VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HOCHIMINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE ENGLISH GRADED READERS: EFL UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ PERS
INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
Reading is a crucial skill for English learners, serving as a primary method for acquiring knowledge about various subjects and the world It also provides entertainment, whether through engaging novels or humorous stories Most importantly, developing reading competence establishes a strong foundation for higher education Consequently, fostering proficient reading skills in English is a key objective for schools, colleges, and universities.
Intensive Reading (IR) and Extensive Reading (ER) are two prevalent methods for teaching reading (Nation, 2009) IR focuses on analyzing short authentic texts to understand their vocabulary and grammar, equipping learners with essential reading skills and strategies In contrast, ER involves reading a large volume of texts that match learners' linguistic abilities, promoting reading enjoyment, global comprehension, and reading fluency (RF) This approach often utilizes simplified texts or Graded Readers (GRs), which are designed to enhance reading fluency and comprehension through controlled vocabulary and syntax.
At the Faculty of Foreign Languages (FFL) at the University of Technology and Education (UTE), there has been a noticeable neglect of extensive reading (ER) practices in the curriculum Instead, intensive reading (IR) dominates both classroom and extracurricular instruction The researcher observes that the approach to teaching reading has become routine, with students consistently engaging with the same short passages, focusing on vocabulary and grammar, answering comprehension questions, and learning reading strategies Additionally, reading instruction is primarily oriented towards preparing students for standardized tests, as they are required to achieve a specific proficiency level.
The Common European Framework of Reference sets clear expectations for students at FFL, requiring them to achieve level B1 after Reading 1 and Reading 2, and level B2 after Reading 3 and Reading 4 However, the pressure of testing and the repetitive nature of the instructional routine can diminish students' enjoyment of reading, ultimately resulting in decreased motivation and engagement in their reading activities.
Students at FFL struggle with slow reading, often expressing frustration over their inability to complete reading tests due to time constraints and lengthy passages The underlying issue is their slow reading speed, which stems from a lack of instruction and practice in developing reading fluency (RF) While research has shown that RF is crucial for reading comprehension (RC), it is often overlooked in the curriculum at FFL, which primarily emphasizes RC without addressing the importance of RF in enhancing overall reading skills.
Many researchers have established the close relationship between ER, especially ER using GRs, and pleasure reading and fluency development Day et al
Extensive reading (ER) allows learners to read comfortably with minimal exposure to difficult vocabulary and complex structures, creating a joyful experience akin to reading in their native language Engaging in ER significantly enhances learners' sight vocabulary and overall vocabulary size, both crucial for developing reading fluency Furthermore, reading extensively in English broadens learners' understanding of various text types and enriches their general knowledge, thereby supporting the development of reading fluency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC) Given the benefits of ER and the absence of fluency instruction at FFL, UTE, it is essential to investigate FFL students' attitudes and perceptions regarding the effectiveness of ER in enhancing their RF and RC While the positive effects of ER on RF and RC are well-documented, there is a lack of research focusing on students' actual practices of ER, which also play a significant role in influencing RF and RC.
Three practices of extensive reading (ER) can impede the development of reading fluency Day and Bamford (1998) noted that frequently pausing to consult a dictionary disrupts the flow of reading Additionally, Sakurai (2015) discovered a negative correlation between the use of translation and reading speed.
It can be seen that investigating students’ practices of ER can help improve ER guidelines so that students can take full advantage of ER.
Aims of the study
This study aimed to explore students' attitudes towards Graded Readers (GRs) used in extensive reading (ER) It investigated students' practices with GRs that both nurture and hinder the development of reading fluency and comprehension Additionally, the research examined the impact of GRs on students' reading fluency and comprehension, while also gaining insights into students' perceptions of the effectiveness of GRs.
Research questions
This study attempts to answer the following two research questions:
1 What are students’ attitudes towards and practices of using Graded Readers?
2 What is the impact of Graded Readers on students’ reading fluency and reading comprehension, and their perception of the effectiveness of the application of Graded Readers?
