrate intellectual curiosity about the target culture and empathy toward its people

However, those aims of culture teaching are all mentioned in Byram’s (1997, pp 50-53) model of intercultural competence with the following five elements:

 attitude: Curiosity and openness, readiness to suspend disbelief about other

cultures and belief about of one’s own;

 knowledge: Knowledge of social groups and their products and practices in

one’s own and in one’s interlocutor’s country, and of the general processes

of societal and individual interaction;

 skills of interpreting and relating: Interpreting events in the target culture

and relating them to one’s own;

 skills of discovery and interaction: The ability to acquire new knowledge of

a culture and cultural practices, and the ability to apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills within the constraints of real-time communication and interaction; and

 critical cultural awareness/political education: The ability to evaluate

critically and on the basis of explicit criteria for perspectives, practices, and products in one’s own and other cultures

It is, in conclusion, emphasized that the main aims of teaching culture are “to increase students’ awareness and to develop their interest in the target culture and their own, helping them to make comparisons among cultures” (Tavares & Cavalcanti, 1996, p 19) These comparisons are not meant to underestimate or overestimate target cultures but to enrich students’ experience and to make them more cosmopolitans Appreciating the culture of others helps interact among civilizations and religious tolerance

2.3.2 Common approaches to culture teaching

In section 2.3.1 above, the objectives of culture teaching proposed have been examined This section will explore some common approaches to the teaching of culture, that are based on those objectives

In the history of culture teaching there have been many different approaches, which can be divided into two very broad groups: those which focus exclusively (or mostly) on the culture of the country whose language is studied (the mono-

cultural approach) and those which are based on comparing learners’ own culture

to the other culture (the comparative approach)

The mono-cultural approach is considered inadequate nowadays because it does not consider learners’ understanding of their own culture The comparative approach, on the other hand, emphasizes that the foreign culture should be related

to the learners’ own Buttjet and Byram (1991, p 13) propose that learners should

be encouraged to reflect on their own and foreign cultures instead of being provided with “a one-way flow of cultural information.” The comparative approach draws on the learners’ own knowledge, beliefs, and values which then form a basis for successful communication with members of another culture

Galloway (1985) characterizes some mono-cultural approaches which are considered the most commonly used in teaching culture:

 The Frankenstein Approach: When learners are provided with information

from everywhere;

 The 4-F Approach: Related to teaching culture focused on Folk dances,

Festivals, Fairs and Food;

 The Tour Guide Approach: teaching culture by identification of

monuments, rivers, cities, etc

 The By-The-Way Approach: Teaching culture through sporadic lectures or

bits of behavior selected indiscriminately to emphasize distinct differences

All four of these approaches mainly provide learners with factual information and only offer an ‘interesting sidelight’ to the foreign culture (Chastain, 1988, p 305) Because of their very limited nature, they should not be encouraged

Risager (1998, pp 243-252) describes four approaches to culture teaching: the

foreign-culture approach, the intercultural approach, the multicultural approach, and the transcultural approach, two of which – the intercultural and multicultural

– involve a considerable amount of comparison

The foreign-culture approach, which represents the mono-cultural approach

suggested by Risager, is based on the concept of a single culture and focuses on the culture of the country where the language is spoken It does not deal with the learners’ own country and the relationships between the two, but aims at developing a so-called native speaker communicative and cultural competence This approach was dominant until the 1980s when it was criticized for ignoring the relationships between cultures

The intercultural approach has replaced the foreign-culture approach, and is

dominant today It is based on the idea that culture is best learned through comparison This approach deals with the relationships between the learners’ own country and the country/countries where the target language is spoken It focuses

on the target culture and aims at developing learners’ intercultural and communicative competence, which would enable them to function as mediators between the two cultures

The multicultural approach appeared in the 1980s, but is still not very popular It

is based on the concept that several cultures exist within one culture This approach includes a focus on the ethnic and linguistic diversity of the target country/countries as well as on the learners’ own, and emphasizes the principle that cultures are not monolithic

The final approach suggested by Risager is the transcultural approach, which

appeared as a result of the globalization This approach assumes that in the modern world cultures are interwoven due to extensive global cooperation so that some

major languages are spoken as a lingua franca Therefore, the transcultural

approach deals with the foreign language as an international language and has as its main aim to teach learners to use it for international communication

