VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY - HOCHIMINH CITYUNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE LEARNER AUTONOMY PROMOTING STRATEGIES IN ENGLISH TEAC
INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
1.1.1 Democratic classroom in language education
Teaching and learning should promote a balanced distribution of responsibility between teachers and students Emphasizing learner autonomy can effectively shift away from traditional teaching methods that place the entire burden on educators This approach fosters equality, empowering students to take control of their learning regarding the pace, sequence, mode, and content of instruction (Cotterall, 1995).
Democratic classrooms, as defined by Dang (2006; 2008), create a learning environment where students actively participate in decision-making regarding their education This approach fosters a sense of empowerment, allowing learners to feel valued as the central focus of the learning process.
Effective decision making, critical thinking, and reflection, along with the acknowledgment of diverse perspectives, are essential in fostering a democratic learning environment Such an environment is crucial for empowering learners, which starts with teachers actively encouraging student participation in choosing the syllabus, learning content, and materials.
In a democratic classroom, learner autonomy is fostered through a role-transferring process Nunan (1997, as cited in Dang, T T., 2012) describes "transcendence" as the pinnacle of learner autonomy, where students extend their learning beyond the classroom and connect it to the real world, effectively becoming teachers and researchers While this transformation is ambitious and not easily attainable, learners can initially take on the role of choice-makers, making decisions about their learning environment and methods Concurrently, teachers assume the role of choice-providers, and both parties engage as negotiators in discussions about the learning and teaching process (Nunan, 2012).
Teacher support plays a crucial role in fostering autonomous learning, which differs from self-instruction While self-instruction involves learners studying independently without a teacher, autonomous learning can occur with a teacher's guidance (Little, 1994) Consequently, teachers are essential in equipping learners with the necessary training and timely support to navigate their journey toward becoming autonomous learners (Nunan, 2003; Little, 2006).
1.1.2 Learner autonomy and language learning
First appeared in 1979 and being officially documented in the article
In 1981, Henri Holec introduced the concept of autonomy in foreign language learning, which has since become a significant trend in language education Autonomous learning involves a dual process where learners not only acquire knowledge but also develop the skills to learn effectively (Holec, 1981; Dam, 2000; Little, 2007) In the context of language learning, this means that autonomy encompasses both the acquisition of the target language and the implementation of effective learning strategies Consequently, exposure to the target language and the use of appropriate autonomous strategies are crucial factors for successfully learning a new language alongside one's mother tongue.
Little (2007) emphasizes the interconnectedness of learner autonomy and target language proficiency, stating that these two processes are mutually supportive and fully integrated (p 15) This suggests that enhancing learner autonomy directly contributes to improved proficiency in the target language Conversely, individuals with strong language skills typically exhibit the ability to learn autonomously The relationship is such that progress in one area inevitably leads to advancements in the other, making it uncommon for learners with effective autonomous study habits to achieve poor language outcomes, barring external factors like the learning environment or grading systems.
1.1.3 LA in language education as a process, not a product
Learning autonomy (LA) is a complex and evolving construct rather than a fixed behavior It represents a continuum in which learners transition from initial dependence on teachers to partial responsibility, ultimately achieving full independence and ownership of their learning process This development is gradual and cannot be accomplished instantaneously (Stefanou et al., 2004; Sakai et al., 2010).
According to Little (1994), autonomy is not merely a skill that teachers impart to learners; rather, it is an inherent quality that cannot be taught or learned in a traditional sense The concepts of teaching and learning fall short in capturing the essence of learner autonomy (LA) Instead, terms such as nurture, support, promote, foster, enhance, develop, and cultivate more accurately reflect the process of fostering autonomy in students (Holec, 1981; Reeve, Bolt & Cai, 1999; Dang T T., 2012; Le, X Q., 2013).
Learner autonomy is a skill that can be developed rather than an innate trait, as highlighted by Holec (1981), who emphasizes that it must be acquired through either natural experiences or formal education Littlewood (1999, 2000) further supports this by asserting that the ability for learner autonomy transcends cultural boundaries, indicating that all learners, including those from East Asian backgrounds like Vietnamese students, have the potential for autonomy when provided with adequate training.
Sakai et al (2008) highlight the lack of adequate training for learners and limited opportunities for them to take control of their own learning, particularly in classroom management and meta-cognitive aspects EFL learners desire a transition from passive to active learning, seeking more autonomy in their educational choices; however, they often feel hesitant when faced with the responsibility of making decisions about their learning (Nguyen, T V., 2011).
To foster learner autonomy, educators must recognize that students often hesitate to take risks without the opportunity to make choices and proper guidance In teacher-centered classrooms, where the teacher assumes full responsibility, students miss out on experiencing autonomy (Sakai et al., 2010) Instead of assuming students are incapable of making decisions, teachers should equip them with the necessary skills and tools to encourage participation Providing training and support in autonomy-fostering strategies is crucial for enhancing student engagement and promoting a more active learning environment.
Littlewood (1999) identifies two layers of autonomy in learning: reactive and proactive Proactive autonomy allows learners to make decisions regarding both the activities they engage in and the direction of those activities, enabling them to design their own learning paths by setting goals, selecting methods, and assessing their knowledge (Holec, 1981) In contrast, reactive autonomy involves making choices about activities only after a direction has been established, where learners organize their resources to achieve predetermined goals (Littlewood, 1999) While reactive autonomy can serve as a stepping stone to proactive autonomy, the latter is generally seen as more empowering, allowing learners to take greater control over their educational experiences.
Sakai et al (2010) discuss the concept of learner responsibility or "ownership" in learning, distinguishing between "partial" and "total" ownership They reference Littlewood's (1999) notion of reactive autonomy, which represents partial responsibility, allowing learners to utilize resources to achieve teacher-set goals In contrast, proactive autonomy signifies total ownership, where learners independently establish their learning targets and navigate their own educational paths.
1.1.5 Learner autonomy as an inevitable trend in language education
Various authors around the globe insist that learner autonomy become an objective in education (Little, 1994; Dam, 2000; Szocs, 2017; Hong-mei,
In the Vietnamese educational context, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has prioritized learner autonomy as a key goal in language education since 2007, alongside cultural and linguistic objectives This approach emphasizes not only the teaching of the language but also the cultural contexts in which it is used By fostering learner autonomy, the system aims to enhance students' self-confidence, learning skills, and personal strategies, ultimately promoting their independence in learning.
Statement of the problem
Numerous researchers, both domestically and internationally, have explored learners' perceptions of autonomy concerning their responsibilities, abilities, and activities (Yıldırım, 2008; Nguyen, T V., 2011; Le, X Q., 2013; Nguyen, V L et al., 2014; Le T N A., 2018b) To promote learner autonomy, specific strategies such as alternative assessments, learning contracts, diaries, and speaking e-portfolios have been implemented (Nguyen, T H N & Trinh, Q L., 2008).
Research has highlighted teachers' perceptions of learner autonomy and their strategies to promote it in both Western and East Asian contexts (Borg & Al-Busaidi, 2012; Duong, M T., 2014; Nguyen, T N., 2014; Lengkanawati, 2017; Le, T N A., 2018a) These studies indicate that teachers expressed their views on the desirability and feasibility of various strategies to enhance learner autonomy However, there is a lack of understanding regarding students' preferences for autonomy-supporting strategies and how teachers' practices align with students' actual needs Therefore, further investigation into students' desires for learner autonomy and teachers' efforts to address these needs is strongly recommended (Sakai et al., 2010).
Nunan (2012) conducted a comparative study on teacher and student ratings of ten language learning activities, revealing significant discrepancies in preferences The only activity rated similarly by both groups was conversation practice, while other activities showed a strong preference from one group over the other These findings highlight the critical importance of understanding students' actual needs to create an effective learning environment that caters to their demands.
(1988), the author’s conclusion is valuable to pedagogical implications in contemporary education.
Mismatches in beliefs between teachers and students can negatively impact learners' motivation, as highlighted by Szocs (2017) Understanding these discrepancies is crucial for fostering successful learning experiences Additionally, teachers' assumptions about students' needs may not align with students' actual perspectives, as noted by Sakai et al (2010) Identifying these mismatches between students' demands and teachers' actions is essential This study aims to compare students' desires for autonomy-promoting strategies with teachers' implementation, potentially revealing significant mismatches and their underlying causes, a topic that has been largely overlooked in research.
Understanding the beliefs and practices surrounding learner autonomy in language education is crucial for grasping the concept and methods to achieve it (Borg & Al-Busaidi, 2012) Researching teachers' beliefs about learner autonomy is essential before observing their practices, allowing for a comparison between their thoughts and actions This study adopts a unique approach by having teachers self-report their use of autonomy-supporting strategies first, followed by justifying their practices This method aims to provide insights into the underlying beliefs that drive teachers' actions, even if it diverges from conventional research methods.
Learner autonomy behaviors are influenced by personal preferences, motivation, and attitude, as highlighted by Dang, T T (2012) Additionally, it is essential to explore the factors that impact teachers' practices of autonomy support, which can stem from both personal beliefs and external influences While teachers may hold beliefs about learner autonomy that guide their strategies, external factors can also significantly affect their actions and decisions.
The extent to which teachers' practices in promoting learner autonomy align with students' demands remains unclear There is limited literature on the comparison between teachers' use of autonomy-supporting strategies and students' preferences for them, as well as the mediating factors that influence the success or failure of learner autonomy promotion Conducting a study to address these issues is essential for gaining insights into this important educational topic.
Purpose of the study
This study investigates the discrepancies between students' desired autonomy-supporting strategies in English learning and their actual implementation by lecturers at a university, utilizing surveys for data collection Two key mismatches were identified: first, students expressed a strong desire for certain strategies that lecturers employed less frequently; second, there were strategies that students found less desirable but were used more often by teachers To further understand these mismatches, semi-structured interviews were conducted with several lecturers.
Research questions
The study seeks to find the answers to two questions:
1 What are the mismatches between non-English majored students’ desirability and teachers’ practice of autonomy supporting strategies?
2 What factors cause the mismatches between non-English majored students’ desirability and teachers’ practice of autonomy supporting strategies?
Scope of the study
The study focuses on first-year and second-year non-English major students and their English lecturers at a public university in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Participants are enrolled in general English courses across four levels during the second semester of the 2019 academic year The research investigates students' preferences for various autonomy-supporting strategies and lecturers' implementation of these strategies The first phase employs surveys for both students and lecturers, while the second phase includes semi-structured interviews with lecturers only This research does not involve experimental methods to assess the effects of specific autonomy-supporting strategies.
Organization of the thesis
The paper is structured into five chapters, beginning with an overview of learner autonomy and its significance in language education in Vietnam, along with the study's rationale, research questions, and aims The second chapter reviews essential theories on learner autonomy, defining it operationally, and explores both student desirability and teacher practices in promoting this concept, as well as various mediating factors Chapter three outlines the research design, including the context, sampling methods, instruments, participants, and procedures for data collection and analysis The fourth chapter presents the findings and follows with a detailed discussion Finally, chapter five summarizes the study's methodological and pedagogical contributions to learner autonomy, addresses its limitations, and offers suggestions for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definitions of key terms
In the online Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries, desirability is defined as the extent to which one wishes to have or engage in something, while practice refers to the customary methods employed within a specific organization or context This study examines students' desirability for autonomy-supporting strategies, indicating their preference for these approaches, and lecturers' practices, which denote the frequency of implementing these strategies at the university To avoid repetition, terms like needs, wants, and wishes are used interchangeably with desirability, while practices may also be referred to as use, employment, implementation, or application Additionally, autonomy-supporting strategies can be synonymous with autonomy-supporting practices The term mismatches, as defined by the Cambridge Dictionary, describes instances where incompatible elements are combined; in this research, it highlights the discrepancies between students' desires and lecturers' actual implementation of autonomy-supporting strategies.