Research hypotheses
Based on the two research questions, three hypotheses were formulated
1 Students have positive attitudes towards Graded Readers
2 Students positively perceive the effectiveness of the application of Graded Readers
3 There is a significant improvement in students’ reading fluency and reading comprehension after the application of Graded Readers
Significance of the study
The current study represents the most rigorous application of graded readers (GRs) at FFL, UTE, marking a significant advancement in extensive reading (ER) practices Previously, only one teacher utilized GRs, focusing solely on pronunciation rather than reading skills In this study, students engaged with GRs for academic credit, with their performance contributing to their overall assessment in the reading course A diverse selection of GRs across various genres was provided to align with students' reading interests, and their progress was tracked through weekly informal interviews, book report submissions, and quizzes This research is locally significant as it pioneers the implementation of ER at FFL, UTE.
This study highlights the need for teachers and curriculum designers who have long favored intensive reading (IR) to recognize the significance of extensive reading (ER) and make essential changes to their reading instruction and syllabuses By doing so, learners can fully benefit from ER Additionally, the research emphasizes the importance of reading fluency (RF), which has often been overlooked in reading instruction aimed at improving reading comprehension (RC) Addressing this gap in RF instruction is crucial, and increased awareness among educators about its importance can lead to more effective reading courses.
The organization of the thesis
This thesis is structured into five chapters, beginning with Chapter 1, which introduces the study's background, objectives, research questions, and hypotheses, while also emphasizing its significance and providing an overview of the thesis organization Chapter 2 delves into reading, concentrating on reading fluency and comprehension, and presents two teaching approaches to reading, including IR.
This chapter emphasizes the significance of ER, followed by a comprehensive overview of GRs, concluding the theoretical section Subsequently, it reviews pertinent studies that explore students' attitudes, practices, and perceptions regarding the effectiveness of GRs.
This article explores the impact of GRs on their RF and RC, identifying gaps in existing studies and constructing a conceptual framework for the current research Chapter 3 details the research methodology, including the setting, participants, design, instruments, procedures, scoring methods, data collection, and analysis Chapter 4 presents the study's results in relation to the two research questions, followed by major discussions and a summary of key findings Finally, Chapter 5 concludes the thesis by summarizing the main points, discussing the study's implications, addressing its limitations, and offering recommendations for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
A brief account of reading
2.1.1 Successful reading in English as first language
Research on reading has aimed to clarify the intricacies of the reading process Scholars widely agree that reading involves a complex interplay of various cognitive functions According to Grabe (2009), these functions can be categorized into two essential groups: lower-level processes and higher-level processes, both of which are crucial for developing reading comprehension.
Lower-level processes function automatically, allowing readers to engage without conscious awareness These processes encompass word recognition, syntactic parsing, and semantic-proposition encoding, which collectively help in forming meaning units from decoded words and structures Word recognition itself involves several sub-processes, including orthographic, phonological, and semantic processing.
Syntactic and morphological processing, often referred to as lower-level processes, are crucial and demanding despite their classification Their designation stems from their tendency to become more automatic over time.
Working memory plays a crucial role in reading comprehension (RC) as it facilitates both lower and higher-level cognitive processes However, it is a limited-capacity system that struggles with multitasking For effective comprehension, lower-level processes must utilize minimal resources in working memory or operate automatically, allowing the majority of cognitive resources to focus on understanding the text Thus, these lower processes need to function smoothly and effortlessly to enable higher-level comprehension processes.
Higher-level processes in reading involve constructing a text model for comprehension and a situation model for interpretation, as described by Grabe (2009) The text model enables readers to grasp the main ideas, while the situation model integrates their prior knowledge with the text to form a personal understanding This interplay of comprehension and interpretation is guided by executive control mechanisms in working memory, highlighting the complexity of reading skills and resources.
According to Grabe's (2009) framework of cognitive processes in reading, reading comprehension (RC) involves multiple processes that must be executed fluently and automatically in working memory Successful comprehension is achieved when these lower-level processes are efficiently managed, allowing cognitive resources to focus on understanding the text Thus, developing fluency in these foundational processes is crucial for improving reading comprehension The following section will explore the nature of reading fluency (RF) and its key components.
2.1.2.1 Components of reading fluency (RF)
Most definitions of RF are derived from its key components, making it essential to examine these major elements before defining RF.
Reading fluency (RF) comprises four essential components: automaticity, accuracy, rate, and prosody (Grabe, 2009) Automaticity includes characteristics such as speed, effortlessness, autonomy, and a lack of conscious awareness (Logan, 1997) Accuracy pertains to the precision of word recognition, ensuring that fluent reading is both fast and correct (Grabe, 2009) The rate of reading involves the ability to quickly read texts while maintaining comprehension (Grabe, 2009) Lastly, prosody focuses on the use of phrasing and expression in oral reading, highlighting how readers employ volume, tone, and emphasis to construct meaning from texts (Rasinski, 2004) It is important to note that while all four components are vital to RF, prosody specifically applies to oral reading rather than silent reading.