In the context of this study, the approach to culture teaching which is of great importance is the comparative one as English is used as an international language

or lingua franca The teaching of culture involves both the learners’ culture and

the target one

2.3.3 Techniques and activities for culture teaching

Many researchers have suggested and developed a great number of techniques and activities for incorporating culture into language teaching Stern (1992, pp 223-232; cited in Han, 2009) suggests techniques for culture teaching which are presented in the following eight groups:

 creating an authentic classroom environment: techniques include displays and exhibitions of realia;

 providing cultural information: cultural aside, cultural capsule and culture clusters;

 cultural problem solving: student research;

 behavioral and affective aspects: drama and role plays;

 cognitive approaches: student research;

 the role of literature and the humanities: literary readings and watching films;

 real-life exposure to the target culture: visits to the class by native speakers, pen-pals and visits to other countries; and

 making use of cultural community resources: when foreign language learning takes place in the target-language community, the everyday environment can be used as a resource

Although many techniques and activities of culture teaching have been suggested for use both in class and out of classroom situations, for the purpose of this study only the techniques and activities used in class are explored as follows:

The cultural aside, which was suggested by Stern (1992), Chastain (1998), and

Henrichsen (1998), is an item of cultural information offered by teachers when it arises in the text It is often an unplanned, brief culture comment This helps to create a cultural content for language items as well as helps learners to make

mental associations similar to those that native speakers make But the cultural information presented to learners is likely to be disordered and incomplete

Culture capsules, which was developed by Taylor and Sorensen (1961) and also

referred to by Chastain (1988:310), Stern (1992, pp 224-225), and Seelye (1993,

pp 174-177), is a brief description of one aspect of the other culture followed by a discussion of the contrasts between the learners’ and other cultures In this technique, the teacher presents the information orally, and learners are asked to answer questions relating to a typical incident or event in the target culture It is possible for learners to prepare a culture capsule at home and give an oral presentation during class time, which is combined with realia and visual aids, as well as a set of questions to stimulate discussion The main advantage of using a culture capsule is its ‘compactness and practical manageable quality’ (Stern 1992,

p 240) And another advantage is that learners become involved in the discussion and are drawn to consider the basic characteristics of their own culture (Chastain

1988, p 310)

The Culture cluster was first suggested by Meade and Morain (1973) and also

referred to by Chastain (1988, p 310), Stern (1992, pp 224-225), Seelye (1993,

pp 174-177), and Henrichsen (1998) A culture cluster, which is a combination of conceptually related culture capsules, consists of two or more culture capsules With this technique the teacher can present parts of a cultural cluster in succeeding lessons, and he can carry out an activity in the final lesson where the set of capsules is integrated into a single sequence According to Stern (1992, p 226), the advantage of a culture cluster is that besides introducing different aspects of culture it ‘lends itself well to behavioral training.’ Henrichsen (1998) also argues that culture capsules and clusters are good methods for giving learners knowledge and some intellectual awareness of several cultural aspects, but he warns that they

do not generally generate much emotional empathy

The slice-of-life technique, which was first suggested by Taylor (1972), and also

referred to by Chastain (1988, pp 309-310) and Stern (1992, p 224), is a

technique whereby the teacher chooses a small segment of life from the other culture and usually presents it to learners at the beginning of the class It catches learners’ attention and arouses their interest, and does not take up much class time

Create an authentic environment This technique was developed by Chastain

(1988, p 313) and Stern (1992, p 224) This technique is also called the culture island as displays, posters, bulletin boards, maps, and realia can create a visual and tangible presence of the other culture, especially in situations in which the language and culture are taught far away from the target country

The culture self-awareness technique suggested by Chastain (1988, p 311) aims to

raise learners’ consciousness of the basic principles that govern their own values, beliefs, and actions Teachers may use sensitivity exercises, self-assessment questionnaires, problem solving, and checklists of value orientations This is suitable for advanced learners

The quiz or multiple-choice developed by Cullen (2000) can be used to test

materials that the teacher has already taught, but it is also useful in learning new information Cullen stresses that it is not important whether learners can get the answer right or not, but by predicting or guessing, they will become more interested in finding out about the answer The right answer will be provided by the teacher, through reading, watching a video, or other classroom activities Quizzes are high-interest activities that can keep learners involved