Borg & Al-Busaidi (2012) explored English language teachers' beliefs regarding learner autonomy, focusing on the desirability and feasibility of implementing strategies to promote it within their specific teaching contexts.
The term "desirability" was first introduced by Borg & Al-Busaidi (2012) to describe the extent to which learner autonomy strategies are valued In their study, teacher participants evaluated the desirability of implementing strategies that promote autonomous learning, such as involving students in decisions regarding course objectives This approach has since been widely adopted by various researchers both nationally and internationally (Nguyen, V L et al., 2014; Alibakhshi et al., 2015; Lengkanawati, 2017).
This study aimed to explore the concept of desirability in relation to the extent to which EFL learners prefer various autonomous learning fostering strategies Desirability is interpreted as preference, indicating that students exhibit varying levels of interest in receiving support through different autonomy-promoting strategies.
Learner autonomy
In 1981, Henri Holec defined learner autonomy as the ability to take charge of one's own learning, emphasizing the responsibility for decisions related to all aspects of this process This includes setting objectives, defining content and progression, selecting appropriate methods and techniques, monitoring the acquisition process in terms of rhythm, time, and place, and evaluating what has been learned.
Learner autonomy, as defined by Holec, encompasses a cyclical process that starts with establishing learning goals, selecting appropriate methods, and monitoring progress, culminating in evaluation This perspective emphasizes that an autonomous learner actively engages in this cycle throughout their educational journey.
Learner autonomy, which has been recognized for nearly forty years, encompasses various definitions and interpretations According to Little (1991, p 4), it is characterized by the "capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision making, and independent action." This perspective highlights that an autonomous learner can make independent decisions, act autonomously, and engage in reflective learning, ultimately maximizing their independence while minimizing reliance on the teacher.
An autonomous learner, according to Littlewood (1996, p 427), is
A learner is defined as someone with the independent capacity to make and implement choices that govern their actions This capacity encompasses both knowledge of available options and the skills necessary for decision-making Motivation and confidence play crucial roles in a learner's willingness to take responsibility for their choices The interaction between ability and willingness can manifest in two scenarios: a learner may have the ability to make choices but lack the willingness, or they may be eager to make choices but lack the necessary ability To empower learners in decision-making and encourage proactive engagement, it is essential to provide them with control over their learning, emphasizing learner involvement (Nunan, 1997, as cited in Dang, T T., 2012; Little, 2006).
Sinclair (1999) defines autonomy as the ability to make informed decisions regarding one's own learning, emphasizing the importance of developing this capacity through introspection, reflection, and experimentation, often facilitated by a teacher or counselor In this context, informed decisions refer to learners being aware of their available options in learning-related activities, enabling them to make thoughtful choices.
In doing so, learners receive teacher’s support with “situations and opportunities for exercising a degree of independence” (p 310).
Thanks to the replacement of “charge” with “control”, LA in Benson’s
In 2001, the concept of autonomy in learning was defined as "the capacity to take control over one’s own learning," which is more accessible than Holec’s terminology This ability is inherent to the learner, and it is their autonomy that influences their chosen learning methods Importantly, autonomy is not a specific learning method; rather, it is an attribute that shapes the learner's approach to the learning process.
Learner autonomy is defined as an ability or capacity that enables learners to make informed choices regarding various aspects of their education, including content, methods, and evaluation procedures This decision-making process is closely tied to reflection on the overall learning experience, highlighting the psychological dimensions involved Additionally, the support of teachers plays a vital role in facilitating these choices, with the terms "choices" and "decisions" being used interchangeably in this context.
Most recently, new notions have been added into the construct of learner autonomy: negotiationand support Nguyen T N (2014, p 21) coins
Learner autonomy (LA) refers to the willingness and ability of learners to take responsibility for their own learning, including planning, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating their progress, with tasks developed in collaboration with teacher support This definition is specifically tailored for English language learners in Vietnam, although the concepts of negotiation and support require further clarification in the context of her research.
This study explores the concept of learner autonomy in language learning, emphasizing the ability to make informed choices through negotiation with teachers It highlights the importance of teacher support in addressing psychological aspects, including cognition and meta-cognition, as well as the effective use of the target language.
In autonomous learning, effective negotiations between teachers and learners are crucial for successful language acquisition Both parties act as negotiators, facilitating choices that enhance the learning experience Teachers not only instruct but also support learners' cognitive and metacognitive development, providing autonomy through the target language (TL) This paper will elaborate on the rationale behind this operational definition, where "learner autonomy" may be referred to simply as "autonomy," and "autonomy support" is synonymous with "learner autonomy support," maintaining the same meaning.
Negotiation in education encompasses various terms such as syllabus negotiation (Nguyen, N T., 2011), negotiation curricula (Nunan, 2012), and negotiated syllabus (ệztỹrk, 2013) Despite the differences in terminology, the core concept remains the same: it involves discussions about learners' learning and teachers' teaching For learners, this pertains to what to learn, how to learn, and evaluation methods Correspondingly, teachers focus on what to teach, how to teach, and how to assess learning outcomes Nunan (2012) succinctly summarizes this as "what gets taught."
“how it is learned” which best reflect the notion.
The integration of negotiation in educational curricula is increasingly recognized as beneficial both in Vietnam and globally (Nguyen, N T., 2011; ệztỹrk, 2013) This approach addresses learner needs and desires, fostering active participation and promoting autonomous learning behaviors while enhancing learner responsibility It is essential to align teaching methods with learners' perspectives and educators' plans (Hong-mei, 2018) Adopting a "give-and-take" philosophy is crucial for effective educational practices (Nunan, 2012, p 57).
Nunan (2012) emphasizes that discussions between teachers and students regarding teaching and learning are possible at any stage of the learning process, particularly at the beginning of the curriculum He argues that negotiation is essential in maintaining a classroom environment, manifesting in both significant aspects of learning content and lesson procedures, as well as in more subtle elements like the organization of tasks, whether done in groups or pairs.
Teachers are encouraged to master negotiation skills and to help students develop these abilities as well, fostering a collaborative environment in the classroom Both teachers and students act as negotiators, effectively addressing various teaching and learning issues According to the Oxford Learners’ Dictionaries, negotiation is defined as a formal discussion aimed at reaching an agreement While the term may seem complex, it is often simplified in questionnaires by using the verb "discuss" to ensure clarity and understanding.
Numerous authors agree that autonomy support significantly contributes to the success of both teacher-provided choices and learner decision-making (Holec, 1981; Dickinson, 1995; Nunan, 1997; Littlewood, 1999; Sinclair, 1999; Nunan, 2003; Stefanou et al., 2004; Oxford, 2008; Nunan).
2012) Being the pioneer in the field, at the very early in the 1980s, Holec
Autonomy support
It is noteworthy that Reeves, Both & Cai (1999) might have been the first authors to propose the two approaches in learner autonomy promotion: autonomy-supportive behaviors and controlling instructional behaviors.