Many researchers have defined RF in relation to its four components Pikulski and Richard (2005) defined RF as follows:
Reading fluency is the ability to recognize words quickly and accurately, enabling readers to understand the text's meaning It is demonstrated through expressive and rapid oral reading, which also enhances silent reading comprehension.
RF serves as a crucial link to understanding, as it enables automatic and precise word recognition Fluency is evident in oral reading when individuals read texts with accuracy, speed, and expression Additionally, it plays a vital role in silent reading comprehension.
Kuhn, Schwanenflugel, Meisinger (2010) provided a very comprehensive definition of RF which takes into account most of its major components
Fluency encompasses accuracy, automaticity, and oral reading prosody, all of which work together to enhance a reader's ability to construct meaning This is evident in oral reading, where ease of word recognition and appropriate pacing play crucial roles.
9 phrasing and intonation It is a factor in both oral and silent reading that can limit or support comprehension (p 240)
This definition aligns with Pikulski and Richard (2005) by highlighting the role of reading fluency (RF) components in meaning construction It emphasizes that these components can be clearly demonstrated through oral reading and underscores RF's impact on comprehension However, it notably omits the component of reading rate, which is crucial for reading quickly while maintaining understanding.
Several other authors viewed RF from the concept of eye fixation, which refers to momentary pauses of the eyes on a line of print (Samuels, Rasinki, & Hiebert;
Samuels, Rasinski, and Hiebert (2011) defined reading fluency (RF) in relation to eye fixation as the ability to "decode and comprehend during the time span of a single eye fixation" (p 40) They noted that fluent readers can simultaneously decode and comprehend text within one eye fixation, whereas non-fluent readers typically decode in one fixation and comprehend in another, leading to an increased number of eye fixations Consequently, more eye fixations result in slower reading speeds.
Nation (2009) highlighted several physical symptoms of slow readers, including fixating on smaller units than words, such as word parts and letters, leading to multiple fixations per word and prolonged fixation durations These readers often make regressions to revisit previously read text, indicating difficulties in decoding at the word or sub-word level Consequently, they struggle to retain information long enough to grasp the overall meaning, resulting in a less fluent reading experience Problems with eye fixation significantly hinder the reading process, causing delays and reducing comprehension.
In brief, the definitions of RF are built around its central component including automaticity, accuracy, rate and prosody In addition, the generation of eye fixations
Reading significantly influences the development of fluency, with research indicating that reading fluency (RF) can be evaluated through both oral and silent reading This article will explore the fundamental differences between these two reading types and determine which form of fluency assessment is more suitable for the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context.
2.1.2.3 Oral reading fluency versus silent reading fluency
It can be seen that the definitions on RF above did not differentiate between oral
RF and silent RF Kuhn et al (2010) even stated that the literature on RF implies that oral and silent reading are essentially the same process However, one component of
Teaching reading in the ESL and EFL context
Intensive reading (IR) and extensive reading (ER) are two widely used methods for teaching reading in ESL and EFL contexts, both aimed at enhancing reading comprehension While this study primarily focuses on ER, it is important to first understand the characteristics of IR to highlight the distinctions between these two approaches.
The primary goal of Intensive Reading (IR) is to enhance readers' comprehension by closely analyzing language features, including vocabulary and grammar It seeks to improve students' reading strategies to better navigate complex texts In IR, educators select challenging short passages for students, often exceeding their current reading levels, and provide direct instruction on effective strategies After reading, students' understanding is assessed through comprehension questions Overall, IR promotes a structured, teacher-centered approach to developing reading skills.
Reading strategies are essential in the field of IR, defined as "a set of abilities under conscious control of readers" (Grabe & Stoller, 2013, p 8), and are crucial for enhancing comprehension Hayashi (1999) categorized these strategies into two types: bottom-up strategies, which are text-driven and include methods like translation into L1 or using a dictionary, and top-down strategies, which are concept-driven and involve techniques such as prediction, leveraging background knowledge, or contextual guessing.