Role-play suggested by Fennes and Hapgood (1997) is an activity in which

students imagine themselves in an intercultural situation outside the classroom, and perform a role-play about a situation within their own culture or another culture Fesnnes and Hapgood (1997) propose that experiencing the situation from different perspectives can contribute to a “clearer perception, greater awareness” and “a better understanding of one’s own culture and the cultures of other people” (p 109)

Inviting Foreigners is an activity in which people from other cultures or recently

returned expatriates are invited into the class to talk about their culture or their experience According to Argyle (1982), this activity is useful in helping students experience real life intercultural interactions However, this type of activity can be considered optional because it is not always practical to invite people from other cultures to come to class It is possible for the teacher to encourage students to interact with foreigners and recall their experience

To summarize, the techniques and activities for culture teaching that have been discussed are used in class, and this list is not exhaustive Learners can learn cultures holistically through the situationally appropriate use of these techniques, but to be considered effective, a technique must help learners develop understanding and empathy for different cultures

2.3.4 Factors affecting the choice of culture teaching methodology

Researchers have suggested that there are many approaches and methods to teach culture effectively; however, there are many factors that affect the choice of culture teaching methodology Three of the most important factors are (Han, 2009):

 The situation in which the language is taught

 The learners

 The teacher

The situation in which the language is taught

Stern (1992, p 223) distinguishes between three situations in which the teaching of culture can take place:

(i) Culture is taught in language courses in which the student is physically and

often psychologically far removed from the reality of life in the target community Here culture teaching provides background and context of the target community, and helps the student to visualize and vicariously experience that reality

(ii) Culture is taught in situations in which students may be physically far away

from the target language environment, but psychologically it is much more real to them because they are preparing to visit the country for a holiday or to work there

(iii) Culture is taught in a cultural setting (e.g., to immigrants, students studying in

a target language community) In this case, students may need more help to come

to terms with the foreign environment to avoid cultural misunderstandings Brown (2007, p 189) considers this situation the best for teaching a second language and its culture teaching It is clearly becoming far more common because of the significant phenomenon of migration

Each situation determines the goals of culture teaching and the range of topics that are considered important to teach When the main aim is to provide cultural knowledge, as commonly in situation (i), the most suitable activities might be watching videos and films, and reading and discussing literary and newspaper texts In situation (ii) or (iii), learners need various skills and cultural practices These can be best developed through role plays, dialogues, and drama

The learners

Besides the learning situation, learners’ characteristics such as age, sex, maturity, language proficiency, and educational level can have a great influence on the choice of culture teaching methodology Among those characteristics, the learners’ age is of most importance to many researchers Harumi (2002) thinks that students

in each learning stage have different goals in learning culture so teachers should teach culture in different ways according to their students’ age Byram (1997, pp 55-56) emphasizes that “teaching and learning aims which include

‘understanding’, ‘tolerance’, ‘empathy’ and related notions presuppose a psychological readiness in learners who may be age-dependent, may be influenced

by social factors, and may be furthered or even inhibited by exposure to a foreign culture and language.”

The teacher

The choice of an approach or a method for teaching culture depends greatly on the teacher’s own characteristics According to Sercu et al (2005), the main requirements for intercultural foreign language teaching are attitudes, knowledge, and skills Among other things, Sercu stresses that if teachers want to educate learners in intercultural learning, they have to be intercultural learners themselves Moreover, teachers must be prepared to deal with their students’ learning facts or opinions that may conflict with their own beliefs or what they regard as natural Byram (1997, p 62) states that “the teacher should be aware of the nature of the challenge to learners’ understanding of their culture and identity.”

For the purposes of this study, the following factors need to be taken into consideration:

a) As English is taught as a foreign language in Vietnam, the teaching context

must be taken into account as the situations (i) Culture is taught in language

courses and (ii) Culture is taught in situations suggested by Stern (1992)

b) Learners’ age and their English proficiency should be considered Their lifestyles and educational background are other factors to consider because these factors may also affect their learning of culture being taught in language courses

c) Teachers, among other factors, are the most important element in this new situation in terms of cultural teaching in the ELT classroom Their beliefs, their understanding, and their willingness are decisive factors in teaching culture, which will be one of the major concerns of this study

2.4 Teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices

This section, as one of the main theoretical concepts in this study, will discuss teachers’ beliefs, change of teachers’ beliefs, teachers’ beliefs about culture in language teaching, and the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices