How to improve the self study of pre intermediate english non majored students at van hien university

ABSTRACT This thesis aims at discovering the current state of self-study in the L2 field experienced by the pre-intermediate English non-majored students at Van Hien University, raising

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY HO CHI MINH CITY

UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

-

HOW TO IMPROVE THE SELF-STUDY

OF PRE-INTERMEDIATE ENGLISH NON-MAJORED STUDENTS

AT VAN HIEN UNIVERSITY

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (TESOL)

Submitted by DÖÔNG TRAÀN THY DIEÃM

Supervisor

TOÂ MINH THANH, Ph D

Ho Chi Minh City, December 2005

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

OF MASTER’S THESIS

I certify my authorship of the Master’s thesis submitted today entitled:

HOW TO IMPROVE THE SELF-STUDY

OF PRE-INTERMEDIATE ENGLISH NON-MAJORED STUDENTS

AT VAN HIEN UNIVERSITY

In terms of the statement of requirements for thesis in Master’s program issued

by the Higher Degree Committee of Department of English Linguistics and Literature, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University of Ho Chi Minh City

Ho Chi Minh City, December 2005

DUONG TRAN THY DIEM

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, Duong Tran Thy Diem, being a candidate for the degree of Master of Arts (TESOL) accepts the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s thesis deposited in the library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my Master’s thesis deposited in the library should be accessible for purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the library for the care, loan or reproduction of the thesis

Ho Chi Minh City, December 2005

Signature

DUONG TRAN THY DIEM

ABBREVIATIONS

CUP: Cambridge University Press EFL: English as a Foreign Language

HCMC: Ho Chi Minh City

L2: Foreign Language/ Second Language NXB: Nhà xuất bản

OUP: Oxford University Press

VHU: Van Hien University

VOA: Voice of America

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor, Dr To Minh Thanh for her generous assistance and great devotion to guiding me through the preparation and completion of this thesis over a long period of time Without her whole-hearted guidance and enthusiastic encouragement, I could not have finished the thesis She was always with me, critically read my manuscript and made constructive observations to help me reflect on my problems

For creating favorable conditions for my fulfillment of my academic work, I am indebted to Senior Lecturer Nguyen Huynh Dat, M.A., Dean of Department of English Linguistics and Literature, University of Social Sciences and Humanities

For dedication and helpful instructions during the three-year TESOL course, I am grateful to all my teachers

For help with the data collection for the study, I wish to acknowledge the support and cooperation of my teacher colleagues and pre-intermediate English non-majored students of Van Hien University

For help with reference works, I express thanks to the staff members of the English Research Center of the University of Social Sciences and Humanities; Mr Philip Nash, Head Trainer of the TESOL certificate course of the TEFL International English Language school, Ms Tran Thoai Lan, and numerous others

Finally, my special mention must go to my family and my steady friends for their love, understanding, sympathy and constant encouragement which have been a motivational inspiration to me

ABSTRACT

This thesis aims at discovering the current state of self-study in the L2 field experienced by the pre-intermediate English non-majored students at Van Hien University, raising their awareness about how they have been learning English on their own and helping them find more effective ways of working so that they can continue to undertake their L2 learning efficiently and usefully even when they are away from their teacher and the classroom

To this end, data for the investigation were collected through two types

of instruments: a questionnaire administered to 160 pre-intermediate English non-majored students and a semi-structured interview carried out with 15 teachers who have been in charge of general English classes at pre-intermediate level Such a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods

of survey is likely to increase the validity and reliability of the results of the study

The data analysis of the two sources of information has brought to light the reality that the students’ weaknesses in self-study stem from three main factors: (1) low level of motivation; (2) poor study habits, and (3) lack of energy and perseverance to overcome difficulties in study

On the basis of these significant findings, the study suggests the integration of the recommendations about how to refine self-study into classroom activities as an integral part of the English course Along with language learning, the students are trained to use a number of self-help techniques and the power of imagination to develop:

• An effective system for self-motivation for learning English;

• A regular routine of study based on long-term plans and weekly study schedules;

• A repertoire of judicious learning strategies workable for their own situation;

• Enough energy and perseverance to overcome difficulties in study

Being equipped with these fundamentals, the students are supposed to carry out their self-study successfully and thus become effective learners of English

LIST OF TABLES

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Summary of sample characteristics 42

Table 4.2 Learning English is one of the students’ great needs 45

Table 4.3 Students’ reasons for learning English 46

Table 4.4 Value of self-study 48

Table 4.5 Students with and without plans and schedules for self-study 49

Table 4.6 Students’ ways of self-study with a regular routine .51

Table 4.7 Students’ ways of self-study without a regular routine .51

Table 4.8 Students’ after class self-study time spent on various sections of an English lesson officially given in class 52

Table 4.9 Students’ self-study ways of learning grammar 53

Table 4.10 Students’ self-study ways of learning vocabulary 55

Table 4.11 Students’ self-study ways of improving listening skills 56

Table 4.12 Students’ self-study ways of improving speaking skills 57

Table 4.13 Students’ self-study ways of improving reading skills .58

Table 4.14 Students’ self-study ways of dealing with a reading text written in English 60

Table 4.15 Students’ self-study ways of improving writing skills 61

Table 4.16 Students’ difficulties in self-study 61

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Certificate of originality i

Retention and use of the thesis ii

Abbreviations iii

Acknowledgements iv

Abstract v

List of tables vii

List of figures viii

Table of contents .ix

INTRODUCTION 1

0.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .1

0.2 AIMS OF THE STUDY AND STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS .2

Chapter 1: BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 4

1.1 TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO SELF-STUDY AREA 4

1.2 OVERVIEW OF THE GENERAL ENGLISH COURSE AT VHU 5

1.3 LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING SITUATION AT VHU .7

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 9

2.1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF SELF-STUDY .9

2.1.1 LEARNING HOW TO LEARN A LANGUAGE .9

2.1.2 LEARNER-CENTERED APPROACH AND SELF-STUDY

TRAINING 10

2.2 VALUE OF SELF-STUDY 13

2.2.1 SUCCESSES AS AUTONOMOUS LEARNERS 13

2.2.2 PREVIOUS STUDIES ON SELF-STUDY 17

2.3 FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SUCCESS IN AUTONOMOUS LANGUAGE LEARNING .21

2.3.1 MOTIVATION 22

2.3.2 EFFECTIVE METHODS 23

2.3.3 ENERGY AND PERSEVERANCE 32

2.4 SUMMARY 34

Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY 35

3.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 35

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN 36

3.2.1 SUBJECTS 36

3.2.2 INSTRUMENTS 37

3.2.3 COLLECTION PROCEDURES .40

3.3 SUMMARY 40

Chapter 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 42

4.1 ANALYSIS OF RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE 42

4.1.1 PERSONAL INFORMATION 42

4.1.2 STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF SELF-STUDY AND THEIR ATTITUDES TOWARDS L2 LEARNING 45

4.1.3 STUDENTS’ SELF-STUDY HABITS .48

4.2 ANALYSIS OF RESPONSES TO THE SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW 62

4.2.1 TEACHERS’ ROLE IN INSPIRING THEIR STUDENTS’ SELF-STUDY 63

4.2.2 BENEFITS OF SELF-STUDY .64

4.2.3 REASONS FOR STUDENTS’ WEAKNESSES IN SELF-STUDY 65

4.2.4 TEACHING L2 LEARNING METHODS TO STUDENTS 67

4.2.5 DEALING WITH THE “REFLECTING ON LEARNING” SECTION IN LIFELINES PRE-INTERMEDIATE .68

4.2.6 ENHANCING STUDENTS’ CAPACITY AND DESIRE FOR SELF-STUDY 69

4.3 FINDINGS 71

4.4 SUMMARY 73

Chapter 5: IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 74

5.1 IMPLICATIONS 74

5.1.1 DEVELOPING MOTIVATION AND INTEREST IN L2 LEARNING 74

5.1.2 LEARNING HOW TO LEARN SUCCESSFULLY .75

5.1.3 TEACHER-STUDENT PARTNERSHIP 75

5.1.4 LEARNING CONSCIOUSLY AND UNCONSCIOUSLY .76

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 76

5.2.1 HOW TO DEVELOP MOTIVATION AND INTEREST 77

5.2.2 TIME MANAGEMENT .78

5.2.3 GOOD LEARNING STRATEGIES .81

5.2.4 ENERGY AND PERSEVERANCE 86

5.3 SUMMARY 89

CONCLUSION 90

BIBLIOGRAPHY 93

APPENDIX 1: The students’ questionnaire (in Vietnamese) 100

APPENDIX 2: The students’ questionnaire (in English) .106

APPENDIX 3: The teachers’ semi-structured interview(in Vietnamese) 111 APPENDIX 4: The teachers’ semi-structured interview (in English) .113

APPENDIX 5: A photocopied chapter from How to study 115

APPENDIX 6: A photocopied chapter from Effective study skills 120

INTRODUCTION

The vast majority of students who receive their formal education at college

or university have to undertake two main types of learning: classroom learning and self-study (also called autonomous learning) outside the classroom The former takes place under a teacher’s guidance whereas the latter provides the learners with opportunities to work independently in their own way and at their own pace This project addresses the second type of learning which has been experienced by pre-intermediate English non-majored students at Van Hien University

(abbreviated to VHU) Presented in the very beginning is the problem that initiates the study together with its aims and the structure of the thesis

0.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

After three years working as a teacher of English at VHU, I was assigned to

be in charge of three different classes at the pre-intermediate level of English The students of the three classes were freshmen and sophomores of both sexes, aged between 18 and 25 and majoring in various fields They had just finished the elementary level in English and thus felt the need to study more to pass the B certificate of English to meet the foreign language requirement for their

graduation In addition, they also wanted to develop their English well enough to look for a good job after graduation

To fulfill my duty as a teacher, I have spent a lot of time studying both traditional and recent approaches to foreign language teaching and selecting

valuable ideas from various sources in order to create my own repertoire of

techniques and activities to suit my real teaching situation

In addition to my flexible application of techniques and activities to

motivate the students and to help them develop their positive attitudes towards learning English inside the classroom, I have also encouraged the students to raise their sense of initiative in studying outside the classroom because, in my belief, individual students’ efforts still have a large part to play in making their learning successful To be good at English, students are supposed to apply suitable methods

to study more besides their class work As Nunan (1991: 180)

pointed out: “Developing skills in learning how to learn and activating one’s

language knowledge outside the classroom seem to be particularly important.”

Unfortunately, in the educational system of Vietnam, the mastery of

effective methods of studying a foreign language has not been emphasized in colleges and universities

Pre-intermediate English non-majored students at VHU share the same shortcoming: most of them have neglected to find ways of improving English

themselves because they are heavily dependent on the teacher for their progress in learning the target language The promotion of the students’ capacity for self-study has been overlooked

In such a situation it is clear that these students need to be equipped with necessary tools to become autonomous learners so that they may undertake their own learning effectively To meet this demand, this study is an attempt to help students achieve their success in learning English especially via their self-study

0.2 AIMS OF THE STUDY AND STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS

This study aims at (1) seeking evidence to demonstrate that the students’ effective self-study contributes a great deal to their success in language learning, (2) discovering the problems of learning English outside the classroom facing pre-intermediate English non-majored students at VHU, and (3) providing suggestions about how to improve the students’ capacity for autonomous learning

With this end in view, an investigation was carried out via (1) a

questionnaire to ask 160 students about their self-study attitudes and habits, and (2) a semi-structured interview with 15 teachers to find their views on the issues closely related to self-study

In addition to the introduction which identifies the problems in question, the structure of the thesis is exposed through its five main chapters:

Chapter 1 covers the background information on the general English

course book for the pre-intermediate level and on the students’ and the teachers’ characteristics; the information is necessary for understanding of the issues to be dealt with in the following chapters

Chapter 2 presents the review of the literature relevant to the self-study

including (1) the historical overview of self-study and learning how to learn in the

L2 field; (2) the value of self-study and (3) a number of fundamental requirements for success in language learning

Chapter 3 addresses the methodology employed in the study It includes a

presentation of research questions followed by a discussion of the research design and a description of the subjects, instruments and data collection procedures

Chapter 4 discusses and analyzes the research findings in two main

separate sections: the analysis of the data from the questionnaires and the analysis

of the information from the interviews with the teachers The results of the

analyzing process are used to work out appropriate solutions to the problems in question

Chapter 5 draws conclusions about the implications of the findings and

suggests ways to improve the students’ capacity for self-study after class

Chapter 1: BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

This chapter covers three sections which deal with the information necessary for understanding the issues to be discussed in the thesis The first section is about the terminology related to self-study The second section gives a brief overview of the course book used for VHU pre-intermediate English non-majored students The third section looks at the language learning and teaching situation at VHU in the educational background of Vietnam

1.1 TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO SELF-STUDY AREA

The situations in which learners are responsible for their learning and are working on their own without the direct intervention of a teacher may be labelled

differently by experts in education: autonomous learning (Knowles, 1976: 24),

self-planned learning (Penland, 1978: 15), autonomy in learning (Cheneù, 1983:

40), self-directed learning (Mezirow, 1985: 11), self-instruction (Dickinson, 1987: 8), self-access learning (Sheerin, 1989: 3), self-direction (Wenden, 1991: 17) and

self-study (Harmer, 1991: 37) For some authors, it is important to distinguish

between these terms (e.g Holec, 1980: 5; Dickinson, 1987: 11) For others, these terms may be interchangeable To Knowles (1976: 18), for example, the terms

autonomous learning, instruction, planned learning, study and direction all mean the same

self-The terminological debate seems now to have been superseded by the more urgent practical need to develop effective mechanisms for helping students to pursue their learning in their own preferred way and at their own pace Therefore,

on the assumption that there is no need to invest a lot of effort in attempting to

disentangle these terms, such terms as study, autonomous learning, and

self-directed learning are interchangeably used in the thesis to refer to the following

situations:

• The situations in which the learners are totally responsible for all of the decisions concerned with their own learning and the

implementation of those decisions without the direct involvement of a teacher;

• The situations of the vast majority of students who receive their formal education at college or university Inside the classroom, these young adults work under the teacher’s guidance Outside the classroom, they often work independently on their own This second type of learning is the scope of investigation into the pre-intermediate English non-majored students at VHU

1.2 OVERVIEW OF THE GENERAL ENGLISH COURSE AT VHU

Lifelines pre-intermediate is the second book of a three-level general

English course by Tom Hutchinson (2000) The book is most suitable to students

who want to prepare for the A-level English examination after completing an elementary course According to its author, the book has been designed to present and revise English basic structures through a variety of contexts Emphasis is placed on providing students with knowledge of a working vocabulary and on developing their ability to communicate effectively

The student’s book of Lifelines pre-intermediate is basically divided into 14 units; each unit contains 6 sections: grammar, vocabulary, reading, listening and

speaking, pronunciation and extension

• The grammar section presents and practices a structural area It involves students in the three stages of grammar in use, rules and practice

• The vocabulary section focuses on a vocabulary area and is placed next

to either the reading section or the listening and speaking section Such a placement allows students to get some more vocabulary items for their practice

• The reading section aims to develop students’ reading skills through various types of exercises and to extend their store of vocabulary and structure beyond the given grammar and vocabulary sections

• The listening and speaking section, which is accompanied by a number

of class cassettes, deals with everyday spoken language in common

situations It is frequently followed by “conversation pieces”, which

present and give practice to useful expressions

• The pronunciation section focuses on various aspects of pronunciation such as English sounds, word and sentence stress, intonation and word linking

• The extension section enables students to further their practice of grammar and vocabulary via a number of different skill areas which are based on a topic closely related to the theme of the unit At the end of the course, the students are expected to be able to study Lifelines Intermediate to develop their language knowledge and to consolidate what they already know in preparation for the B-level English examination

In addition, Lifelines pre-intermediate is appended with a part called

“Reflecting on learning” This section gives students opportunities to think about

their ways of learning and suggests on how they can work more effectively

To maximize the power of Lifelines pre-intermediate, the student ‘ s book

is accompanied by a workbook The workbook gives further practice to vocabulary and grammar The teacher’s book contains teaching notes which provide guidance for treating each section step by step, helping the teacher make the most of the student’s book

Lifelines pre-intermediate exemplifies the learner-centered materials It has

been designed to present and practice the language in contexts that are relevant to modern young adults’ interests and lifestyles and to use discovery techniques to

solve problems concerning language and language learning methods as well The author suggests an approach that accords with progressive views on education as a process of discovery through problem solving tasks to promote the learners’ autonomy in their learning

1.3 LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING SITUATION AT VHU

In the beginning, in response to VHU leaders’ request, the teaching staff strictly followed the suggestions provided in the teacher’s book to perform their duties However, the author ‘s recommendations gradually proved to be inappropriate

Firstly, the discovery techniques did not work well partly because they were very time-consuming The students at VHU were not accustomed to reading

or listening to a text and then discovering how the languages work In this way, it took a lot of time to deal with all the sections of a lesson while the students got confused and simply failed to understand the given lesson It was impossible to finish the course within 180 class hours as scheduled

Secondly, using nothing but English to teach at the pre-intermediate level caused difficulty to the students Before entering VHU, most of them spent seven years’ learning English at high schools During such a long time, from Grade 6 to Grade 12, the grammar-translation method was widely used in all EFL classes The students were mainly fed with a considerable body of grammar, vocabulary, and semantic information explained in Vietnamese The students were supposed to

do English written assignments in class and pass written examinations which only test their passive knowledge of the English language

