As for the students’ attitudes towards their teacher’s code-switching in English classrooms, this practice was generally supported in some specific situations, especially those that prov
INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
English is increasingly recognized as a global lingua franca, making proficiency in the language a crucial factor for career success In response to its significance, many schools and academic institutions worldwide have made English a mandatory subject, requiring students to achieve specific results for course completion and university graduation Additionally, individuals unable to access formal education can still enhance their English skills through various private language centers available in their local areas.
Finding an affordable English class that meets your learning needs is quite easy.
The evolution of English as a global language has led to the development of various teaching approaches aimed at enhancing language instruction Among these, the Grammar-Translation method stands out as one of the earliest and most recognized, focusing on grammar and translation, yet facing criticism for its limitations (Richards & Rodgers, 2001) During the Reform Period (1880-1920), new methods emerged that prioritized spoken language, with the Direct Method significantly influencing later practices by eliminating translation and the use of students' native languages in classrooms (Howatt & Smith, 2014) This era paved the way for a diverse range of teaching methods and approaches.
In the 1950s and 1960s, the Audiolingual Method and the Situational Method emphasized learning outcomes over teaching methods This shift in focus led to the development of Communicative Language Teaching, which prioritizes equipping learners with practical language skills for real-world use The principles of this approach have gained widespread support in educational institutions, as it emphasizes teaching language for communicative purposes (Richards & Rodgers, 2001) Each method, including Content-Based Instruction and Task-based Language Teaching from the 1990s, highlights different aspects of teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and can be utilized independently or in conjunction with others.
Numerous studies have explored the factors that contribute to effective second language (L2) teaching, with significant focus on the use of students' first language (L1) in L2 instruction This has led to two opposing views: some experts advocate for a complete ban on L1 in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms, aligning with the Reform Movement and the Direct Method, while others emphasize the beneficial role of L1 in facilitating L2 learning Research in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) indicates that there is no clear consensus on the optimal balance between L1 and L2 use in teaching.
Research indicates mixed attitudes towards the use of L1 in teaching, with some studies (Jingxia, 2010; Nordin et al., 2013; Pham, H., 2015) highlighting its benefits for both teachers and learners, while others (Nazary, 2008; Cheng, 2013) reveal negative perceptions among participants regarding this approach.
The use of the first language (L1) is prevalent in second language (L2) teaching, closely linked to the practice of code-switching Research indicates that both teachers and students in foreign language classrooms generally hold positive views on the use of L1, although they concur that it should be applied thoughtfully.
In Vietnam, research on code-switching in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms has primarily concentrated on students' perceptions of teachers' use of their native language (L1) and the functions and factors influencing teachers' code-switching However, there is a lack of studies exploring teachers' perspectives on their own code-switching practices and how these practices evolve throughout the course, particularly in the context of tertiary education This study aims to fill this gap by investigating teachers' code-switching in EFL classrooms for non-English major students, providing valuable insights into this phenomenon.
Aims of the study
The use of L1 in EFL classrooms has garnered significant attention from researchers; however, there is a lack of studies focusing on this issue within the Vietnamese context, with only a few examining the attitudes of English teachers and English-majored students Most existing research offers a limited, one-time analysis of teachers' code-switching rather than investigating it over an extended period, such as an entire course or semester This study aims to address this gap by exploring teachers' code-switching practices and their perceptions, specifically focusing on non-English majored students The objectives include examining the alignment between teachers' opinions on code-switching and their actual practices in EFL classrooms.
4 teachers’ code-switching vary in terms of frequency and functions throughout the entire course, and (3) to investigate students’ attitudes towards their teacher’s code-switching in their English class.
Research questions
Based on what has been discussed so far, this study makes an attempt to answer the three following questions:
(1) What are the similarities and differences between teachers’ opinions about and practices of their code-switching in EFL classrooms?
(2) To what extent does teachers’ code-switching vary in frequency and functions throughout their English course?
(3) What are non-English majors’ attitudes towards their teachers’ code-switching in EFL classrooms?
Significance of the study
This thesis aims to enhance previous research on methodology by utilizing data triangulation and extending the data collection over multiple stages of an English course The findings are expected to offer valuable insights into teachers' perspectives on code-switching in English instruction and reveal students' attitudes towards this practice Ultimately, the results will assist educators in effectively balancing the use of the first language (L1) and the second language (L2) in their teaching methodologies.
Scope of the study
This research was carried out at the Center for Foreign Languages at the University of Science, part of Vietnam National University – Ho Chi Minh City (US, VNU-HCMC) According to university regulations, all students are required to complete a series of language courses.
Students often enroll in English courses at the University’s Center for Foreign Languages to obtain a certificate in English language proficiency at the intermediate level, which is essential for their graduation alongside their major studies.
This thesis presents a case study involving three teachers and 124 pre-intermediate English students, highlighting the inevitable use of Vietnamese in their classrooms The study specifically examines the teachers' code-switching practices, exploring their perceptions and actual implementation, as well as the students' attitudes towards this phenomenon Detailed information about the participants will be provided in Section 3.4 of Chapter 3.
Outline of the thesis
This thesis comprises five chapters, beginning with an introduction that outlines the study's background, aims, research questions, significance, scope, and structure The second chapter reviews literature on code-switching, its definitions, functions, and the use of L1 in English classrooms globally, including Vietnam, based on various studies Chapter 3 details the methodology, covering research design, pilot study, participants, instruments, and data collection and analysis procedures Chapter 4 presents the analysis of data collected, followed by a discussion of the results and findings The final chapter concludes the thesis, offering implications and suggestions for future research on the topic.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Operational definitions of key terms
2.1.1 Mother tongue, the first language (L1), and the second language (L2)
In language teaching, the terminology surrounding L1 use can be confusing, as terms like 'first language', 'native language', 'mother tongue', and 'own language' are often used interchangeably by different authors (Hall & G Cook, 2012) These terms are typically treated as synonyms, leading to ambiguity in their distinctions.
