An investigation into language learning strategies to improve english speaking competence of english non majored freshmen at university of transport in ho chi minh city m a 60 14

The study aims at finding out which language learning strategies students most frequently use to improve their English speaking competence and which variables affecting students‟ use of

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY - HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE



AN INVESTIGATION INTO LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE ENGLISH SPEAKING COMPETENCE OF ENGLISH NON-MAJORED FRESHMEN

AT UNIVERSITY OF TRANSPORT

IN HO CHI MINH CITY

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Department of English Linguistics & Literature in partial fulfillment of the Master’s degree in

TESOL

By NGUYỄN VĂN PHƯƠNG

Supervised by

LÊ THỊ THANH, Ph.D.

HO CHI MINH CITY, FEBRUARY 2011

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby certify my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitled

AN INVESTIGATION INTO LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE ENGLISH SPEAKING COMPETENCE OF ENGLISH NON-MAJORED FRESHMEN

AT UNIVERSITY OF TRANSPORT IN HO CHI MINH CITY

in terms of the Statement of Requirements for Theses in Master‟s Programs issued

by the Higher Degree Committee

Ho Chi Minh City, February 14th, 2011

NGUYỄN VĂN PHƯƠNG

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, Nguyễn Văn Phương, being the candidate for the degree

of Master of TESOL, accept the requirements for the University relating to the retention and use of Master‟s Theses deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited

in the Library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for care, loan and reproduction of theses

Ho Chi Minh, February 14th, 2011

NGUYỄN VĂN PHƯƠNG

Another special thank goes to all the professors who have taught me during the Master Course in TESOL These lecturers have given me some really interesting and useful lessons fulfilled with effective approaches and techniques in teaching and learning English which help me orient and develop my study The benefits of the courses are really invaluable They explained carefully the approaches and techniques in teaching and learning English which I have never heard before They are really experienced lecturers

For help with reference works, I especially thank the staff members of the English Research Center of University of Social Sciences and Humanities I would like to express heartfelt thanks to the writers providing useful and interesting sources about language learning strategies These materials are useful for me to generate new ideas in this field

I am also sincerely grateful to teachers of English and students at UT-HCMC for their enthusiastic participation as the study‟s subjects and they also contributed a great deal of useful information to my research

ABSTRACT

Assessing use of language learning strategies has been conducted by many researchers Those researches‟ results might have contributed significantly to the improvement of learners‟ language learning Following the direction of the previous researches, this thesis investigates the language learning strategy use of non- English majors at University of Transport in Ho Chi Minh City The study aims at finding out which language learning strategies students most frequently use to improve their English speaking competence and which variables affecting students‟ use of language learning strategies in their learning process Data was collected from the 339 student subjects‟ responses to the questionnaire, the interviews with the fifteen teacher subjects, and classroom observations Based on data analysis, the results of the research show that students‟ proficiency levels, years of English learning and motivation impact on the use of language learning strategies Although the students use varieties of language learning strategies irrespective of the learning context, compensation and metacognitive strategies seem to be used most

frequently Six strategies most frequently used by the freshmen are adjusting or approximating the message strategy, repeating strategy, paying attention strategy, getting help strategy, find out about language learning strategy, and delaying speech production to focus on listening strategy

The study reveals the potential benefits for the students such as raising their awareness of language learning strategy use, taking risk wisely to use new strategies

to develop speaking competence, learning from experiences of the proficient students in the use of effective strategies Some recommendations are made to students who need to raise awareness of language learning strategy use to improve their communicative competence, to teachers of English who should study more language learning strategies to help students learn English better and train students‟ autonomy, and to authorities who need to create better material facilities in order that both teachers and students can promote the effectiveness of learning and teaching English, especially English speaking competence

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Certificate of originality i

Retention and use of the thesis ii

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract iv

Table of contents v

List of Figures and Charts x

List of Tables xii

Abbreviations xiv

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 1

1.1.1 The necessity of language learning strategies 1

1.1.2 University of Transport in Ho Chi Minh City 3

1.1.3 Department of English 3

1.1.4 Students at UT-HCMC 4

1.1.5 Teaching materials 4

1.2 THE AIMS OF THE STUDY 5

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 5

1.4 SIGNIFICATION OF THE STUDY 5

1.5 DELIMITATION AND LIMITATION 6

1.6 OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS 6

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS 7

2.1.1 Language Learning strategies 7

2.1.2 Speaking 8

2.1.3 Speaking competence 8

2.1.4 Communicative competence 9

2.2 FEATURES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES 10

2.2.1 Language learning strategies enhances students‟ speaking competence 10

2.2.2 Greater self-direction for learners 11

2.2.3 New roles for teachers 12

2.3 TAXONOMIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES 14

2.3.1 O‟Malley‟s taxonomy of language learning strategies 14

2.3.2 Rubin‟s taxonomy of language learning strategies 17

2.3.3 Oxford‟s taxonomy of language learning strategies 18

2.4 APPLYING LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES TO THE SPEAKING SKILLS 21

2.4.1 Applying direct strategies to the speaking skills 22

2.4.1.1 Memory strategies 22

2.4.1.2 Cognitive strategies 22

2.4.1.3 Compensation strategies 23

2.4.2 Applying indirect strategies to the speaking skills 25

2.4.2.1 Metacognitive strategies 25

2.4.2.2 Affective strategies 27

2.4.2.3 Social strategies 28

2.5 RESEARCHES INTO LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES 29

2.5.1 Studies involving good language learners and limited language learners 29

2.5.2 Studies investigating factors affecting strategy choice 30

2.5.3 Studies of the effects of strategy instruction 31

2.6 SUMMARY 32

Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY 33

3.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 33

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN 33

3.2.1 Sample size 33

3.2.2 Subjects 34

3.2.2.1 Student subjects 34

3.2.2.2 Teacher subjects 36

3.2.3 Instruments 37

3.2.3.1 Questionnaire for students 37

3.2.3.2 Interview questions 39

3.2.3.3 Classroom observations 40

3.2.4 Data collection procedures 40

3.3 SUMMARY 41

Chapter 4: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 42

4.1 STUDENTS‟ RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONNAIRES 42

4.1.1 Personal information of the student subjects 43

4.1.2 Information of the students‟ English learning 44

4.1.3 Student subjects‟ Language learning strategy use 52

4.1.3.1 Memory strategy use 54

4.1.3.2 Cognitive strategy use 57

4.1.3.3 Compensation strategy use 64

4.1.3.4 Metacognitive strategy use 71

4.1.3.5 Affective strategy use 79

4.1.3.6 Social strategy use 84

4.1.4 Comparisons of Language Learning Strategy Use 91

4.2 TEACHERS‟ RESPONSES TO THE INTERVIEWS 96

4.3 DATA COLLECTED FROM CLASSROOM OBSERVATION 99

4.3.1 Students‟ participation in the classroom activities 99

4.3.2 Learning motivation of students in the different departments 100

4.3.3 Teacher‟s teaching English 100

4.3.4 Visual aids and equipment 101

4.4 SUMMARY .102

Chapter 5: FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 104

5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 104

5.1.1 Findings from the student subjects‟ background and English learning 104

5.1.2 Findings from the students‟ use of language learning strategies 105

5.1.2.1 Findings from the research question 1 105

5.1.2.2 Findings from the research question 2 .109

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS .110

5.2.1 Recommendations to students 110

5.2.2 Recommendations to teachers 112

5.2.3 Recommendations to the authorities 114

5.2.4 Recommendations for further researches 115

5.3 CONCLUSION 116

BIBLIOGRAPHY 118

APPENDICES 127

Appendix A: TOTAL NUMBER OF FRESHMEN OF UT-HCMC ACADEMIC YEAR 2008-2009 127

Appendix B: DIAGRAM OF ALL THE LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES 128

Appendix C: OXFORD‟S STRATEGY INVENTORY FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING (SILL) VERSION 7.0 132

Appendix D1: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS 136

Appendix D2: BẢNG CÂU HỎI KHẢO SÁT 140

Appendix E: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 144

Appendix F: COMPARISON OF GENDER, TIME OF LEARNING ENGLISH AND THE USE OF LLS 145

Appendix G: COMPARISON OF THE STUDENTS‟ INTEREST IN ENGLISH, ENGLISH PROFICIENCY AND THE USE OF LLS 147

Appendix H: THE ORDER OF THE LLS MOST FREQUENTLY USED BY THE STUDENTS 150

LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter 2 7

Figure 2.1: Diagram of the Strategy System (Oxford, 1990, pp 16-21) 18

LIST OF CHARTS

Chart 4.1: The gender of the student subjects 43

Chart 4.2: Years of learning English 44

Chart 4.3: Foreign languages have been learnt at high schools 45

Chart 4.4: The necessary skills for students‟ future jobs 46

Chart 4.5: Students‟ levels after the first semester 47

Chart 4.6: Mean of six strategy categories 53

Chart 4.7: Students‟ Levels of Memory Strategy Use 55

Chart 4.8: Students‟ Levels of Cognitive Strategy Use 57

Chart 4.9: Students‟ responses to “repeating” strategy 59

Chart 4.10: Students‟ responses to “formally practicing with sounds” strategy 60

Chart 4.11: Students‟ responses to “recognizing and using formulas and patterns” strategy 60

Chart 4.12: Students‟ responses to “recombining” strategy 61

Chart 4.13: Students‟ responses to “practicing naturalistically” strategy 62

Chart 4.14: Students‟ responses to “using resources for receiving and sending messages” strategy 62

Chart 4.15: Students‟ responses to “translating” strategy 63

Chart 4.16: Students‟ responses to “transferring” strategy 63

Chart 4.17: Students‟ levels of Compensation Strategy Use 65

Chart 4.18: Students‟ levels of Metacognitive Strategy Use 72

Chart 4.19: Students‟ levels of Affective Strategy Use 79

Chart 4.20: Students‟ responses to “using progressive relaxation” strategy 80

Chart 4.21: Students‟ responses to “making positive statements” strategy 81

Chart 4.22: Students‟ responses to “taking risks wisely” strategy 82

Chart 4.23: Students‟ responses to “discussing your feelings with someone else” strategy 83

Chart 4.24: Students‟ levels of Social Strategy Use 85

Chart 4.25: Students‟ responses to “asking for correction” strategy 86

Chart 4.26: Students‟ responses to “cooperating with peer” strategy 87

Chart 4.27: Students‟ responses to “cooperating with proficient users of the new language” strategy 88

Chart 4.28: Students‟ responses to “developing cultural understanding” strategy 89

Chart 4.29: Students‟ responses to “becoming aware of others‟ thoughts and feelings” strategy 90

Chart 4.30: Comparison of gender and the use of LLS 91

Chart 4.31: Comparison of time of learning English and the use of LLS 92

Chart 4.32: Comparison of students‟ interest in English and the use of LLS 93

Chart 4.33: Comparison of English proficiency and the use of LLS 95

LIST OF TABLES

Chapter 1 1

Table 1.1: General English Program for the academic-year training system (2008-2009) 2

Table 1.2: General English Program for the credit training system (2009-2010) 2

Chapter 2 7

Table 2.1: Learning strategies (O‟Malley et al 1985b: 582-584) 14

Chapter 3 33

Table 3.1: Classes were chosen randomly to survey 35

Table 3.2: Teachers‟ personal information 36

Chapter 4 42

Table 4.1: The Ages of the student subjects 43

Table 4.2: Students‟ learning English at the foreign language centers 45

Table 4.3: Students‟ attitude towards learning English 46

Table 4.4: Comparison of English levels and attitude to learning English 48

Table 4.5: Motivation of learning English 49

Table 4.6: Students‟ experience in learning English 50

Table 4.7: Knowledge of LLS 51

Table 4.8: The necessity of language learning strategy training 52

Table 4.9: Mean of six strategy categories 53

Table 4.10: Averages of Memory Strategies 54

Table 4.11: The averages of three memory strategies 56

Table 4.12: Averages of Cognitive Strategy Use 58

Table 4.13: Averages of Compensation Strategy Use 64

Table 4.14: Students‟ responses to “switching to the mother tongue” strategy 66

Table 4.15: Students‟ responses to “getting help” strategy 67

Table 4.16: Students‟ responses to “using gesture” strategy 67

Table 4.17: Students‟ responses to “avoiding communication partially or totally” strategy 68

Table 4.18: Students‟ responses to “adjusting or approximating the message” strategy 69

Table 4.19: Students‟ responses to “using a circumlocution or synonym” strategy 70

Table 4.20: Averages of Metacognitive Strategy Use 71

Table 4.21: Students‟ responses to “paying attention” strategy 73

Table 4.22: Students‟ responses to “delaying speech production to focus on listening” strategy 73

Table 4.23: Students‟ responses to “find out about language learning” strategy 74

Table 4.24: Students‟ responses to “organizing” strategy 75

Table 4.25: Students‟ responses to “seeking practice opportunities” strategy 76

Table 4.26: Students‟ responses to “setting goals and objectives” strategy 76

Table 4.27: Students‟ responses to “self-monitoring” strategy 77

Table 4.28: Students‟ responses to “self-evaluating” strategy 78

Table 4.29: Averages of Affective Strategy Use 79

Table 4.30: Averages of Social Strategy Use 84

Table 4.31: Comparison of gender and the use of LLS 91

Table 4.32: Comparison of time of learning English and the use of LLS 92

Table 4.33: Comparison of students‟ interest in English and the use of LLS 94

Table 4.34: Comparison of English proficiency and the use of LLS 94

Table 4.35: The number of LLS the teachers master 96

Table 4.36: The LLS were guided by the teachers 97

Table 4.37: The frequency of training LLS to students 98

Chapter 5 .104

Table 5.1: The descending order of six strategy categories 105

Table 5.2: Six LLS are most frequently used by the students 107

ABBREVIATIONS

UT-HCM: University of Transport in Ho Chi Minh City

SILL: Strategy Inventory for Language Learning

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1.1 The necessity of language learning strategies

There is a Chinese proverb stating “Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day Teach a man how to fish and you feed him for a lifetime” (Hutchinson, 1987, p

39) When applied to the language teaching and learning field, the proverb might be explained if students are taught problem-solving skills, they themselves can manage

to solve more effectively most problems which they might encounter in their language acquisition There is a fact that students are often required to practice speaking English more and more everyday but they may not be trained some language learning strategies to develop their English speaking ability in their self-studying process

Self-studying is encouraged widely in many universities in Vietnam Students need to act on their own initiative in apprehending knowledge Credit training system has recently been applied in some universities in order to motivate students‟ autonomy In the common context, leaders of University of Transport in Ho Chi Minh City (UT-HCMC) also changed academic-year training system into credit-training system from 2009 on so that students at UT-HCMC can be more active in learning process as well as replacing traditional learning style, teacher-centered, by student-centered

With the academic-year training system at UT-HCMC, freshmen have to learn

180 periods (equal to 10.8 credits) of general English as the Department of English‟s syllabuses in the first two semesters During the learning process, students are instructed directly by teachers of English in the classes From the academic year 2009-2010 on, UT-HCMC begins to apply credit training system Students are

required to self-study a large amount of credits (16 credits) compared with the credits which are instructed directly by teachers in the classes They are only

instructed by teachers of English in the classes for 6 credits instead of 10.8 credits

as usual The time left, they have to self-study at home or in the library As a result

of this, some language learning strategies (LLS) may be necessary for students‟ self-studying

Table 1.1 and Table 1.2 below show the difference of learning time between the academic-year training system and the credit training system

Code

With teacher‟s instruction

both subjective and objective causes, English non-majored freshmen at UT-HCMC have known very little about language learning strategies to help them improve their English speaking competence According to the responses of 339 students surveyed

at UT-HCMC, the participants have not known much about language learning strategies to develop their English speaking competence although they really want

to speak English well

1.1.2 University of Transport in Ho Chi Minh City

UT-HCMC offers students with various training programs of the departments such as Marine Engineering, Naval Architecture, Transport Economics, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Information Technology, and so on Especially, students of Marine Engineering Department and Transport Economics Department have a lot of opportunities to get scholarships to learn oversea or work

on the international ships after graduation Some foreign educational institutes have cooperated with the UT-HCMC in training sailors and captains for the international marine companies such as Guildford College in The UK, Stolt Nielsen Group, Wagenborg Shipping, Seatrade-Holland, MPC-Munchmeyer Petersen Steamship GmbH & Co KG, Norwagian Shipowner Association (NSA) and other companies[1] Thus, students at UT-HCMC have a strong motivation to learn English well to meet the requirement of their future jobs

1.1.3 Department of English

Since its establishment in 1991, the Department of English has equipped under-graduating students with sufficient knowledge of both general English and English for Specific Purposes Up to now, the Department of English has eighteen regular teachers of English Ten teachers have M.A in TESOL, Education, or

[1]

Retrieved on October 20th, 2009 from http://www.hcmutrans.edu.vn

Contrastive Linguistics Five teachers are post-graduate learners in TESOL courses and three teachers have B.A in English They have been teaching English for more than six years With enthusiastic contribution and teaching experience, the staff can instruct students and help them learn English better