Because of these prior study experiences, when entering VHU, the students expected the language teachers to conduct the English classes in the same way as their high school teachers had done Unfortunately, what they were exposed to was quite contrary to their expectations They felt almost unable to break their long-standing habits to cope with the new environment at VHU which requires their

active involvement in the learning process It is understandable why many students showed signs of boredom and disappointment

Facing the students’ negative reactions, the VHU board of directors decided

to change their policy Accordingly, the teachers were encouraged to raise their

sense of initiative to work out eclectic methods They might refer to Lifelines

teacher’s book as well as study both traditional and contemporary approaches to foreign language teaching In addition, they were supposed to select valuable ideas from these sources in order to create a repertoire of techniques and a number of activities applicable in different learning settings Moreover, being sensitive to their students’ expectations of learning, most of the teachers tried to keep a well-balanced utilization between English and Vietnamese to present English lessons and give further explanation

Thanks to these modifications, language teaching and learning at VHU has been a bit improved A more sympathetic attitude towards the English language has been gradually developed among the pre-intermediate students They seem to

be more cooperative in class and have made some progress

Despite its few optimistic signals, learning and teaching English at VHU

remains essentially teacher-centered Students are essentially passive recipients

of knowledge provided by the teacher In such a case, it takes plenty of time and great patience to make students ready to accept the view that the process of learning in general, and language learning in particular is a process of discovery in which the learner’s autonomy is indispensable

Chapter 2:

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter sets out significant ideas and issues underlying students’ autonomy in language learning outside the classroom The first section addresses a historical overview of self-study and learning how to learn in the L2 field The

second section deals with the value of self-study The third section presents fundamental requirements for success in language learning Briefly, the literature review in Chapter 2 provides the working knowledge for the thesis’ further discussion

2.1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF SELF-STUDY

2.1.1 LEARNING HOW TO LEARN A LANGUAGE

The need for learning how to learn a language has a long history (Drake, 1959; Cornell, 1960; Wenden and Rubin, 1987) Starting with his classic entitled

The practical study of language, Sweet (1899) suggested that the intelligent

student should study a language not as a senseless chore but as an advantageous activity By the end of World War II, along with Lancelot Hogben, a famous

scientist, Frederic Bodmer (1944) wrote The Loom of Language to provide

students with a guide to foreign languages This book is an attempt to introduce to its readers the grammar, vocabulary, and writing systems of several Germanic and Romance languages The book aims at eliminating the readers’ fear of foreign languages and to encourage them to get involved in language learning because it is

a delightful adventure and, at the same time, a manageable task

Since World War II, several linguists have been interested in issues of

language learning A well-known booklet by Bloomfield (1942) on the Practical

study of foreign languages opened the way Since then, various methods of

language learning based on linguistic experience have been presented in a considerable number of books addressed to missionaries, linguists, anthropologists and social workers Without any formal instruction, these language learners had to study a foreign language informally through their own observation and personal contacts with its native speakers Also found were books on language learning strategies for general learners, those who wanted to begin a language course with a textbook Most of these books contained pieces of advice given by able and highly experienced linguists who had successfully performed the task of learning languages under very difficult circumstances

Time has gone and simultaneously witnessed numerous handbooks for language learners, those who want to learn a foreign language through self-study Such a truism attests to the necessity of this kind of textbooks Some of the most well-known works were written by Corenelius (1955), Nida (1957), Politzer (1965), Krapt (1966), Moulton (1966), Pei (1966), Pinsleur (1980), Rubin and Thompson (1982), Cheneù and Hosenfield (1984), Wenden (1984), etc

2.1.2 LEARNER-CENTERED APPROACH AND SELF-STUDY TRAINING

As indicated in the introduction, attendees of an English course undertake two types of learning: classroom learning and autonomous learning outside the classroom But, according to most researchers (e.g Stevick, 1976; McLaughlin, 1978; Littlewood, 1991; Nunan, 1999), the traditional teacher-centered approach

to teaching and learning has hindered learners’ capacity for autonomous learning

In such methods as the grammar-translation and the audio-lingual where the teacher always plays a primary role of the main actor in class, there is no room for the learners’ autonomy It is considered normal for the teacher to “run the show”,

to make many of the managerial decisions about who should talk, to whom, on what topic, in what language, etc To learn means, above all, to follow the instructions and carry out the activities prescribed by the teacher The learners are cast into passive reproductive roles Even at home, where no formal instructions can be found, the learners spend self-study time doing only what their teacher tells them to do

Fortunately, since the early 1970s, in almost every field concerning

education, there has been a growing tendency to become more centered” Educationists have come to realize that each person is ultimately

“learner-responsible for his own learning and needs to engage his personality in the educational process (Littewood: 1991) In language learning, with the birth of a

communicative/humanistic teaching philosophy, the “learner-centered”

environment has come into existence

This view on language teaching suggests that learners’ different beliefs on and attitudes towards what and how they want to learn as well as how they are assessed need to be taken into consideration in curriculum development and syllabus design This means that the learners have the right to be involved in the decision-making process regarding what has to be learned consciously and how it

is taught explicitly In order to be able to make such choices, the learners, however, must be equipped with necessary skill and knowledge so that they may

be in the position to contribute their part because relatively few learners are naturally endowed with the ability to make such critical pedagogical decisions Therefore, instead of handing the rights and powers to their learners in a unilateral way as some teachers may think, the learner-centered system is associated with educating learners so that they probably get more autonomous and gradually take greater responsibilities for their own learning (Nunan, 1999)

It is clear from the above-mentioned discussions that learners are encouraged to behave responsibly as they are consciously making an effort to have

a say in their learning They are also autonomous as they act independently of their teacher, not waiting to be told what to do