The term 'mother tongue' refers to the first and primary language learned during childhood, as defined by the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English It is synonymous with 'native language.'
The term 'native tongue' refers to the language acquired naturally during childhood, distinct from languages learned later in life or in educational settings Similarly, 'first language' is defined as the initial language a child learns Thus, it can be inferred that 'first language', 'native tongue', and related terms describe the foundational language skills developed in early childhood.
The terms 'native language' and 'mother tongue' are synonymous, referring to the first language learned before any others However, their applicability may vary in certain contexts, as illustrated by Khati's (2011) study.
A child from the Hayu community in Nepal speaks Nepali as his first language, while his mother tongue is Hayu, which features a distinct linguistic system Therefore, in this context, 'first language' differs from 'mother tongue'.
Hall and G Cook (2012) highlight that in various educational environments, the common language among students often differs from their 'first' or 'native' language For instance, while German is the primary language in German secondary schools, it may not be the first language for newcomers from countries like Turkey or Poland.
The term 'second language' may be misleading for many students who are already bilingual or multilingual Graddol (2006) notes that the global rise of English is blurring the lines between 'second' and 'foreign' languages, leading Hall and G Cook (2012) to assert that English has effectively become the second language for much of the world To address this, they propose using 'own language' to refer to the language students already know and 'new language' for the language they are learning, while still recognizing the variety of terms used by different scholars.
In this study, the majority of teachers and students are native Vietnamese speakers, with only a few exceptions from ethnic minorities English is the primary foreign language taught in secondary and high schools across Vietnam and remains a mandatory subject for nearly all non-English major undergraduates, including those at US, VNU-HCMC Consequently, the terminology used in this study reflects this linguistic context.
In this study, the terms 'mother tongue', 'first language' (L1), 'native language', and 'own language' are used interchangeably, as all participants belong to the Kinh ethnic group, making Vietnamese their mother tongue and first language Additionally, English is referred to as the participants' foreign language or second language (L2).
2.1.2 The concept of code-switching
The concept of bilingualism has been viewed from various perspectives, but the most common one concerns how fluently one can speak two different
Bilingualism is a complex concept that varies in definition among experts According to Myers-Scotton (2006), being bilingual does not require complete mastery of two languages, as true fluency is rare Nguyen (2013) highlights differing perspectives: one group defines bilinguals as those with equal proficiency or native-like control in both languages, while another group includes individuals with lower proficiency in either language A third perspective suggests that bilinguals are simply those who can alternate between two languages, regardless of their proficiency levels.
In bilingual communities, code-switching is a common occurrence that has captured the interest of researchers for decades, leading to the development of various definitions of the term.
In one of the most widely-cited articles about this field, Poplack (1980) stated that
Code-switching refers to the practice of alternating between two languages within a single conversation, sentence, or phrase From a sociolinguistic perspective, each dialect can be viewed as a distinct language code, leading to the definition of code-switching as outlined by Gardner-Chloros.
Code-switching, defined by Gumperz (1982) as the use of multiple languages or dialects within a single conversation, is a common practice among bilinguals to enhance communication This technique allows speakers to switch between languages to clarify their messages or respond effectively to others V Cook (2008) simplifies this concept, describing code-switching as the transition from one language to another during speech when both participants share knowledge of the languages involved.
Code-switching is a complex phenomenon with various definitions proposed by scholars, reflecting their individual perspectives A widely accepted definition by van der Meij and Zhao (2010) describes code-switching as the mixing of words, phrases, and sentences from two distinct grammatical systems Research on code-switching can be categorized into structural approaches, which examine the patterns of language alternation, and functional approaches, which investigate the reasons and effects behind these alternations While numerous studies have explored code-switching from a sociolinguistic standpoint, this research will focus on different aspects of the phenomenon.
In this thesis, the researcher would like to examine a narrower aspect of the phenomenon of code-switching in a specific context, i.e teachers’ code-switching in EFL classrooms
2.1.2.2 Code-switching in language learning and teaching
Code-switching, once viewed as a peculiar act (Luckmann, 1983, as cited in Auer, 1998, p 1), is now recognized as a systematic phenomenon that illuminates fundamental linguistic issues (Auer, 1998, p 1) This shift in understanding has transitioned research focus from primarily socio-psychological analyses to exploring the pedagogical implications of code-switching in foreign language classrooms.
Functions of code-switching in second language learning and teaching
Gumperz (1982) was one of the first linguists to outline the functions of conversational code-switching His analysis of tape-recorded conversations revealed six primary functions: quotations, addressee specification, interjections, reiteration, message qualification, and the distinction between personalization and objectivization.
In 1982, Gumperz provided a list of common uses of code-switching, but he acknowledged that it is not exhaustive Auer (1995) criticized such lists as "problematic," pointing out that conversational categories are often "ill-defined," leading to confusion between conversational structures, linguistic forms, and functions of code-switching Nilep (2006) further emphasized that code-switching can serve multiple functions in a single interaction, rendering any finite list of functions "more or less arbitrary," and recommended that researchers focus on observing actual interactions.
11 interaction rather than rely on the general effects of code-switching they had assumed
In the classroom, code-switching in second or foreign language classes serves as a valuable communicative resource, as summarized by Lin (2013) from Halliday (1994) This practice helps teachers and students achieve three key purposes through what Halliday termed "metafunctions." The first, ideational metafunctions, involves teachers using students' L1 to translate or clarify essential L2 terms, thereby aiding students with lower proficiency in accessing the L2 curriculum The second, textual metafunctions, occurs when teachers employ L1 to indicate topic changes or transitions between activities Lastly, interpersonal metafunctions allow the use of L1 to negotiate shifts in roles, identities, and social distance, while also appealing to shared cultural values and institutional norms.
Ferguson (2003) categorizes teachers' code-switching into three main functions: curriculum access, classroom management discourse, and interpersonal relations He highlights that teachers use code-switching to clarify text meanings and annotate key terms for students struggling with English, aligning with Halliday's ideational metafunctions This practice is crucial for enabling access to English medium content and supporting knowledge construction for students with limited English proficiency Additionally, code-switching is utilized in managing classroom discourse, particularly when teachers need to facilitate communication effectively.
Classroom code-switching serves multiple functions, including guiding students to behave appropriately, managing latecomers, and fostering student contributions According to Merritt, Cleghorn, Abagi, and Bunyi (1992), it acts as an "attention-focusing device" that helps teachers redirect students' focus or alter their activities Additionally, code-switching can enhance rapport with individual students, promote personal warmth, encourage greater involvement, and facilitate the negotiation of different identities within the classroom.
Before Ferguson's (2003) typologies, V Cook (2001) highlighted several positive uses of L1 in L2 teaching and learning, including aiding teachers in conveying meaning, explaining grammar, and organizing classes, as well as supporting students in collaborative learning and individual strategies In his article's conclusion, Cook offers suggestions for effectively utilizing L1 to benefit both teachers and students.
- to provide a short-cut for giving instructions and explanations where the cost of the L2 is too great
- to build up interlinked L1 and L2 knowledge in the students’ minds
- to carry out learning tasks through collaborative dialogue with fellow students
- to develop L2 activities such as code-switching for later real-life use
In summary, code-switching can fulfill various roles in classroom environments across different educational levels when employed selectively and thoughtfully by educators, as noted by Adendorff (1993).
“Code-switching is in fact highly functional, though mostly subconscious It is a communicative resource which enables
13 teachers and pupils to accomplish a considerable number and range of social and educational objectives.”
While numerous studies highlight the benefits of code-switching, attitudes towards the use of the first language (L1) in educational contexts vary among classroom participants This topic will be explored in the following section.
Opinions on L1 use in L2 learning and teaching
2.3.1 Arguments against L1 use in EFL classrooms
Critics of L1 usage in language teaching emerged with the development of various teaching methodologies The Grammar-Translation method advocates for L1 in L2 classrooms, emphasizing translation as a key instructional tool In contrast, the Direct Method and Audio-lingual approach discourage L1 use, positing that second language acquisition should mimic first language learning, focusing on oral interaction, minimal grammatical analysis, and the exclusion of translation (Miles, 2004).
The 1961 conference report from Makerere University in Uganda advocated for the exclusive use of the target language in L2 classrooms, emphasizing five key principles: (1) English is most effectively taught in a monolingual environment; (2) the ideal English teacher is a native speaker; (3) early exposure to English leads to better outcomes; (4) increased instruction in English results in improved proficiency.
The extensive use of other languages can lead to a decline in English standards, a concept outlined as the "five fallacies" of modern English language teaching by Phillipson (1992, p 185) Despite being labeled as fallacies, the implications and influence of these ideas are significant and far-reaching.
The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach, introduced in the 1970s, has significantly influenced global language teaching practices by prioritizing communicative competence over traditional grammar instruction.
14 competence CLT’s proponents also support the use of L2 as a main medium of instruction in classrooms, although a judicious use of L1 is acceptable to a certain degree (Larsen-Freeman, 2000)
In conclusion, the primary objections to incorporating learners' mother tongue in second language acquisition stem from two key beliefs: that the first language (L1) may interfere with the learning of the second language (L2), and that increased exposure to the target language in the classroom enhances language acquisition.
2.3.2 Arguments in favor of L1 use in EFL classrooms
The debate over the use of students' mother tongue (L1) in English language classrooms has persisted for decades While some advocate against L1 use in EFL settings, many theorists and researchers support its inclusion, highlighting the various benefits it offers to both learners and teachers in diverse contexts.
In his influential article “The mother tongue in the classroom: A neglected resource?”, Atkinson (1987) highlights the advantages of using the mother tongue in education He notes that translation techniques are often seen as the preferred learning strategies by most learners (p 242) Additionally, the mother tongue enables learners to express themselves fully (Bolitho, 1983, as cited in Atkinson, 1987) Utilizing the first language can also lead to more efficient classroom time, particularly for explaining complex vocabulary and grammar Atkinson's experiments reveal several beneficial uses of L1, including eliciting language, checking comprehension, giving instructions, fostering cooperation among learners, discussing classroom methodology, and reinforcing language, especially at early learning stages.
Sharing the opinions on L1 use with Atkinson, Auerbach (1993) concluded:
“Starting with the L1 provides a sense of security and validates the learners’ lived
Research indicates that allowing learners to express themselves through their first language (L1) can enhance their willingness to experiment with English Schweers (1999) emphasizes the important role of L1 in the second language (L2) classroom, noting that a significant majority of monolingual Spanish-speaking students in Puerto Rico (88.7%) support the use of Spanish in their English classes Furthermore, 86% of these students prefer their teachers to use Spanish to clarify challenging concepts These findings suggest that incorporating L1 in the classroom fosters positive attitudes towards learning English by improving comprehension.
V Cook (2001) also expresses his support for L1 use in the classroom According to him, there are many ways of using L1 positively in teaching and learning the L2 More specifically, teachers can employ students’ L1 for conveying and checking meaning of words or sentences, explaining grammar, organizing tasks, maintaining classroom discipline, gaining contact with individual students, and testing For students, on the other hand, their use of L1 can be regarded as part of their collaborative learning and individual strategy use, both inside and outside the classroom, through the use of bilingual dictionaries or watching L2 films with L1 subtitles, etc The author also provides several suggestions for the first language to be “deliberately and systematically used in the classroom” (V Cook, 2001, p 418)
In his 1992 article, Harbord emphasizes the importance of using the mother tongue (L1) in language teaching, arguing that it enhances clarity and flexibility in thinking He highlights that incorporating L1 not only benefits teachers but also raises students' awareness of the natural interplay between their first language and the target language (L2) during the language acquisition process.
In summary, the benefits of utilizing L1 in language learning are significant, as highlighted by Nation (2003), who notes that the objections raised against L1 usage are equally applicable to the use of visual aids such as pictures and real objects.