1.1.4 Students at UT-HCMC

In the academic year 2008-2009, there were 1663 first year students on different levels of English (1536 male students and 127 female students)[2] They came from many areas of Vietnam and enrolled in UT-HCMC As the data collected from the questionnaire for 339 freshmen, most of them have learnt English for seven years The others only learn English for 3 years and a few of them have never learnt English before Although they have different levels in English, they are grouped together by majors, and divided into classes consisting of about 70 students Each freshman has to learn the same credits of English in the first academic year

and speaking skills, including pronunciation” (Hutchinson, 1997, p 4) Lifelines elementary student‟s book also consists of many tasks to develop the language learning strategies to help students learn English better For examples, matching the words with images strategy in the “classroom language” part of unit one helps

students remember vocabulary better and recognize the words‟ meanings easily,

[2]

semantic mapping strategy is also used to help students remember vocabulary of the same topic in unit five, Recognizing and using patterns strategy is applied through

pair-works and group works which give students many chances to practice speaking with partners in the class and build their confidence and natural communication to speak English in the daily activities, and so on

1.2 THE AIMS OF THE STUDY

In order to provide useful guidance for students to self-study and practice speaking English, this study aims at (1) investigating how the English non-majored freshmen of UT-HCMC have used the LLS in and out of the class to improve their speaking competence, (2) exploring the strategies most frequently used by students

to improve their speaking competence, (3) finding out the factors affecting the use

of LLS to improve their English speaking competence

(2) Which factors influence students‟ use of language learning strategies?

1.4 SIGNIFICATION OF THE STUDY

So far, no researches have been done on the investigation into the use of LLS

to improve English speaking competence of English non-majored freshmen at HCMC This study aims at finding LLS frequently used by the first year students, raising awareness of using more LLS in learning English, and motivating students

UT-to try some new LLS and choose the most suitable LLS for their English speaking competence‟s improvement

1.5 DELIMITATION AND LIMITATION

Because of the time limit and the lack of experience in research, the study itself was confined to the first year students and teachers of English at UT-HCMC

It mainly focused on identifying LLS used by freshmen of English to improve their English speaking competence and their levels of learning strategy use All the other language skills and aspects related to students‟ learning were not studied deeply In addition, the number of teacher and student subjects was relatively small so they might not have been truly representative to all the population Thus, the study will not be generalized in other settings

1.6 OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS

Towards the end, chapter 1 of the thesis presents the background of the study

including the necessity of language learning strategies to develop English speaking competence for students at UT-HCMC, the common features of UT-HCMC, Department of English, students‟ background, and teaching materials used to teach general English at UT-HCMC It also mentions the aim of the study, the research questions, signification of the study, delimitation and limitation, and the structure of

the thesis Chapter 2 provides definitions of the terms as well as some scholars‟

classifications of language learning strategies, some features of language learning

strategies, applying LLS to the speaking skills, and a literature review of the researches into LLS conducted by the previous researchers Chapter 3 deals with

the research design and methodology employed in the study It consists of research questions, subjects‟ characteristics, instruments, and data collection procedures

Chapter 4 analyses and discusses the research findings This chapter analyzes the

students‟ responses to the questionnaire, the teachers‟ responses to the interviews,

and data collected from classroom observations of the researcher Chapter 5

summarizes the main findings and raises recommendations to students in using some LLS to develop their English speaking competence, recommendations to teachers and authorities, and recommendations for further researches

Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter two reviews the literature related to this study It consists of five parts which form the basis for the development of the data analysis and discussion The first part attempts to clarify the terms related to the study field including the definitions of language learning strategies, speaking, competence, and communicative competence The second part presents the features of language learning strategies Next part shows classifications of LLS indicated by Rubin, O‟Malley and Chamot, Brown, and Oxford Applying LLS to speaking skills is summarized in the fourth part The last part presents some previous researches related to LLS

2.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

2.1.1 Language Learning Strategies

The term language learning strategies has been defined by many

researchers for ages Rubin (1975, p 43) provides a definition of learning strategies

as “the techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge” In order to attain knowledge, student can use a suitable way which they know to learn English effectively O‟Malley and Chamot (1990) state that language learning

strategies may include focusing on the selection of new information, analyzing

information during the encoding process, evaluating the learning, or assuring oneself that the learning will be successful

Brown indicates strategies are specific methods of approaching a problem or

task, modes of operation for achieving a particular end, planned designs for controlling and manipulating certain information Each person has a number of possible ways to solve a particular problem, and they choose the most suitable way for a given problem He also gives another definition below:

Strategies are those specific “attacks” that we make on a given problem They are

the moment-by-moment techniques that we employ to solve “problems” posed by second language input and output The field of second language acquisition has distinguished between two types of strategy: learning strategies and communication strategies The formers relate to input – to processing, storage, and retrieval, that is, to taking in messages from others The latter pertain to output, how we productively express meaning, how we deliver messages to other (Brown, 1990, p 122)