Such a “learner-centered” view of the humanistic tradition has led to the development of learner training and self-study programs In this perspective

on language learning, the teacher both teaches the language and trains their learners how to become effective learners because “autonomous learning can be promoted if learning to learn is regarded as an integral part of language learning,

so that learners become increasingly aware of the way they learn, the options open

to them and the options that best suit them.” (Council of Europe, 2001:141) In other words, a language program would be a mixture of class work and self-study

In the early 1970s, Holec (1980) and his colleagues at CRAPE (Centre de recherches et d’applications peùdagogies en langues) started training adult language learners to become actively involved in their own language learning At this center, the learners have to work out what they want to achieve, what subject

matters they would like to deal with, what skills they wish to acquire, what techniques they would find most appropriate, etc Through discussions, the learners plan their own programs, report to their teacher from time to time, and use their experience to modify their study plan

Learner training in foreign language settings also took place at such educational organizations as High schools in Western New York in the USA (1971), Language Institute in England (1981), Columbia University’s Language Institute (1981), and Engineering College in France (1968) These four projects can be found helpful as tentative guidelines for teachers and administrators who wish to provide their learners with more systematic training in learning how to learn However, these trainers are also encouraged to analyze and assess their own activities against the guidelines to modify and expand them in order to add their own experience into the presently spare body of information on how classroom activities can enhance and improve their students’ learning skills (Horwitz, 1985)

In addition, Giblin and Spealding (1988) described a course to encourage autonomous learning: they gradually decreased conventional sessions of teaching language and increased the sessions in which their learners had the opportunities

to become more independent, to make choices and to initiate their learning activities

In all the learner-training programs, the learners were expected to be aware

of their own strategies and tactics Interestingly, the teacher guided his learners through autonomy by giving them exercises and pieces of advice on how to deal with different learning tasks The focus of this activity is to encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning, following Harmer’s statement (1991: 37): “We cannot teach students everything, so we have to train them to teach themselves.”

2.2 VALUE OF SELF-STUDY

In language learning as well as in any other field, successful learners have

to spend some amount of time on their self-study besides their in-class work The simple fact accounts for the crucial role of the learners’ autonomy in their learning process

2.2.1 SUCCESSES AS AUTONOMOUS LEARNERS

So far, a great number of Vietnamese learners of all levels need special tutoring, private classes or training programs to get ready for their examinations every year Such unfortunate conditions reveal the fact that the majority of

Vietnamese learners completely or partially fail to carry out their own self-study But there exists a truism that all those who get good results in their learning are effective autonomous learners both in and out of the L2 field

2.2.1.1 Self-study in L 2 learning

Recently, to answer the question raised by a journalist, Phạm Minh Trang,

an outstanding figure among competent Vietnamese learners of French with

several top prizes in various French contests, disclosed how she had achieved distinction: “In my opinion, learning a foreign language does not require

intelligence or special aptitude But it is important to make the most of the time outside the classroom to practice and review it regularly.” (Kim Hoàng, 2004: 12)

Similarly, Lê Phạm Khánh Trình, a student of civil engineering at the University of Southern Florida, and the only overseas Vietnamese student with his name recorded in the U.S.A national dean’s list, revealed his secret of how to get a high level of proficiency in English: “When I was in Vietnam, my parents sent me

to some foreign language centers to learn English, but my English was not good Now, by making the most of the opportunities I have to practice listening,

speaking, reading, and writing in the target language, I have improved my English considerably.” (Ngô Bá Nha, 2004:14)

From his teaching perspective, an English teacher said:

As a teacher, I see my role as being twofold One is, yes, I am teaching the language, but I feel my other important role is to assist the learners

to take a growing responsibility for the management of their own

learning Within a program, learners are with us for only a relatively short time, and we have to prepare them so that their learning can

continue – outside – erm the length of their course I think a vast amount of their day has to be spent with them actively continuing learning, separate from with a teacher and with the group… (as quoted

in Nunan, 1999: 185)

To verify the point, we can consider the case of Tomasz P Szynalski, a Polish young man, who started learning English when he was 6 years old After eight years’ going to classes, his English was not good: “Reading English took me

a lot of time I made lots of mistakes when writing, my pronunciation was bad, and

I could not speak English Eight years of sacrifices and these were the results.” (Szynalski, 2004: 2)

In 1991, Szynalski started playing adventure games in computer In these games, he had chances to read a lot of English sentences Some time later, he got good achievement in a local English contest for 14 year-olds He thought he had learned more from adventure games than from English classes During the summer

of 1994, he started reading books in English, mostly novels After two years, his vocabulary collection had over 3000 words In late 1990, he got on the Internet and soon started to write many emails in English It was an excellent writing

practice Around 1997, his friend Michael and Szynalski decided to use English to communicate This decision helped to improve their speaking skills Now, he uses English more often than his first language Using English to him is no problem He can go to any English speaking country and communicate easily

Successful English learners like Tomasz are not uncommon The long list

of such people can be found in Antimoon Com Website

(http://www.antimoon.com/learners/learners.html, 2004) More interesting,

success in learning language comes not only to the learners who have successfully applied self-study in conjunction with classroom learning but also to those who

have really taught themselves Take Trương Vĩnh Ký (1837-1899) as a typical example This Vietnamese scholar could speak and write 15 Western languages and 11 Eastern ones Hồ Chí Minh (1890-1969), one of the Vietnamese experts in culture, had the mastery of French, English, Russian, and Chinese characters

Đào Duy Anh (1904-1988) was famous for his Chinese characters-Vietnamese,

French-Vietnamese Dictionaries and many other books Nguyễn Hiến Lê, the

author of hundreds of well-known books on a variety of subjects did teach himself English and Chinese characters The list of such autonomous learners in Vietnam

as well as in many other parts of the world is endless They lived in different walks of life and worked in different areas, but they had one thing in common: they all enjoyed the power of mastering a number of foreign languages which they had learned on their own, at their own paces, in their own ways outside the walls

of any school (Nguyễn Hiến Lê, 1994 and Nguyễn Huy Côn, 2003)