Day et al (2011) described Extensive Reading (ER) in the EFL/ESL context as a method aimed at encouraging students to read and enjoy English literature Additionally, Day and Bamford (2002) outlined ten key principles that guide the practice of Extensive Reading.
1 The reading material is easy
2 There’s a wide variety of materials on a wide variety of topics
3 Learners choose what they want to read
4 Learners read as much as possible
5 The purpose is usually pleasure, information and general understanding
6 Reading is its own reward
8 Reading is individual and silent
10 The teacher is a role model
Extensive Reading (ER) promotes a learner-centered approach, allowing students to select their own reading materials and take charge of their reading journey In this method, teachers serve as facilitators, providing a model for readers and guiding students throughout the reading process.
2.2.2.2 The role of ER in fostering learners’ reading fluency
Fluent second language reading relies on three key factors: a substantial sight vocabulary, an extensive general vocabulary, and a solid understanding of the target language, the world, and various text types (Day & Bamford, 1998) This article explores how extensive reading (ER) enhances these elements, ultimately fostering greater reading fluency among learners.
First, ER helps readers develop a large sight vocabulary Sight vocabulary are words that “are automatically recognized in their printed form” (Day & Bamford,
When readers engage with a substantial number of books, they repeatedly encounter the same words, leading to increased familiarity and integration into their sight vocabulary Easy reading materials in extensive reading (ER) facilitate exposure to high-frequency English words, which, through multiple encounters, are likely to become part of students' sight vocabulary As highlighted by CIERA in "Every Child a Reader 1," the swift recognition of these high-frequency words is essential for developing fluent reading skills.
Extensive Reading (ER) significantly enhances readers' vocabulary by reinforcing existing words and facilitating incidental learning of new ones Frequent exposure to specific words strengthens their retention in memory Additionally, the high vocabulary coverage in ER materials allows readers to infer the meanings of unfamiliar words through context This concept aligns with Krashen's (1982) comprehensible input theory, which posits that learners can acquire new language effectively.
Learners can effectively acquire new language skills when they engage with materials that offer comprehensible input, often referred to as "i plus 1." It is not essential to teach new language concepts directly; instead, providing rich learning resources allows students to absorb new knowledge incidentally.
Extensive Reading (ER) significantly enhances readers' understanding of language, diverse text types, and global knowledge In addition to improving vocabulary, long-term engagement with ER fosters advancements in grammar, spelling, listening, writing skills, and overall conceptual understanding.
Knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, and spelling enhances word recognition and syntactic parsing, making reading more automatic and effortless Extensive topics in extensive reading (ER) provide readers with a wealth of world knowledge, aiding in the construction of text and situation models for better comprehension ER materials include both fiction and non-fiction, encompassing narrative and informational report genres.
2013), readers are likely to get used to these genres after reading GRs As Shafizadeh and Sajedi (2013) pointed out, genre familiarity breeds the improvement of RC
2.2.2.3 The impact of the amount of ER on learners’ reading fluency
Extensive reading (ER) is crucial for developing reading fluency (RF) as it exposes readers to repeated patterns of letters, words, and collocations, ultimately enhancing their sight vocabulary (Day and Bamford, 1998) A significant volume of reading ensures that new language is encountered frequently enough to be retained in memory (Waring, 2000) Conversely, insufficient reading leads to poor retention of new vocabulary, resulting in the need to decode words repeatedly, which hinders reading speed and fluency.
Researchers emphasize the importance of extensive reading for developing fluency, but Day and Bamford (1998) recommend setting specific reading targets to keep students focused Waring (2000) and Day et al (2011) suggest a minimum of one book per week at an appropriate level, while Nation (2009) proposes a goal of 500,000 running words annually Aiming for one book a week appears to be a realistic and achievable target for students.
2.2.2.4 The role of strategy use in ER in fostering reading fluency and reading comprehension
To maximize the benefits of extensive reading (ER), readers must utilize effective reading strategies that enhance comprehension and fluency It is essential to adopt techniques that promote smooth reading while discarding those that hinder fluency.
Grabe and Stoller (2013) proposed various reading strategies to improve reading comprehension, primarily focusing on top-down approaches, as illustrated in Table 2.3 However, learners also utilize bottom-up strategies during extensive reading, such as consulting glossaries for new vocabulary (Nishino, 2007) and engaging in translation (Sakurai, 2015) Additionally, discussions among peers about the story and characters post-reading further enhance their understanding (Lin).