Oxford (1990, p 7) states the strategy concept has become influential in education, where it has taken on a new meaning and has been transformed into learning strategies “Learning strategies are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning” Strategies are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence Appropriate language learning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater self-confidence

Among the definitions of LLS mentioned above, the definition of Rebecca Oxford was chosen by the research author as guidelines for this research

2.1.2 Speaking

Speaking is a skill which deserves attention in learning English Students need

to teach how to speak English confidently in order to carry out their transactions Speaking skills play an important role in communication Students have to interact well with their friends, teachers and other partners in the social relationship Bygate also claims that speaking is the skill by which they are most frequently judged, and through which they may make or lose friends

2.1.3 Speaking competence

Brown (2000, p 30) states that “competence refers to one‟s underlying knowledge of a system, event, or fact” Competence is the ability to perform something In reference to language, competence is learners‟ underlying knowledge

of a language, for example that language‟s grammatical rules, its vocabulary, and how the pieces of the language can fit together

In Hornby‟s dictionary, he defines competence is the ability to do something well Thus, we can define English speaking competence is one‟s ability to make use

of language knowledge to perform a task effectively

2.1.4 Communicative Competence

Based on Hymes‟ theory of communicative competence, Canale and Swain

(1980) propose that communicative competence includes grammatical competence,

discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence

Grammatical competence enables students to use vocabulary and understand

English language structures accurately In order to convey meaning clearly, students need to have good knowledge of English words and sentences such as basic sounds

of letters and syllables, pronunciation of words, intonation, word stress and sentence stress

Discourse competence helps students know how to build chunks of language

The parts in a text are combined by markers The rules of cohesion and coherence application can hold the communication in a meaningful way Both the production and comprehension of a language require students‟ ability to perceive and process stretches of discourse, and to formulate representations of meaning from referents in both previous sentences and following sentences

Sociolinguistic competence helps students use language appropriately

Knowledge of language alone is not adequate enough for students to use English effectively and appropriately Students need to have sociolinguistic competence to aware of the social and cultural differences of their interlocutors Understanding the sociolinguistic side of language helps students behave appropriately during interaction (Brown, 1994) also suggests that language learners need to acquire

stylistic adaptability in order that they can encode and decode the discourse around them correctly

Strategic competence enhances students‟ ability of memorizing language,

gaining and storing information, recognizing and repairing communication breakdowns, compensating their knowledge gaps, learning how to use the language contextually, evaluating the learning achievement and cooperating with others during the learning process Strategic competence is defined by Brown (1994, p 228) that it is “the way learners manipulate language in order to meet communicative goals” With reference to speaking, strategic competence refers to the ability to know how to keep a conversation going, how to pre-close and close the conversation, and how to clarify doubtful information to rescue communication breakdown and solve comprehension problems

2.2 FEATURES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

2.2.1 Language learning strategies enhances students’ speaking competence

Oxford (1990) indicates learning strategies help learners participate actively in authentic communication They stimulate the growth of communicative competence

in general For instance, Memory strategies are highly useful for understanding and

recalling new information They have important functions in the process of being

coming competent in using the new language Cognitive strategies enable learners

to understand and produce new language by many different means Compensation strategies help learners overcome knowledge gaps and continue to communicate authentically Metacognitive strategies aid learners regulate their own cognition,

focus, plan, and evaluate their progress as they move towards communicative

competence Affective strategies develop the self-confidence and perseverance needed for learners to involve themselves actively in language learning Social strategies provide increased interaction and more empathetic understanding They

raise learners‟ awareness of being willing to ask questions for clarification and for

verification such as slowing down, repeating, explaining what the interlocutor has said

2.2.2 Greater self-direction for learners

As Sharle and Szabó (2000) define autonomy may be the freedom and ability

to manage one‟s own affairs, which entails the right to make decision as well Autonomy requires active involvement in learning Students should behave responsibly and consciously make an effort to contribute to their learning They are also autonomous in the sense that they act independently of their teacher, not waiting to be told what to do

Language learning strategies can raise learners‟ sense of initiative to learn English Students will not always have the teacher around to guide them as they use the language after the class Some students are passive in traditional teaching way and they are accustomed to being instructed everything by teachers They only do what to be asked or what is clearly essential to get a good mark Attitudes and behaviors like these make learning more difficult and must be changed Consequently, learning strategies can become automatic That is often a very desirable thing, especially for language learning Oxford states:

Learners need to learn how to learn, and teachers need to learn how to facilitate the process Strategy training is especially necessary in the area of second and foreign languages Language requires active self-direction on the part of learners; they cannot be spoon-fed if they desire and expect to reach an acceptable level of communicative competence

(Oxford, 1990, p 201)

Sharle and Szabó (2000) argue that responsible students need to be especially absorbed in team work and be willing to cooperate with the teacher and other students in the learning activities in the class They have to be aware of the time when they fail to join learning activities, they are missing an opportunity to expand their English knowledge Students need to realize that success in their learning depends somehow on their positive attitude Thanks to their responsibility for the

outcome and willingness to contribute to their learning, students can benefit from teachers‟ instruction and other partners‟ learning experience

2.2.3 New roles for teachers

Bygate (1987) claims that one of the basic problems in foreign language teaching is to prepare learners to be able to use the language Teacher‟s enthusiastic and friendly behavior plays an important role in motivating students‟ learning This attitude may lead students to actively cooperate with teachers in the teaching and learning process

Sharle and Szabó point out when students begin to take charge of their learning, the teachers need to take on the role of facilitators or counselors in an increasing number of classroom situations Teachers should allow more room for learners‟ involvement Teachers are willing to apply the learner-centered approaches instead of the extreme views of the traditional teaching methods – teacher-centered ones Language teachers need to know how to develop a sense of responsibility in their learners, foster learner autonomy and also encourage learners

to take an active part in making decisions about their learning so that they will understand why and how they learn and be willing to take an active role in their learning

It is necessary for language teachers to instruct students that any language skills should be learned and practiced In practice, some teachers assume that speaking skills can be developed simply by assigning students general topics to discuss and then present them in front of the class Evidently, little attention is given

to the factors that facilitate the production of spoken language because of big class size, students‟ traditional learning attitude, and teaching time limitation of the syllabus In order to provide guidance in developing competent speakers of English, Griffiths (2004) suggests that language teachers should keep these questions in mind: What affects students‟ English speaking ability? What are the components

underlying speaking effectiveness? And how can teachers help students improve their speaking competence?

The teacher‟s role is to facilitate cooperative learning and communicative learning Students need to be asked to practice speaking as much as possible Teachers should raise students‟ awareness of volunteering to find a chance to cooperate with other partners in the learning activities like pair work, group work, and presentation in front of the class Teachers can facilitate cooperative learning by supporting and encouraging students‟ self-study, by being available to answer students‟ questions whole-heartedly during practice time, and provide some necessary vocabulary related to the topics

Teacher should teach students how to learn, encourage them to take an active role in their learning, and help them develop learning skills and cooperation Three phases of the development process should be trained to students First, students need to be aware of their contribution to the outcome and the nature of language

learning (raising awareness) Second, students need some spiral practice to build a positive attitude to learning English (changing attitude), and finally, students will

be ready to take over some roles from the teacher and self-study zealously

(transferring roles)

A language teacher aiming at training his or her students to use LLS should learn about what LLS students have already used and observe students‟ behavior in class It is a fact that each student within the same classroom may have different learning styles and varied awareness of the use of strategies The language teacher should, therefore, provide a wide range of learning strategies in order to meet the need and expectation of his or her students

Murat Hismanoglu also indicates that the language teacher should also analyze his or her textbook to see whether the textbook already includes LLS or LLS training The language teacher should look for new texts or other teaching materials

if LLS have not already included within the textbook which he or she is using to teach English in the class

2.3 TAXONOMIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

Language learning strategies have been classified by some researchers and

their classification of LLS will be presented below

2.3.1 O’Malley’s taxonomy of language learning strategies

Language learning strategies which language learners use during the learning process have been described by many researchers O‟Malley et al (1985) divide LLS into three main subcategories: Metacognitive Strategies, Cognitive Strategies, and Socioaffective Strategies This table is cited by Brown (2000)

Metacognitive Strategies

Advance Organizers Making a general but comprehensive preview of the

organizing concept or principle in an anticipated learning activities

Directed Attention Deciding in advance to attend in general to a learning task and

to ignore irrelevant distractors Selective Attention Deciding in advance to attend to specific aspects of language

input or situational details that will cue the retention of language input

Self-management Understanding the conditions that help one learn and arranging

for the presence of those conditions Functional Planning Planning for and rehearsing linguistic components necessary

to carry out an upcoming language task Self-Monitoring Correcting one‟s speech for accuracy in pronunciation,

grammar, vocabulary, or for appropriateness related to the setting or to the people who are present