2.2.1.2 Self-study in other fields

In other fields, there are also many famous autonomous learners Abraham Lincoln, one of the most respected men in the U.S.A, came from a very poor family As a child, he was taught only to read, to write and to do four basic

operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division by his stepmother Later, he learned other subjects by himself and became a lawyer

and a prominent American president A lot of his speeches were considered the best pieces of writing by the American people

J.J Rousseau, had to wander from place to place to earn his living at the age of twelve Later, thanks to his self-study, he became an outstanding writer and philosopher of France The ideology supported by this French scholar has

influenced the whole world

It is difficult to name all the people who have made themselves great

autonomous learners Below are just some more typical figures in various circles

These autonomous learners had to earn their livings as manual workers, newspaper vendors, etc in their tender ages due to lack of schooling before they became the most powerful men in their professional areas (Nguyễn Hiến Lê, 1999: 43)

Politics: Doumer, Louis Bertrand, Franklin, Disraeli, Staline, Mussolini, etc Science : Képler, Arago, Darwin, Franklin, Edison, Einstein, etc

Philosophy: Descartes, Spencer, A Comte, Leibniz, Pascal, etc

Literature: J J Rousseau, Lamartine, A Dumas (both father and son), Victor

Hugo, E.Zola, Shakespeare, De Foe, Dickens, B Shaw, H.G Welis, Kipling, Mark Twain, Jack London, etc

In Vietnam, autonomous learners with erudite knowledge in various fields are not uncommon: Trần Trọng Kim and Phạm Quỳnh were famous for their studies on ancient humanities; Ngô Tất Tố and Vũ Trọng Phụng were among great writers; Bạch Thái Bưởi and Trương Văn Bền were owners of big enterprises, both gaining certain economic advantages for the Vietnamese people These few examples show that self-study is invaluable at all times

2.2.2 PREVIOUS STUDIES ON SELF-STUDY

The studies reviewed in this section give answers to two main questions: Is learning autonomy necessary? And how can the learners’ capacity and need for self-study be nurtured and developed?

2.2.2.1 Necessity of self-study

Outside the language field, the first studies on self-study by Houle (1961) and by Johnstone and Rivera (1965) discovered that adult learners do initiate and organize their own learning But it was not until 1971, with Tough’s work entitled

Adult learning project that the efforts of self-study were systematically

investigated His investigation showed that the efforts of autonomous learners were focused on the contents of their learning projects

Another national survey by Penland (1978) revealed that 80% of adults in the U.S.A pursue some kind of learning each year and over 75% of them plan their own learning The movement of self-directed learning was very popular and

became the distinctive paradigm of thought and action during the 1970s From the angle of a practitioner, Knowles (1976: 23) argued that because of the complexity and the changing environment with high technologies in our modern world “one mission of the educator can be stated positively as helping individuals to develop the attitude that learning is a life-long process and to acquire the skills of self-direct learning.”

The transmission of knowledge in the traditional education is no longer adequate because the knowledge acquired at the earlier stage in life will be

obsolescent and new knowledge can cause changes which may affect many

people‘s personal as well as professional lives Therefore, adults should be armed with the skills which enable them to continue learning on their own when they leave a formal education if they want to adapt and respond to these changes

In the field of language learning, learners should also know how to learn by themselves Firstly, an adult’s language knowledge and skill acquired in classroom

at an earlier stage in life may become inadequate due to social and personal

changes Secondly, in many cases, the time and place constraints found in

institutionally bound programs may prevent some people from going to school In other cases, individual needs may be so particular that no course can satisfy them

As for those who are able to sign up in formal classes, they may find it difficult to achieve their purposes in a crowded class into which language learners bring their different needs Therefore, it is necessary to help the learners to be aware that they

will have to continue learning their chosen language on their own once they leave the formal classroom (Wenden and Rubin, 1987)

From the perspective of psychology, theorists in adult education in both Europe and North America have assumed that the adult has a self-directed

personality: “The point at which a person become an adult psychologically is that point at which he1 perceives himself to be wholly self-directing… as being able to make his own decisions and face their consequences, to manage his own life.” (Knowles, 1976: 40) In a learning situation unfavorable to this experience, one may feel uneasy Moreover, an adult tends to get new knowledge to develop his professional career or to improve his social and/or political status Therefore, he will decide to learn what is crucial to him Through learning, he wants to have immediate solutions to his needs

These adults’ psychological characteristics are also recognized in the

literature on the foreign and second language teaching and learning

Curran (1976), a counseling psychologist, developed a “counseling

approach to foreign language learning.” His investigation of a number of L2

learners following this approach shows that there is a gradual change from the learners’ dependence on the counselor to their self-reliance and via this change, the learners assert in their language learning process the autonomy that they

manifest in other aspects of their lives

Stevick (1976) argues that the language learners’ autonomy will be

considerably improved when the adult learners’ former experience and current needs are taken into account in curriculum development and syllabus design Since there are two levels of meaning that a face-to-face communication may possess,

“it is not enough to manipulate only the more surface level facts but also the depth

level which connects what is communicated with their plan, their inmost memories and their need.” (Stevick, 1976: 36) His experiments have shown that the recall of the items that are of personal significance to the learners has a positive influence

on the learning process itself

2.2.2.2 Promoting learners’ capacity and desire for self-study

In order to meet adult learners’ general needs and the specific needs of adult L2 learners, their capacity and desire for autonomy need nurturing and

developing properly

Brookfield (1985: 36) distinguishes “two main ways” of providing adults with the educational experiences that foster and improve their capacity and desire for autonomy The first way, which focuses on the technological features of the psychological facts, is shown in the definition of self-study given by Knowles (1975: 18):

In its broadest meaning, self-directed learning describes a process in which individuals take the initiative with or without the help of others,

in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals,

identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies and evaluating learning outcomes