2010) Learners with auditory learning style may read aloud or listen to the audio recordings of GRs while reading
Table 2.2: A list of reading strategies (Grabe & Stoller, 2013)
Planning what to do / what steps to take
Predicting the contents of the text or section of the text
Paying attention to text structure
Guessing the meaning of new words from context
Using discourse markers to see relationships
Posing questions about the text
Finding answers to posed questions
Connecting texts to background knowledge
Connecting one part of the text to another
Taking steps to repair faulty comprehension
Judging how well purposes for reading were met
Reflecting on what has been learnt from the text
Relevant studies
This section summarizes key research on students' attitudes and practices regarding graded readings (GRs), along with their views on the effectiveness of GRs in enhancing reading fluency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC) It also explores related studies that assess the influence of extensive reading (ER) on RF and RC.
2.3.1 Related studies on students’ attitudes towards GRs
Before exploring studies on students' attitudes towards GRs, it's essential to understand the components of attitude identified by researchers Schiff (1970) defined attitude as "an organized set of feelings and beliefs which will influence an individual’s behaviors" (p 6), highlighting three key components: affection, cognition, and conation, which align with feelings, beliefs, and behaviors This section will review studies that examine attitudes in relation to these components.
Robb and Susser (1989) investigated the attitudes of Japanese college freshmen towards two reading approaches: extensive reading (ER) and a skills-based approach The ER group engaged in significantly more reading, completing at least 500 pages at home in addition to class assignments, while the skills-based group read only half that amount and focused more on textbooks Despite similar attitudes regarding their sense of improvement and classwork, the ER group showed a greater preference for homework, likely due to their ability to choose reading materials they enjoyed.
Taguchi, Maass & Gorsuch (2004) examined the attitudes of first-year Japanese linguistic students towards two reading instruction methods: repeated reading (RR) and extensive reading (ER) While both groups engaged with graded readers (GRs), the ER group read significantly more than the RR group The findings indicated that both groups held a positive view of GRs, appreciating their enjoyment and perceived usefulness Students noted that these methods enhanced their ability to read lengthy English texts and improved their skills in handling unfamiliar words through context clues or by omitting less critical terms.
Yamashita (2013) examined the impact of an extensive reading (ER) course utilizing graded readers (GRs) on the reading attitudes of 61 second-year students from agricultural studies, economics, and informatics The study focused on two attitude components: affection, measured by comfort and anxiety, and cognition, assessed through intellectual and practical value The findings revealed that ER significantly enhanced students' comfort and reduced anxiety while reading, positively influencing their intellectual value but not their practical value Additionally, the results indicated that ER had a more pronounced effect on emotional responses than on cognitive beliefs.
2.3.2 Related studies on students’ practices of using GRs
To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, studies on students’ practices of
Research on extensive reading (ER) is limited, primarily concentrating on teachers' practices rather than students' actual engagement with graded readers (GRs) This section aims to provide an overview of how students utilize GRs during their reading assignments.
Nishino (2007) conducted a case study on two novice Japanese readers of extensive reading (ER) over two and a half years, utilizing semi-structured interviews and observations to examine their reading strategies The study involved graded readers (GRs) and books intended for native English speakers Findings revealed that the participants employed various strategies to enhance their comprehension, including using glossaries and marginal glosses for unfamiliar words, grouping words, leveraging background knowledge, making educated guesses about word meanings, and consulting dictionaries Similarly, Campbell et al (2015) surveyed successful students and teachers to identify best practices in ER, gathering insights on their attitudes, behaviors, and strategies to inform the development of future ER programs.
ER The result indicated that successful students of an ER program were those who were eager to try new stories and unknown titles and chose books with easy quizzes
They incorporated reading books into their daily routine, making it a constant activity wherever they went While reading, they did not take notes or consult a dictionary, and they also engaged in sustained silent reading during their classes.
2.3.3 Related studies on students’ perception of the effectiveness of GRs
There are numerous studies investigating students’ perception of the effectiveness of GRs, and these studies yielded very positive results
Leung (2002) conducted a diary study focusing on her experiences as a beginner learner of Japanese In this study, she documented her daily reading practices of Japanese books to investigate the effectiveness of extensive reading (ER) in enhancing her language skills.