The use of photographs, realia, and actions is essential in teaching English and other foreign languages It is important to recognize the value of the first language (L1) as a useful tool in this process, but it should be utilized judiciously to avoid overreliance.
Learners and teachers’ attitudes towards code-switching in different EFL
The debate over the inclusion of L1 in L2 classrooms remains unresolved, as highlighted in the literature review Over the past twenty years, numerous studies have been conducted by scholars in second language acquisition to explore the perspectives of both learners and teachers on this topic.
Research indicates that both teachers and students believe the use of the mother tongue (Spanish) in English classes is beneficial, as it positively impacts the English learning process (Schweers, 1999) Supporting this, Brooks-Lewis (2009) highlights that incorporating L1 (Spanish) in foreign language education reduces anxiety, fosters a supportive learning environment, and enhances social skills Additionally, a study by Nordin et al (2013) found that 82% of Malaysian university students feel that code-switching improves their English learning, although 68.9% believe it should be used sparingly The findings also show a preference for teachers to code-switch when clarifying differences between L1 and L2, which helps boost students' confidence in the English classroom.
A study by Al-Nofaie (2010) highlights that the use of Arabic (L1) in EFL classrooms is "an unavoidable phenomenon" (p 77), with teachers often resorting to L1 for beginners and low-achieving students, particularly when explaining grammar, introducing vocabulary, and giving exam instructions Most student participants support the systematic use of Arabic and wish to practice the new language Similarly, Jingxia (2010) found that code-switching among teachers is prevalent in EFL classrooms across three Chinese universities, with both teachers and students viewing it positively as an effective strategy that enhances learning outcomes.
Nazary (2008) conducted a survey on Iranian university students' attitudes towards the role of L1 in L2 acquisition, revealing that students across all proficiency levels (Elementary, Intermediate, and Advanced) are generally reluctant to use their mother tongue (Farsi) in English classrooms and prefer that teachers refrain from using L1 as well This finding contradicts previous studies that highlight the significance of L1 in EFL contexts Similarly, Cheng (2013) found that while Chinese college English teachers recognize the prevalence of Chinese in EFL classrooms, they do not view L1 as a valuable pedagogical tool, advocating instead for a target-language only approach to foster an authentic learning environment In contrast, Mohebbi and Alavi (2014) suggest that L1 (Persian or Farsi) can be effectively utilized in English classrooms, recommending a balanced approach between L1 and L2 use to enhance the learning experience.
A study by Khati (2011) in Nepal highlights that secondary students from government-funded schools, who have a limited English background, tend to rely more on their mother tongue, Nepali, compared to their peers in private English-medium schools This reliance stems from their shyness in large classes and difficulty in articulating complex ideas in English Additionally, the findings indicate that English teachers favor using Nepali and do not actively promote the use of English in the classroom.
Research indicates that code-switching, or the use of the mother tongue (L1) in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms, is generally supported by both teachers and learners While the frequency and extent of L1 usage may differ, it serves several important purposes: it helps students feel less lost in their English lessons, fosters positive attitudes towards learning, and allows them to express themselves when their English proficiency is limited These findings affirm the benefits of code-switching in various EFL contexts, suggesting that this practice should not be abandoned As noted by Turnbull (2001), maximizing the use of the target language (TL) does not preclude the beneficial use of L1 by teachers.
The next section will review the literature on the practice of code-switching in EFL classrooms in the Vietnamese context, where this study was conducted.
Code-switching in English classrooms in Vietnam
The use of students' mother tongue, or L1, in teaching a second language is a common practice worldwide, including in Vietnam Based on personal observations, it is evident that Vietnamese teachers of English frequently utilize L1, specifically Vietnamese, considering it a vital teaching resource.
The phenomenon is present across all educational levels, from elementary schools to higher education institutions, though perspectives on it may vary between teachers and learners Recent local studies have aimed to enhance understanding of this issue.
In their 2014 paper, Bui and Nguyen highlight several reasons for teachers' use of L1 (Vietnamese) in communicative English classes Firstly, teachers prioritize ensuring that students comprehend instructions, particularly in large, mixed-level classes Secondly, to effectively cover the curriculum within a limited timeframe, translation from English to Vietnamese proves beneficial Lastly, teachers often rely on Vietnamese when they are unprepared for class, such as lacking necessary teaching aids like visuals or video clips.
The use of the mother tongue (L1) in English language teaching offers several advantages, primarily aiding teachers in enhancing students' comprehension to improve examination performance Many educators, particularly in Southeast Asia, including Vietnam, often rely on their native language to address their limitations in English proficiency This reliance is justified, as numerous teachers face challenges in language competency Furthermore, employing Vietnamese in the classroom helps to alleviate tension, engage students, foster a positive learning environment, and save instructional time Consequently, these insights underscore the benefits of L1 in second language (L2) teaching, with a majority of teachers expressing favorable views on incorporating Vietnamese in English lessons.
In a study by Nguyen, T B H., Jang, and Yang (2010) on the English-Only policy in Vietnamese EFL classrooms, over 55% of student participants reported negative attitudes towards this approach They indicated that the policy hindered their learning experience and negatively impacted their English acquisition, as it obstructed thorough comprehension and limited full participation in class activities.
A study by Nguyen et al (2010) highlights that approximately 70% of students support the use of their first language (L1) as a supplementary tool in teaching and learning This finding aligns with Schweers's (1999) assertion that L1 plays a significant role in the educational process, suggesting that it can help alleviate psychological barriers in language acquisition.
“necessary and facilitating role” in the L2 classroom (p 6)
A study by Kieu, H K A (2010) explored Vietnamese university teachers' attitudes towards incorporating Vietnamese in English Language Teaching (ELT) The findings advocate for the careful use of the mother tongue in specific ELT contexts, particularly for explaining new vocabulary, including technical and abstract terms The research concludes that while L1 can be an effective resource in ELT classrooms, it should be used judiciously and tailored to the unique context of each class.