These have been consistently appearing in their later writings in Reeves
In their comprehensive analysis, Reeves & Jang (2006) identify eleven autonomy-supportive practices that enhance student engagement, including actively listening, inquiring about student preferences, allowing independent work, facilitating student discussions, arranging seating strategically, providing rationales for tasks, offering informative praise, encouraging students, giving hints, responding to student-generated questions, and using perspective-taking statements Conversely, they also outline ten controlling instructional behaviors that can hinder autonomy, such as excessive teacher talk, monopolizing learning materials, presenting solutions prematurely, issuing commands, making obligatory statements, asking leading questions, using praise as a conditional reward, and delivering criticism.
Reeve and his colleagues have conducted extensive research on the distinctive teaching behaviors that differentiate teachers, focusing on autonomy-supportive and controlling practices They propose specific strategies to foster learner autonomy, which serve as a foundation for the current study However, the two approaches—autonomy-supportive strategies and controlling instructional behaviors—are quite broad, and the eleven strategies for promoting learner autonomy are limited to a single scale of relevant items, lacking clear connections among them Therefore, there is a need for a new taxonomy that includes more items across multiple scales and establishes apparent links among the strategies within a single scale.
Stefanou et al (2004) expanded on the concept of autonomy support by categorizing it into three specific strategies: organizational, procedural, and cognitive autonomy support Their research involved observing four teachers, each employing different styles of autonomy support while teaching students of varying ability levels in a scientific subject One class exemplified low organizational and procedural autonomy support, where the teacher made all decisions, leaving students with no opportunity to ask questions or seek justifications Conversely, another class demonstrated high organizational and procedural autonomy support but lacked cognitive autonomy support, allowing high-ability students to make choices regarding assignment deadlines and in-class activities, yet failing to foster the expected level of creativity.
In a third-grade classroom, high-ability students engaged in a learning style characterized by low organizational and procedural structure but high cognitive autonomy support The teacher predetermined the framework, encouraging students to explore diverse explanations and solutions This led to passionate discussions among the students, making it challenging for the teacher to conclude the activity Additionally, the classroom practice emphasized high autonomy support across organization, procedure, and cognition, fostering students' confidence as independent problem solvers Their ideas were valued, and they received positive feedback for their inquiries from the teacher.
The most controlling teaching style should be avoided in education, while a more liberal and democratic approach is essential for fostering an environment where students can freely express their thoughts and needs Although teaching and learning can happen without organizational support, it is crucial to provide cognitive support Educators generally agree that it is invaluable for students' opinions to be heard and considered.
The authors' classification of autonomy support offers valuable insights into promoting learner autonomy However, it is important to recognize that the three types of autonomy support mentioned are not exhaustive; additional forms are also essential Furthermore, incorporating meta-cognition, which represents a higher level of cognitive engagement, along with the use of the target language both inside and outside the classroom, is highly recommended in the language education context.
Organizational autonomy support in education empowers students by allowing them to make choices regarding classroom management This approach enables learners to take ownership of their learning environment, as teachers facilitate decisions on group members, working methods, assignment deadlines, seating arrangements, task durations, activity sequences, evaluation processes, teaching strategies, and classroom rules.
2014) Besides, students’ wants for deciding their class atttendance is added by the researcher for some new data.
2.3.1.2 Students’ desirability and teachers’ practice of organizational autonomy supporting strategies
Nguyen (2011) explored autonomy-supporting strategies with 20 Vietnamese second-year English majors, revealing that students positively engaged in negotiating lesson activities with their teacher This approach not only enhanced their learning experience but also indicated that students appreciated the strategy, aligning with their needs The researcher also proposed that allowing students to determine activity timing could benefit those at lower language levels, raising questions about the preferences of non-English majors regarding the order and timing of learning activities.
A study by Sakai et al (2010) involving 79 EFL learners in Japan and Taiwan revealed that one-third of the participants expressed a desire to choose their preferred working methods, highlighting the importance of autonomy-fostering strategies in language learning.
Research indicates that students prefer working styles that align with their personal preferences and motivations Dang (2012) highlights that interviewees expressed a desire to choose work methods that suit them best Similarly, Szocs (2017) found that high-achieving English language students favored individual work, suggesting that their choices are influenced by personal motivations and interaction preferences.