Quite similar is Holec’s analysis (1980: 9) of what self-study entails for L2

learners:

Let us remind ourselves that with total self-direction, action by the learner is concerned with:

- Fixing objectives

- Defining the contents and progression

- Selecting the methods and techniques to be used

- Monitoring the acquisition procedure

- Evaluating what has been acquired This approach concentrates on the self-instructional techniques necessary to organize and conduct learning events

In contrast, Brookfield (1985: 42) emphasizes the need for a reflective approach or for an internal change in consciousness together with technical

expertise in the use of self-instructional techniques Self-directed autonomous learning in the fullest sense of the word requires that adults become aware of the structure of cultural and psychological assumptions that form the meaning context

of behaviors.2 The network of ideals, values, and beliefs as well as the abstract social, political and educational concepts that are constituent elements of their cultural assumptions need to be critically examined and re-interpreted or recreated Similarly, “depending on producing psychological assumptions adults have

acquired about themselves earlier in life also needs to be brought to light.”

(Mezirow, 1985: 20) This process of critical reflection is to be directed not only at how one approaches learning but also at what and why one decides to learn

Cheneù (1983: 31) states that for learning to be autonomous, learners need a

critical awareness and understanding of a range of alternative action paths and the limits of their possible choices Finally, at the heart of their internal change there needs to be a growing appreciation on the part of adults of their personal power They need to become aware of their ability to influence, make choices, initiate action, and become responsible for the course of their lives

In his description of how autonomy can be fostered in L2 learners, Holec (1980: 41) also stresses how important critical reflection is If learners want to get rid of the state of dependence and to approach that of independence or autonomy, they are supposed to have acquired a number of relevant learning techniques as well as experienced a change of psychological attitude towards what learning is to

go through a gradual “deconditioning” process For when a learner begins a

learning program, “he has very clear ideas of what language is, of what learning a language means, of the respective roles of teachers and learner, of the materials which are necessary and so on.” Therefore, he has to reexamine his prejudices and preconceptions as well as the advantages and disadvantages of autonomous

learning, which usually entail such a way of learning

2 the behaviors that reflect the adults’ awareness of the structure of cultural and

psychological assumptions

Following these viewpoints, the author of this thesis believes that the

promotion of learners’ autonomy or self-study requires two main factors: the training in learning strategies and the internal change of consciousness via a

critical reflection The learners must be led to clarify, refine and expand their views on what language means and on what language leaning entails They should also understand the purpose for which they need to learn a foreign language and believe in their potential to learn as well as to be willing to take responsibility for their own learning

2.3 FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SUCCESS IN AUTONOMOUS

LANGUAGE LEARNING

Some researchers like Lightbown and Spada (1998) and Littlewood (1991) believe that the factors which influence the success or failure of foreign language learning are: intelligence, aptitude, personality and motivational characteristics, learning styles, and age It is not easy to explain why many L2 learners are

successful at language learning while others are not because of the jigsaw of successful language learning, the complexities of individual learner variables and the unsatisfactory results of research (Lewis, 1999) However, on the assumption that so many people of all ages and educational backgrounds can learn foreign languages efficiently, researchers have pointed to a number of important factors each language learner is able to develop himself to get better results in his own situation

2.3.1 MOTIVATION

According to Harmer (1991), motivation is some kind of “internal drive” that encourages somebody to pursue a course of action If one perceives a goal, i.e something he wishes to achieve, and if that goal is sufficiently attractive; he will

be strongly motivated to do whatever is necessary to reach that goal In L2 learning

as well as in every other field of human studies, motivation is the crucial force which determines whether a learner embarks on a task at all, how much energy he

devotes to it and how long he perseveres An L2 learner often has a motivation when he has an idea of something about language he wishes to achieve

Gardner and Lambert (1972) have suggested that in general there are two main types of such motivation: integrative motivation and instrumental

motivation A learner with integrative incentive has a genuine interest in the

foreign language community He wants to learn a foreign language in order to communicate with native speakers more satisfactorily and to gain closer contact with them and their culture In contrast, a learner with instrumental incentive is more interested in how a foreign language can be an advantage for reaching other goals such as gaining necessary qualification or improving job prospects

Fortunately, these two kinds of motivation do not exclude each other Many

learners are strongly motivated by a mixture of both

Because of the power of motivation, it is important that a learner should develop a strong desire to learn through a variety of ways: thinking of the rewards

of his success, reading biographies of eminent people in his related areas to

provide a necessary spark; cultivating an interest in the subject studied by actively putting new knowledge into practice, etc (Kornhauser, 1993)

2.3.2 EFFECTIVE METHODS

There has been the agreement among educationalists that effective study methods contribute a great deal to learners’ success in their studies For example, the findings of various research studies indicate the important role of study methods:

The differences between individuals in their capacity for work and study are determined by:

(1) Intelligence and special abilities: 50-60 percent

(2) Efforts and effective study methods: 30-40 percent

(3) Chance and environmental factors: 10-15 percent

Ability, you must have in order to succeed in higher learning, but ability alone is not enough Many highly intelligent students fail because they have never learned how to study effectively (Maddox, 1963:11)

2.3.2.1 Research into language learning strategies

In language learning, the use of a number of effective strategies also makes considerable contributions to learners’ success Most of researchers have agreed that learners who adopt these strategies are more capable of working on their own, once the teacher is not around to direct them or provide them with any kind of input (Rubin, 1987) Within the limited scope of this thesis, only a number of typical researches on language learning strategies are reviewed to support the assumption that once identified, these strategies can be passed on to less

successful learners, enabling them to learn more effectively

Rubin (1971-1981)