The use of a diary and vocabulary tests significantly enhanced her vocabulary, reading comprehension, and attitude towards reading By applying established principles of extensive reading (ER), she noted improvements in word recognition and the ability to infer meanings of new words through visual and contextual cues Her reading comprehension advanced, and her attitude towards reading became more positive, particularly when the materials matched her proficiency level.
Lemmer (2010) conducted a study on Japanese university students to assess changes in their reading perceptions following a 15-week Extensive Reading (ER) course that utilized graded readers and various materials The research focused on three key areas: reading habits, perceived skill improvements, and reading strategies Results indicated a significant increase in the time students dedicated to reading in English each week post-course Notably, there was a marked preference for novels, with all genres experiencing increased readership In terms of perceived skill gains, students reported greater improvements in vocabulary, reading speed, and comprehension, while gains in pronunciation, listening, and writing were less pronounced Additionally, students adopted more reading strategies, with "guessing the meaning of unknown words" being the most frequently used strategy.
Yphantides and Gallagher (2014) conducted a survey among teachers and students in an ESP course to assess their perceptions of a GRs program, focusing on aspects such as reading interest, fluency, vocabulary enhancement, summarizing skills, writing abilities, and discussion skills The findings indicated a favorable attitude from both teachers and students towards the program, with perceived improvements across all evaluated areas Despite the positive results, the general nature of the survey questions limits the depth of insights into each specific area examined.
In a comprehensive study by Tien (2015), the attitudes and perceptions of 5,711 non-English majors and 36 instructors towards an extensive ER program were examined The findings revealed that both teachers and students generally held a positive view of the program, recognizing its benefits in fostering reading habits, enhancing reading fluency, improving comprehension, and expanding vocabulary Additionally, the study identified several factors influencing students' attitudes, including gender, freedom in book selection, additional exposure to English, time spent on reading, and test pressure.
Table 2.4 below summarizes the reviewed studies on students’ attitudes, practices and perception of GRs in terms of constructs focused and study results
Table 2.4: A summary of the reviewed studies on students’ attitudes, practices and perception of GRs
Researchers Constructs focused Study results
- Cognition: Sense of improvement, usefulness of the classwork
- Conation: The desire to be taught the same method in the future
- Positive attitudes in terms of enjoyment and skills improvement
- Cognitive: Intellectual value and practical value
- Increasing comfort and reducing anxiety, bringing intellectual value but not practical value
- Greater impact on feeling than on thinking and belief
Nishino (2007) Reading strategies A variety of strategies adopted
Best practices of ER in terms of attitude, behaviors and strategies
Profile of a successful student of an
ER course: being eager to try new stories and unknown titles, choosing books with easy quizzes, making books part of their daily routine, never taking notes or using dictionary
Leung (2002) Vocabulary acquisition, reading comprehension, reading attitude
- Improving word recognition, reinforcing words, guessing the meaning of words and identifying multiple meanings of a word
- Improving reading comprehension and reading attitude
Lemmer (2010) Reading habit, perceived gains in skill areas and reading strategies
- Increased reading time, preference for novels
- Perceived gains in vocabulary, speed and comprehension
Reading interest, reading fluency, vocabulary improvement, summarizing skill, writing and discussion ability
- Improvements reported in all areas investigated
Tien (2015) Perceived benefits of ER
Building reading habits, reading fluency; improving reading comprehension and enlarging vocabulary
2.3.4 Related studies on the impact of GRs on RF and RC
In a study by Bell (2001), the effects of an extensive reading (ER) program on reading speed and reading comprehension (RC) were examined with 26 elementary English students The treatment group, consisting of 14 students, engaged with graded readers (GRs), while the control group of 12 students read short passages and completed follow-up tasks Both groups were tasked with homework, book reports, and oral presentations Text selection for reading fluency (RF) and RC was guided by teacher preferences, readability, and text length A three-minute reading assessment was used to measure reading speed, calculated in words per minute (wpm) Results indicated that the ER program significantly improved reading speed compared to the intensive reading (IR) program, and the ER group also scored higher on the comprehension posttest.
Sheu (2004) examined the impact of extensive reading (ER) on Taiwanese junior high school students' vocabulary, grammar, reading comprehension, and reading attitudes The study involved two treatment groups: one reading graded readers (GRs) and the other reading books for native English-speaking children (BNESC), while a control group received grammar-based instruction Conducted in two phases to address initial shortcomings, the research utilized a modified KET test to assess vocabulary, grammar, and reading comprehension, alongside a questionnaire to gauge students' reading attitudes Findings from the second phase revealed that both treatment groups outperformed the control group across all language assessments, with the GRs group achieving superior results in grammar.