In 2010, it was observed that students feel empowered to select their own working styles, believing they have the right and knowledge to choose what suits them best However, the studies did not emphasize lecturers' practices in allowing students this choice, resulting in no findings on this aspect.
Japanese and Taiwanese learners of English have expressed a desire to participate in decisions regarding assessment methods, yet their teachers have not actively involved them in practice (Sakai et al., 2010) In Vietnam, while there has been limited research on this issue among EFL students, a study found that 84 English lecturers in the Mekong Delta are eager to engage students in discussions about teaching methods and assessment types (Nguyen, V L et al., 2014) However, opportunities for such involvement remain scarce This study aims to explore the extent of students' desire to participate in these activities and the frequency with which lecturers implement them.
Procedural autonomy support empowers students by allowing them to take charge of various aspects of their learning, including the selection of learning materials, in-class activities, home assignments, and topics for language skill practice This approach also enables students to determine how to present their work, submit assignments, and engage in discussions about their learning objectives and assessment methods (Holec, 1981; Stefanou et al., 2004; Sakai et al., 2008).
2.3.2.2 Students’ desirability and teachers’ practice of procedural autonomy supporting strategies
Many students desire control over their homework assignments, as highlighted by Sakai et al (2010), who found that students want to influence the amount, type, and frequency of their homework Subsequent research has demonstrated that allowing this level of personalization enhances learners' motivation and autonomy (Wagner, 2014; Patall et al., 2010) For instance, Wagner (2014) implemented a system where students could choose from a variety of self-access homework assignments to complete online, enabling them to create and adhere to their own self-study plans This autonomy in selecting homework allows students to tailor their workload, content, and scheduling to better fit their individual needs (Sakai et al., 2010).
Nearly half of university students expressed a desire for the autonomy to choose their textbooks and materials, highlighting the importance of individual differences in aligning resources with their English proficiency and learning objectives (Sakai et al., 2010) The reliance on a single textbook for diverse language abilities can lead to discouragement and negatively impact learners' motivation and autonomy (Sakai et al., 2008; Tran, T T., 2013) The lack of choice in learning materials is a significant demotivating factor, as students often face restrictive options (Hoang).
Factors affecting learner autonomy promotion
Yildirim (2012) highlights that variations in how teachers and learners perceive learner autonomy stem from cultural and educational contexts This observation underscores the impact of cultural influences and educational systems on the promotion of learner autonomy through teaching practices.
The cultural and educational contexts in which instruction occurs significantly influence both teachers' and students' understanding of learner autonomy These varying perceptions directly impact the effectiveness of strategies designed to foster learner autonomy.
Institution-related challenges are a significant concern for 23 Iranian EFL teachers at universities in Tehran, as highlighted by Alibakhshi (2015) The lack of recognition of the learner's role, along with rigid learning objectives, materials, and assessment methods, poses major obstacles to fostering learner autonomy These constraints act like "handcuffs," limiting both teachers and students in their ability to negotiate the learning process, which is essential for promoting autonomy in education, as emphasized by Nunan.
In accordance with the curriculum, learning objectives and materials are established, allowing teachers to create supplementary handouts that remain closely aligned with the prescribed content.
A test-oriented approach to learning can diminish the significance of learner autonomy for both teachers and students (Tran, T T., 2013) High expectations for test scores often pressure educators and learners to prioritize course content over deeper understanding Conversely, low expectations can also hinder the development of autonomy For instance, Alibakhshi (2015) notes that in Iran, only minimal knowledge is necessary to pass tests, reducing the need for greater learner independence Consequently, academic performance, whether high or low, can adversely impact the cultivation of autonomous learning.
Effective time management is crucial for teachers, as it significantly impacts their ability to balance course content and implement autonomy-supporting strategies According to Nasri et al (2015), even inexperienced teachers can successfully promote student autonomy if they have sufficient time to do so This highlights the importance of time management skills as a key differentiator between experienced and novice educators.