Interests in learning strategies began with Carton’s The method of inference

in foreign language study done in 1966 Five years later, Rubin (1971) initiated

the research into the strategies of successful learners The research results reported

in her 1975’s paper show that good language learners (1) willingly and accurately guess, (2) want to communicate, (3) are uninhibited about mistakes, (4) focus on both structure and meaning, (5) take advantage of all practice opportunities and (6) monitor their own speech and the speech of others Rubin’s 1981 description of her subsequent research classifies strategies in terms of processes: those that may contribute directly to learning such as classification/verification, monitoring,

memorization, guessing, inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning and practice; and those that may contribute indirectly to learning such as creating opportunities

to practice and using production methods

(3) Develop an awareness of languages as a means of communication and interaction and behave in culturally appropriate manner

(4) Accept and cope with the affective demands of the target language

(5) Extend and revise the target language system by inferencing and monitoring

Wesche (1979)

In her 1975 dissertation on the learning behaviors of successful learners in the Canadian Civil Service, Wesche found that these students used many of the same strategies listed by Rubin (1971-1981) Her findings, summarized in her

1979 article, brought to light that there was a greater variety and quantity of

learning behaviors pursued by those who improved most rapidly and that many of the observed learning behaviors occurred together In Wesche’s opinion, the

complexity of learners’ behaviors might be one of the factors characterizing

different kinds of learners

Oxford (1990)

Basing on the latest achievement of language learning strategies, Oxford

wrote a book entitled Language learning strategies− what every teacher should know This book provided a new typology which classified six main types of

strategies into two groups: direct strategies for language learning (memory,

cognitive and communicative ones) and indirect strategies for general

management of learning (meta-cognitive, affective and social ones) This book also has two chapters giving instructions on how to apply all types of learning strategies in order to acquire the four basic language skills Such a comprehensive and detailed work is very useful for both L2 teachers and learners at all levels

because the work offers ways to make learners more active and autonomous in their learning process

Nunan (1999)

In his book named Second language teaching and learning, Nunan

described his 1988 research into learning strategy preferences of 44 good language

learners in some Southeast Asian countries The data for the investigation came from a questionnaire and a follow-up interview The subjects were asked to record what they found most and least helpful in learning English as a foreign language

According to Nunan (1999: 59), the most striking thing about this study was the fact that, despite the diverse contexts and environments of L2 learning, the subjects all agreed that formal classroom instruction was insufficient “Motivation,

a preparedness to take risks, and the determination to apply their developing

language skills outside the classroom characterized most of the responses from these good language learners.”

From the above considerations, it seems that successful language learners employ a wide variety of strategies which demonstrate, above all, their active involvement in learning For example, in class, they may repeat silently to

themselves the sounds they hear from their teacher or classmates When the

teacher puts a question to another learner, they often think out their own answer and compare it with the answer accepted by the teacher When learning or

producing dialogues, they make efforts to give support to the roles they play and

to pay close attention to the meaning of the language they are using They are likely to take opportunities to discuss the content of the lesson with other learners Outside the classroom, they exploit every opportunity to use language as a means

of communication, e.g by seeking personal contacts, listening to the radio or reading newspapers

Some observational studies of successful foreign language learners through natural exposure suggest that the learners also benefit from developing active strategies, e.g finding ways to increase social interaction Hatch (1978) observes that learners develop techniques for keeping the conversation flowing smoothly Wong-Fillmore (1976) notes that a common strategy among child learners is to attach themselves to a group of other native American children one hour a week while they are in the school playground to develop their communicative skills in

English Sometimes they pretend to understand, even when they probably do not

In this way, their English proficiency develops quickly

2.3.2.2 Vietnamese views on language learning strategies

The compound term “học hành” – learn and practice – reflects to some extent the Vietnamese people’s general perspectives on education In addition, a number of authors have provided learners of a foreign language with useful

suggestions about how to work on their own besides their class work

Nguyễn Hiến Lê (1994, 2003)

As a teacher and a well-known scholar, Nguyễn Hiến Lê wrote hundreds

of works on various subjects, including some books on methods of study to help young people to do their learning tasks successfully by themselves Nguyễn

Hiến Lê (1994: 58; 2003: 116) deals with many aspects of self-study with sections providing practical hints on learning a foreign language In his view,

sub-language learners should:

• Spend a definite time each day on learning regularly;

• Constantly practice speaking, listening, reading and writing as well as memorize short passages of good writing, if possible;

• Learn new words and expressions in context and try to make similar sentences using new items;

• Pay close attention to the target language‘s peculiarities and special difficulties, e.g the pronunciation of English, the variations of the verb forms of French;

• Divide a language program into various stages to facilitate the learning process

In contrast to most language teachers who suggest avoiding translation in language learning, Nguyễn Hiến Lê advocates that learners should translate the whole English or French texts into Vietnamese in order to master them

thoroughly

To give remarks on this work by Nguyễn Hiến Lê, Đỗ Hồng Ngọc

(2003: 57) wrote: Handbook for students has opened the door to my future The

author systematizes his experiences as an autonomous learner, setting out

principles which enable me to study effectively, getting good results without costing too much time and effort.”

Trần Nhã (1969)

In his book named It’s delightful to learn English, Trần Nhã (1969) states

that the best way for Vietnamese learners, especially those who have few

opportunities to communicate with native speakers of English, to improve their

speaking skills is to assimilate what they have been taught by constant but unconscious repetitions Such repetitions help to develop learners’ natural

reactions in speaking English instead of translating word by word from

Vietnamese into English This approach to language learning consists of two sections: reading and translating The reading section comprises the two following stages:

- Reading for comprehension: Back home from an English class, the

learner is supposed to review what has been explicitly taught in class such as the meaning and use of new words and linguistic expressions, related grammatical points, general ideas of a reading text, etc

- Reading for assimilation: After reviewing the given lesson for better

comprehension, the learner must read aloud its reading text and practice saying every sentence from the text with his book closed By repeating again and again sentences from a reading text, for example, without looking at the text, the learner practices using these sentences Later, whenever the learner wants to express some ideas or feelings similar to those expressed by the English sentences he has

acquired, he can manage to use them naturally

In order to be successful, the learner must spend at little time every day, at least half an hour, studying English in this way no matter how busy he is “Try out