Pham (2015) conducted a study involving five groups of Vietnamese undergraduate students enrolled in an English for Business Communication course The findings indicate that most participants view their teachers' code-switching positively, as it aids their comprehension of subject content, particularly business concepts, and enhances their understanding of English language features, including phonetic rules and pragmatic aspects Additionally, many students feel that code-switching fosters their engagement in the learning process, creates a low-stress classroom environment, and supports their language production, such as improving word choices for translation tasks and proper English grammar usage However, students also express a preference for limited code-switching, recognizing that excessive use could hinder their language learning and impede their autonomy.
Most recently, in Nguyen, T B.’s (2017) study on the effectiveness of teachers’ code-switching on students’ reading comprehension, the result indicates
The use of code-switching by teachers significantly enhances students' comprehension of reading texts, as evidenced by the superior performance of the experimental group taught in both English and Vietnamese compared to the control group in an English-only setting Students expressed a preference for their teacher to utilize both languages to aid their understanding of complex vocabulary and concepts, clarify key sections, and share learning strategies However, most students from both groups did not favor the use of Vietnamese for classroom management, as they were accustomed to English in those contexts from their high school experience.
Research in the Vietnamese context has shown that incorporating students' first language (L1) in second language (L2) learning is beneficial and does not hinder their acquisition of English Both teachers and students express positive attitudes towards using Vietnamese in the classroom, recognizing its advantages These findings align with the views of esteemed professionals and corroborate similar studies conducted internationally, such as those by Auerbach (1993), V Cook (2001), Jingxia (2010), Nordin et al (2013), and Tang (2002).
Despite extensive research on teachers' perceptions of code-switching in foreign language classrooms, there is a notable lack of studies comparing teachers' views on their own code-switching with their actual classroom practices Additionally, limited literature exists on teachers' code-switching throughout an entire course or semester, as most research focuses on only a few hours of class or single sessions Recognizing this gap, the researcher aims to conduct a study examining teacher code-switching at three distinct stages of the course: beginning, middle, and end.
This study aims to investigate the frequency and functions of teacher code-switching in EFL classrooms, examining any significant variations It also seeks to explore the discrepancies between teachers' perceptions of their own code-switching practices and their actual behaviors in the classroom, along with the underlying reasons for these differences Additionally, the research will uncover students' attitudes towards their teachers' code-switching through a comprehensive attitudinal questionnaire.
Conceptual framework of the study
The existing literature on code-switching highlights the significance of utilizing a shared language between teachers and students in the context of foreign language instruction, as illustrated in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 Two general viewpoints on code-switching in foreign language learning and teaching settings
Code-switching in EFL classrooms
The debate over the use of L1 in EFL classrooms presents two contrasting perspectives Opponents advocate for eliminating L1 in L2 learning, while proponents argue for its benefits, suggesting that the mother tongue can aid both learners and teachers However, opinions differ on the reasons, timing, and extent of L1 usage in specific contexts.
This study aims to investigate the timing, reasons, and frequency with which teachers should use their first language (L1) in English classes Additionally, a separate questionnaire will gather students' attitudes towards their teacher's use of Vietnamese during lessons and other classroom interactions The research design and instruments utilized in this study will be detailed in the following chapter.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
Yin (2009) defines a case study as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (p 18) This study aims to explore the code-switching phenomenon among teachers in EFL classrooms A multiple-case study approach was chosen, as it provides more compelling evidence and enhances the robustness of the overall research (Herriott & Firestone, 1983, as cited in Yin, 2009, p 53).
Case studies use various methods to gather data with the aim of arriving at
This study aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case, as highlighted by Ary et al (2010) A key method of data collection involved administering two sets of questionnaires The initial questionnaire targeted teacher participants to gather their insights on code-switching in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms.
The study involved two questionnaires to assess students' beliefs and attitudes towards their teacher's code-switching, primarily gathering quantitative data through multiple-choice questions and a Likert-scale An open-ended question provided qualitative insights into students' perceptions of code-switching Additionally, data from 17 classroom observations at three course stages were collected, focusing on frequency counts and field notes to compare teachers' reported opinions with their actual practices This observation data aimed to analyze variations in teachers' code-switching frequency and functions throughout the course Finally, interviews with teachers at the course's end sought to uncover reasons for any discrepancies between their stated beliefs and classroom practices, as well as differences in code-switching across the course stages.
This study utilized triangulation in its data collection process, as highlighted by Ary et al (2010), who describe it as a method to examine the convergence of evidence from various approaches to study the same phenomenon The aim of triangulation is to enhance the understanding of a research problem, specifically teachers' code-switching in this case To achieve this, a mixed methods design was employed, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data to address the three initial research questions.
Context of the study
This study was carried out at the Center for Foreign Languages, managed by the US at VNU-HCMC The university has two campuses: one in District 5 and another in Thu Duc District Typically, students spend their first two years at the Thu Duc campus before completing their undergraduate program at the District 5 campus for the final two academic years.
All students must complete English courses during their first four semesters and achieve satisfactory results on their final exams to qualify for selecting a major in their third year Additionally, the university's training policy mandates that students attain a specific level of English proficiency to be eligible for graduation.
The English program consists of three levels divided into five courses: Elementary, A1, A2 (Pre-intermediate), and A3, A4 (Intermediate) At the start of each academic year, first-year students who have passed the National High School Graduation Examination must take an English Placement Test, which determines their initial course placement Students scoring below 5 out of 10 are placed in the Elementary course, those scoring between 5 and 8 are assigned to the A1 class, and students scoring 8 or higher begin at the A2 level This study involved English teachers and non-English major students at the A2 level, all of whom were studying at the Thu Duc campus.
All courses, except for the 11-week Elementary level course, have a duration of 15 weeks Each course consists of a single class session per week, divided into four periods, with each period lasting 50 minutes The same coursebook is used across all courses.