Gaps from the studies reviewed
Research on attitudes predominantly emphasizes the affection and cognition components, with limited focus on the conation aspect Most studies have concentrated on factors like liking and enjoyment (Robb & Susser, 1989; Taguchi, Maass & Gorsuch, 2004), while the influence of GRs on other affection-related factors such as confidence, comfort, and anxiety remains underexplored Notably, only Yamashita (2013) has examined the effects of GRs on comfort and anxiety, alongside the work of Al-Homoud and Schmitt.
A study conducted in 2009 explored the impact of graded readers (GRs) on students' confidence in reading While many studies focused on students' preferences for continuing the same extensive reading (ER) methods in the future, there was a notable lack of research on students' willingness to independently engage with GRs moving forward.
The studies on attitudes and perceptions regarding graded readers (GRs) often lack depth, as exemplified by Yphantides and Gallagher (2014), who only asked if GRs helped respondents read more quickly, and Lemmer (2010), who merely requested participants to identify skill areas improved by GRs without further exploration Consequently, these responses offer limited insight into the investigated categories Additionally, research on students' extensive reading (ER) practices is scarce Two studies indicate that students employ various reading strategies for comprehension, with proficient ER readers avoiding certain techniques like note-taking and dictionary use Sakurai (2015) found that avoiding translation enhances reading speed, suggesting that some strategies may be counterproductive in ER, potentially undermining the benefits of GRs in developing reading fluency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC) Overall, there is a notable lack of research examining ER practices that either support or hinder the effectiveness of GRs in promoting RF and RC.
Experimental studies examining the effects of GRs on RF and RC have notable limitations Notably, some research, including the studies by Bell and Sheu, failed to evaluate comprehension in RF tests, which is crucial for determining if RF is attained without compromising RC Rapid reading without adequate comprehension is ineffective, and achieving RF at the expense of RC is not acceptable.
Iwahori's study (2008) utilized the same reading rate test for both pretest and posttest, potentially compromising the reliability of the results due to practice effects Additionally, the study's short duration of only seven weeks may have allowed participants to retain information about the reading rate texts Furthermore, since participants were drawn from intact classes, their exposure to English through other subjects during the treatment could have influenced their reading rates, thereby affecting the studies' reliability.
The conceptual framework of the study
This study explored students' attitudes, practices, and perceptions of graphic novels (GRs) and their influence on reading fluency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC) It specifically focused on two components of attitudes: affection, assessed through enjoyment and confidence, and conation, evaluated by students' willingness to continue reading GRs and recommending them to others.
This study investigated the strategies students use to select graded readers (GRs) and the reading techniques they apply before, during, and after engaging with these texts It identified both beneficial and detrimental strategies that influence the development of reading fluency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC).
This study examines students' perceptions of the effectiveness of guided reading (GR) by focusing on two main categories: reading fluency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC) It highlights the influence of factors such as vocabulary knowledge, reading skills, the volume of reading, and follow-up activities on RF and RC Research indicates that extensive reading (ER) enhances RF by increasing vocabulary size and sight vocabulary, underscoring the critical role of vocabulary knowledge in improving both RF and RC Additionally, reading skills, the amount of reading, and follow-up activities significantly impact students' RF and RC abilities.
Griffee (2012) highlighted a limitation of survey studies, stating they are “not good at directly measuring learning that has or has not taken place” (p 55) While a survey design could provide insights into students’ attitudes and perceptions of graded readings (GRs) in relation to reading fluency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC), it would not determine if their actual RF and RC abilities improved To address this, the study utilized a one-group pretest-posttest design to assess changes in students’ RF and RC abilities after a semester of engaging with GRs.
This study utilized a one-group pretest-posttest design to replicate procedures from previous experimental research on reading fluency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC), while addressing identified drawbacks (see Chapter 3) RF was operationalized as reading rate, in line with Huffman (2014), while RC measurement focused solely on students' understanding of informational meaning, as proposed by Cohen (1994), which encompasses the comprehension of main ideas and details.
Figure 2.1 describes the conceptual framework of this study
Figure 2.1: The conceptual framework of the study