Time pressure significantly hinders the learning of English as a foreign language and limits the use of autonomy-supporting strategies Teachers often refrain from updating their methods with interactive activities like games and music, prioritizing course content completion instead (Tran, T T., 2013) Consequently, discussions about learning objectives and activities that foster learner autonomy are rarely integrated into the classroom Additionally, the lack of time restricts any modifications to the teaching materials (Nguyen, V L et al., 2014).
Benson and Voller (1997) first proposed that culture significantly influences language acquisition (LA) development, suggesting that autonomy can manifest differently among individuals based on their specific contexts, which likely pertain to diverse cultural settings They further refined this perspective by asserting that if autonomy varies among individuals, its expressions will also differ according to cultural context (Benson, 2001, p 55).
Confucian Heritage Culture significantly influences the promotion of learner autonomy, particularly through the practice of collectivism This cultural trait is prevalent in various countries, especially in Chinese-speaking regions and other East Asian nations such as Vietnam, Japan, and Korea (Hsu, 2005, as cited in Le, X Q., 2013).
East Asians demonstrate collectivist orientation while their Western counterparts are in favor of individualism It is said that “the Japanese value collectivism over individualism and collaboration over competition” and
“Asians go to great lengths to preserve not only their own face but everyone else’s.” (Samovar & Porter, 1995, p 89, cited in Littlewood, 1999, p 77).
Individualism encourages personal expression, critical thinking, and equal relationships, fostering open confrontation In contrast, collectivism prioritizes group welfare, promotes hierarchical relationships, and emphasizes harmony and cooperation while preserving social status.
In collectivistic cultures, face-saving is a prevalent practice, leading teachers to hesitate in allowing students to influence lesson content due to concerns about being unprepared for unexpected questions.
In East Asian educational contexts, students often refrain from challenging teachers' pedagogical practices to preserve the instructor's dignity, as confronting a teacher may be perceived as disrespectful This cultural norm leads to a reluctance among students to ask questions or seek help when facing learning difficulties, ultimately complicating the implementation of autonomy-fostering strategies such as decision-making and negotiation in the classroom.
Again, collectivism accepts the inequality among people, and communication patterns should comply power and status differences (Markus
Learner autonomy promotes freedom and democratic participation in education, yet cultural variations can hinder its development In many contexts, learners may feel inferior to teachers, leading to reluctance in voicing their opinions Consequently, cultural practices can negatively impact the effectiveness of autonomous learning.
The hierarchical relationship between teachers and students significantly hinders the adoption of learner autonomy strategies (Tran, T T, 2013) Teachers maintain control over classroom dynamics, positioning students as subordinates who must comply with their decisions Involving students in discussions about teaching methods is often discouraged, as these are closely tied to the teachers' authority Similarly, assessment methods remain under the teachers' control; even when midterms are divided into smaller components, this decision is made solely by the teachers, not the students (Nguyen, V L et al., 2014) Such entrenched cultural practices gradually diminish opportunities for learner autonomy.
In Eastern cultures, the emphasis on the teacher's role in decision-making often leads to students exerting minimal effort in critical thinking and decision-making, fostering passive learning traits As a result, East Asian learners typically exhibit limited autonomy in their educational pursuits In Vietnam, implementing strategies that promote student reactive autonomy through shared authority in learning may be more practical than attempting an immediate shift to proactive autonomy.
Summary
In the current study, autonomy support in language learning is defined as providing learners with opportunities to make choices regarding their learning organization and procedures through negotiation with teachers Additionally, it involves teachers offering assistance in cognitive and meta-cognitive aspects, as well as in the use of the target language both inside and outside the classroom The study also highlights several factors influencing teachers' practices of autonomy support, including institutional policies, local cultural practices, and teachers' beliefs about learner autonomy.