The "27 is the New Cutting Edge" series, first published in 2005 by Pearson Longman, aims to enhance learners' fluency and confidence through comprehensive grammar and systematic vocabulary building Each module begins with a vocabulary activity introducing key terms related to the unit's topic, followed by a grammar section featuring Language Focus 1 and 2, along with exercises for practice Students then engage in speaking or writing tasks, concluding with a "Study, Practice, Remember" section that offers effective learning tips and additional exercises for reviewing the material covered.
Students in A1 and A2 classes will utilize the New Cutting Edge Pre-Intermediate textbook, with A1 covering the first eight modules and A2 focusing on modules 9-15 This division is similarly applied to A3 and A4 courses.
The Cutting Edge Intermediate book serves as the primary textbook for non-English majors at US, VNU-HCMC, where teachers can supplement lessons with additional materials relevant to the curriculum and beneficial for end-of-term exams Unlike English-majored students at other universities, these students do not focus on single skills but instead engage in classes that integrate multiple language aspects, allowing for balanced skill development However, the limited class time and the breadth of content often result in superficial coverage of various tasks, hindering students' ability to practice each language skill adequately, a concern recognized by both teachers and students.
The situation faced by 28 school administrators should not be attributed to any individual, as it stems from a standard English program tailored for non-English majors Most students in this program aim to achieve the required proficiency level for their university graduation.
Pilot study
A pilot study was conducted prior to the official research to identify potential issues during classroom observations, allowing the researcher to proactively address challenges and devise suitable solutions This preliminary phase also enhanced the quality of research instruments by assessing their reliability and determining necessary revisions to the questionnaire and observation scheme.
To ensure homogeneity between the pilot and official studies, a teacher from US, VNU-HCMC, who taught an A2 level class, was selected along with her students The researcher obtained her contact details through a recommendation and initiated a conversation via a social networking application to explain the study's significance and request her assistance After a brief discussion, she agreed to allow class observations the following week This teacher was chosen for the pilot study due to her similarities with the official study participants: she was a young teacher with a few years of experience, suggesting her teaching style might align with that of the official participants, and her students had successfully completed the A1 level examination, making them virtually identical to the official study's student participants Additionally, the teacher expressed interest in receiving feedback from the observations.
The researcher anticipated that the informant would seek feedback from her peer observer to enhance her teaching skills, viewing the observation as a valuable opportunity for professional growth This aligns with the idea that serving as a pilot case can foster constructive dialogue and improvement in pedagogical practices (Yin, 2009, p 93).
Following the pilot case study, modifications were made to the observation scheme to better align with the realities of an EFL classroom where non-English majors were engaged in "mix-skills" learning Additionally, adjustments were implemented in the design and structure of the two questionnaires for both the pilot teacher and students prior to the commencement of the official data collection phase These revisions will be detailed in Section 3.5 (Research Instruments).
Research participants in the study
To become an English teacher at VNU-HCMC in the US, applicants must meet specific criteria They are required to possess a bachelor's degree in English linguistics or English language teaching Additionally, candidates must complete an English proficiency test and an oral interview, although those with a master's degree in TESOL or a bachelor's degree with an internationally recognized English certificate, such as an IELTS score of 7.0 or higher, are exempt from this requirement Ultimately, candidates must achieve a minimum score set by the Board of Directors of the Center for Foreign Languages to secure a teaching position, with the class level assigned based on their test and interview performance.
The study focused on A2 class teachers at US, VNU-HCMC, highlighting that most were young, aged 24 to 29, and had limited teaching experience, having been recruited within the last two years Only a small number of regular English teachers had over 10 years of experience.
The A2 level was chosen for the study due to several factors, particularly the researcher’s experience with teaching Elementary and A1 level students At these initial stages, instruction primarily occurs in the students' mother tongue, Vietnamese, rather than in English This approach is necessary as the focus is on building vocabulary and grammar If teachers predominantly used English, many students would struggle to follow along due to their limited listening skills Consequently, selecting lower levels for the study could lead to numerous instances where teachers felt compelled to code-switch, fearing that their beginner students might not grasp the lessons effectively.
In A3 and A4 level classes, teachers primarily use English for instruction, often up to 90% of the time, as students at these levels typically possess a strong command of the language This limited need for code-switching makes it challenging to study the phenomenon effectively Consequently, the researcher opted to focus on A2 level classes, believing that teachers at this level would demonstrate a more balanced use of English and their native language, providing a clearer insight into code-switching practices in EFL classrooms.
After selecting the appropriate level, the researcher consulted the office clerk for recommendations on which teachers to approach At that time, there were eight teachers responsible for ten A2 level classes.
The researcher arranged meetings with five familiar teachers to seek permission for class observations One teacher declined, citing a lack of confidence in her teaching skills, which could lead to distraction during the observation The remaining four teachers agreed to participate, but scheduling conflicts eliminated one, resulting in three teachers being selected for the study (T1 for Class A2-01, T2 for Class A2-02, and T3 for Class A2-03) This selection of three teachers is deemed sufficient, as their similar backgrounds suggest that the results will be comparable.
In 2009, it was observed that conducting a few case studies—specifically with 2 or 3 teachers sharing identical characteristics and conditions—could lead to literal replications of the original study's findings.
The selection of teacher participants in this study can be classified as convenience sampling, as only those with a close friendship with the researcher were invited to participate While this non-probability sampling method may be suitable for small-scale research, such as case studies, it has the significant drawback of not representing the broader population of teachers at US, VNU-HCMC, or English teachers in Vietnam Consequently, the researcher did not aim to generalize the findings beyond the specific sample, acknowledging that "the parameters of generalizability in this type of sample are negligible" (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007, p 114).
The study involved three teacher participants, with student participants consisting of English learners from their classes: 45 students in Class A2-01, 41 in Class A2-02, and 46 in Class A2-03.
A questionnaire was administered to students, with 6 absentees from Class A2-01 and Class A2-03 (three from each class) and 2 from Class A2-02 Consequently, the total number of student participants in the study was 124, including 42 from Class A2.
In the A2-02 and A2-03 classes, the male-to-female participant ratio was approximately four to one, reflecting a higher interest among male students in natural sciences Most participants were freshmen aged 18 to 20, currently in their second semester at the University They had all passed the English Placement Test with scores between 5 and 8, indicating they had successfully completed the A1 course the previous semester This background ensured a homogenous group, as all students shared a similar starting level of English and had only taken one English course prior to entering the A2 class.
Research instruments
Three research tools were employed to collect data for this study: questionnaires, classroom observation schemes and interviews, which will be described in detail in the following sub-sections
Questionnaires are the most commonly used research tool due to their numerous advantages, such as offering a straightforward method for studying attitudes, values, beliefs, and motives (Robson, 2002) They can be tailored to gather information that is generalizable across various human populations However, there are also drawbacks to using questionnaires, as the data collected may be influenced by various factors.
33 the respondents’ characteristics and respondents do not necessarily report their beliefs, attitudes, etc accurately (Robson, 2002)
The questionnaires for both teacher and student participants were partly adapted from related studies by different researchers in the field (Al-Nofaie, 2010;
The student questionnaire utilized both closed and open questions, incorporating a Likert-based 5-point scale for the closed questions, ranging from "Never" to "Very often" or "Strongly disagree" to "Strongly agree" (Mohebbi & Alavi, 2014; Nordin et al., 2013; Schweers, 1999; Tang, 2002).
Payne and Payne (2004, as cited in Al-Nofaie, 2010) highlight that attitude scales are effective for quantifying data and ensuring reliability Conversely, open-ended questions allow participants to freely express their perspectives on code-switching and the use of their mother tongue in English classrooms.
In the initial phase of the study, a mini-survey was administered to three teacher participants to gather their insights on code-switching in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms, as well as their personal experiences with code-switching during their teaching sessions.
The questionnaire comprised three sections: (A) personal information of teachers, (B) their general opinions on code-switching in EFL classrooms, and (C) their beliefs regarding their own code-switching in the A2 class Section A required teachers to provide background details such as age, gender, and years of English teaching experience, with most items designed in a constructed-response format to create a comprehensive profile of the participants The subsequent section included four questions focused on assessing teachers' general views on the role of students' first language in the learning process.
In English classrooms, the use of Vietnamese is essential, as it facilitates effective communication and understanding Students often switch between English and Vietnamese, highlighting the importance of bilingual instruction Teachers' incorporation of Vietnamese in their lessons is necessary to enhance learning outcomes Overall, there is a positive sentiment regarding the use of Vietnamese in English classes, as it supports students' language acquisition and comprehension.
The final section of the teacher questionnaire focused on teachers' perceptions of their own code-switching, addressing part of the first research question According to Ferguson (2003), classroom code-switching serves various functions, categorized into three main areas: curriculum access, classroom management, and interpersonal relations Consequently, this section included three subsections: the first addressed code-switching for curriculum access (C.1.1 – C.1.8), the second focused on classroom management (C.2.1 – C.2.6), and the last pertained to interpersonal relations (C.3.1 – C.3.3) All items utilized a Likert-based 5-point rating scale, a widely recognized method noted for its simplicity, versatility, and reliability (Dửrnyei & Taguchi, 2010, p 27).
The questionnaire utilized a scale from 1 to 5 to assess the frequency of code-switching among teachers, with 1 representing "Never" and 5 indicating "Very often." Respondents indicated their answers by circling the corresponding number To enhance the comparison between teachers' reported opinions and their actual classroom practices, the researcher assigned specific values to each scale based on personal experience For instance, "Never" signifies "no switches/class session," "Rarely" corresponds to "1 switch/class session," "Sometimes" indicates "2-4 switches/class session," "Often" means "5-9 switches/class session," and "Very often" refers to "10 switches or more/class session." Additionally, an open space was provided at the end of each sub-section for teachers to express any related ideas not covered by the statements.
The questionnaire was developed and conducted in English, and all participating teachers had an upper-intermediate proficiency level, ensuring they could easily comprehend the questions A summary of the questionnaire's structure is provided below.
Table 3.1 Distribution of the items in the teacher questionnaire
Main themes Sub-sections Items
Age, gender, years of teaching English, level of the class he/she is teaching
General beliefs about code-switching (CS) in
Whether students’ L1 (Vietnamese) should be used in foreign language (English) classes
Belief about the estimated frequency of his/her switching between English and Vietnamese
Necessity of Vietnamese use by teachers B.3 Overall feeling about his/her use of Vietnamese B.4
Opinions about CS in A2- level class
Clarify the content being taught (e.g difficult concepts or ideas)
Provide feedback for the whole class C.1.5 Provide feedback for individual students C.1.6 Explain similarities and differences between
Explain the content of reading texts or listening recordings
Explain classroom policies and the course’s requirements
Provide instructions for in-class activities or homework
Praise students for their good work C.2.6
To ensure the content validity of the questionnaire, the researcher sought feedback from three colleagues to confirm its clarity Reliability was not a concern due to the limited sample size The questionnaire was then administered to a teacher during the pilot study After the observation period concluded, the researcher asked the teacher to complete the questionnaire and provide feedback on its wording and content.
Following the piloting phase, several modifications were implemented in the teacher questionnaire In section B, the number of items regarding teachers' general beliefs was reduced from five to four by removing one question that overlapped with another Additionally, in sub-section C.2 on code-switching for classroom management, two functions—“provide directions or rules for playing games” and “explain instructions for in-class exercises or homework”—were combined into a single statement: “explain instructions for in-class exercises or homework.” Furthermore, the function “attend to latecomers” was deleted from sub-section C.2, as it was deemed to be encompassed within the function “discipline students.” Consequently, the final version of the teacher questionnaire for the official study is slightly shorter than the pilot version (refer to Appendix 1 for the official questionnaire).
To gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon, the researcher explored students' attitudes towards their teachers' code-switching in English classes A questionnaire was developed and administered to students in each class at the conclusion of the course.
The structure of the student questionnaire has four main parts: (A) the student
The study involved 37 respondents who provided background information, including age, gender, major, years of English learning, and current class level It examined students' general feelings and attitudes towards teachers' code-switching in English classrooms, alongside their additional comments on the practice Section A focused on personal details, while Section B mirrored the teacher questionnaire to explore students' beliefs about code-switching in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) settings.
Section C of the student questionnaire is crucial as it investigates students' attitudes towards their teacher's code-switching in the A2-level class Previous studies that influenced the questionnaire design only addressed limited aspects of attitude, resulting in incomplete assessments Attitude is a multifaceted concept, encompassing various elements including personality, beliefs, values, behaviors, and motivations (Pickens).
According to Gardner (1985), an individual's attitude is defined as an evaluative reaction to a referent, based on their beliefs or opinions Pickens (2005) simplifies this by describing attitude as a mindset or tendency to act in a certain way influenced by personal experience and temperament Similarly, Zimbardo and Ebbesen (1969, as cited in Liu, 2009) identified three components of attitude: affect, cognition, and behavior, which aligns with Pickens' tri-component model of attitudes encompassing feelings, beliefs, and actions.
Data collection procedure
From the 12th to 22nd of September, 2016, the pilot study was conducted at
US, VNU-HCMC, Linh Trung Campus with the total of two observations Due to
The research aimed to investigate the changes in teachers' code-switching throughout the entire course However, the main study could not be conducted immediately after the pilot study due to the timing of the first semester of the academic year.
2016 – 2017 had already started Therefore, it was scheduled to take place in the second semester of this school year
Two weeks prior to the start of the second semester, the researcher collaborated with the office clerk to obtain the list of teachers responsible for A2 level classes Ultimately, three teachers and their respective students were selected for the study, with data collection occurring from February 23 to June 2, 2017 Each class met weekly, and to assess changes in teachers' code-switching at different stages of the course, the researcher focused on specific observations rather than the entire 15-week duration, utilizing the seven modules from the New Cutting Edge Pre-intermediate course as a reference.
The researcher selected modules 9, 12, and 15 from the intermediate textbook for observation, as these modules represent different stages of teaching in the A2 level course offered by the Center for Foreign Languages at US, VNU-HCMC Each module is typically taught over two class meetings per week, totaling four periods The chosen modules, spaced by a two-module interval, effectively illustrate the progression of the course, which only covers the latter half of the textbook's content Table 3.4 provides an overview of the selected teaching modules and the administration of research instruments.
A week after the observation phase ended, the teacher and student questionnaires were distributed to the participants Before sending out the student
Table 3.4 The timeline for the data collection process in the official study
Instruments Teaching content Class Time of administration
A2-01 Feb 23 & Mar 02, 2017 A2-02 Feb 24 & Mar 03, 2017 A2-03 Feb 24 & Mar 03, 2017 Module 12
A2-01 Mar 30 & Apr 13, 2017 A2-02 Mar 31 & Apr 07, 2017 A2-03 Apr 07 & 14, 2017 Module 15
A2-01 May 18, 2017 A2-02 May 19 & June 02, 2017 A2-03 May 19 & 26, 2017 Student questionnaire
On June 24 and 25, 2017, the researcher conducted interviews with teachers, introducing the current study and requesting their participation in a survey To ensure honest responses, the researcher emphasized confidentiality and anonymity Throughout the questionnaire process, the researcher offered guidance to ensure that both students and teachers comprehended the content clearly.
The researcher utilized observational data by taking on-site notes and recording teachers' lessons with a mobile voice recorder After each observation, the audio was transcribed, focusing on the teacher's dialogue and instances of code-switching Class A2-02 and Class A2-03 each underwent six observation sessions, while Class A2-01 had only five sessions due to the teacher's (T1) modification of the course syllabus, resulting in the last module being taught in just one session instead of the planned two.
The researcher utilized insights from the teacher questionnaire to develop appropriate interview questions for subsequent discussions with teachers Approximately two weeks post-questionnaire, two teachers were interviewed in quiet coffee shops to facilitate open dialogue, while a third teacher participated via telephone due to her return to her hometown after completing courses at US, VNU-HCMC All interviews were recorded and transcribed for later analysis, with participants being informed beforehand.
Data analysis procedure
The study collected two types of data: quantitative and qualitative Quantitative data was obtained from teacher and student responses to closed questions in questionnaires and observation schemes In contrast, qualitative data was derived from students' answers to open-ended questions in the questionnaire and teacher interviews.
The tallies from observation schemes were calculated to determine the frequency of code-switching functions for each teacher in various modules Subsequently, these results were compared with the teachers' self-reported opinions from a questionnaire to identify any similarities or discrepancies between their perceptions and actual practices Additionally, qualitative data from teacher interviews were analyzed to clarify relevant themes, thereby offering a comprehensive response to the first research question.
This study investigates the differences in teachers' code-switching regarding frequency and functions across three stages of the course The findings from the initial phase were utilized, and, akin to the first research question, data from teacher interviews were analyzed.
49 necessary in this stage in order to help answer Research Question 2 in a more in- depth manner
The student questionnaire aimed at addressing Research Question 3 utilized selected-response items, which were coded and analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS for Windows version 23.0) Descriptive statistics were computed and displayed in various tables and figures to illustrate students' opinions and attitudes towards their teachers' code-switching in the English classroom Additionally, responses to constructed-response items were categorized into main themes or ideas.
This study utilized a mixed-methods design with triangulation, collecting quantitative data through observation schemes to analyze the frequency and functions of teachers' code-switching at three course stages These findings were compared with self-reported opinions from a teacher questionnaire, while qualitative data from teacher interviews offered deeper insights into classroom practices Additionally, both quantitative and qualitative data from a student questionnaire aimed to uncover learners' attitudes towards their teachers' use of Vietnamese in English classes The results of this study will be detailed in the following chapter.