Delayed Production Consciously deciding to postpone speaking in order to learn

initially through listening comprehension Self-Evaluation Checking the outcomes of one‟s own language learning

against an internal measure of completeness and accuracy

Cognitive Strategies

Repetition Imitating a language model, including overt practice and silent

rehearsal Resourcing Using target language reference materials

Translation Using the first language as a base for understanding and/or

producing the second language Grouping Reordering or reclassifying, and perhaps labeling, the material

to be learned based on common attributes Note Taking Writing down the main idea, important points, outline, or

summary of information presented orally or in writing Deduction Consciously applying rules to produce or understand the

second language Recombination Constructing a meaningful sentence or larger language

sequence by combining known elements in a new way Imagery Relating new information to visual concepts in memory via

familiar, easily retrievable visualizations, phrases, or locations Auditory

representation

Retention of the sound or a similar sound for a word, phrase,

or longer language sequence Keyword Remembering a new word in the second language by

(1) identifying a familiar word in the first language that sounds like or otherwise resembles the new word and (2) generating easily recalled images of some relationship between the new word and the familiar word

Contextualization Placing a word or phrase in a meaningful language sequence Elaboration Relating new information to other concepts in memory

Transfer Using previously acquired linguistic and/or conceptual

knowledge to facilitate a new language learning task Inferencing Using available information to guess meaning of new items,

Table 2.1: Learning strategies (O‟Malley et al 1985b, pp 582-584)

Cognitive Strategies

Cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and they involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself Repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note taking, deduction, recombination, imagery, auditory representation, keyword, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, and inferencing are the important cognitive strategies

Socioaffective Strategies

As to the socioaffective strategies, it can be stated that “they are related with social-mediating activity and transacting with others Cooperation and question for clarification are the main socioaffective strategies”

predict outcomes, or fill in missing information

Socioaffective Strategies

Cooperation Working with one or more peers to obtain feedback, pool

information, or model a language activity Question for

clarification

Asking a teacher or other native speaker for repetition, paraphrasing, explanation, and/or examples

2.3.2 Rubin’s taxonomy of language learning strategies

Rubin (1987) makes the distinction between strategies contributing directly to learning and those contributing indirectly to learning According to Rubin, there are three types of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or indirectly to language learning These are (1) Learning Strategies, (2) Communication Strategies, and (3) Social Strategies

Learning Strategies consists of two main kinds: Cognitive Learning

Strategies and Metacognitive Learning Strategies They are the strategies

contributing directly to the development of the language system constructed by the learner

Cognitive Learning Strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning

or problem-solving that requires direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials Rubin identified 6 main cognitive learning strategies contributing directly to language learning such as clarification or verification, guessing or inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning, practice, memorization, and monitoring

Metacognitive Learning Strategies are used to oversee, regulate or self-direct

language learning They involve various processes as planning, prioritizing, setting goals, and self-management

Communication Strategies are less directly related to language learning since

their focus is on the process of participating in a conversation and getting meaning across or clarifying what the speaker intended Communication strategies are used

by speakers when faced with some difficulty due to the fact that their communication ends outrun their communication means or when confronted with misunderstanding by an interlocutor

Social Strategies are those activities which learners use to expose language

and practice their knowledge Although these strategies provide exposure to

English language, they contribute indirectly to learning since they do not lead directly to the obtaining, storing, retrieving, and using of language

2.3.3 Oxford’s taxonomy of language learning strategies

Oxford (1990) sees the aim of LLS as being oriented towards the development

of communicative competence Oxford divides LLS into two main classes - direct strategies (those which directly involve the target language such as reviewing and practicing) and indirect strategies (those which provide indirect support for

language learning such as planning, co-operating and seeking opportunities)

The direct strategies are further subdivided into three groups: (1) memory strategies (which relate to how students remember language and store information), (2) cognitive strategies (which relate to how students think about their learning), and (3) compensation strategies (which enable students to overcome knowledge

gaps to continue the communication)

The indirect strategies are further subdivided into three groups: metacognitive strategies (which help learners to regulate their own learning), affective strategies

(which are concerned with the learner‟s emotional requirements such as confidence)

and social strategies (which lead to increased interaction with the target language)

Oxford‟s (1990) taxonomy of language learning strategies is shown in the following figures:

I Memory strategies

STRATEGIES

STRATEGIES II Affective strategies

III Social strategies

Figure 2.1: Diagram of the Strategy System (Oxford, 1990, pp 16-21)

DIRECT STRATEGIES (Memory, Cognitive, and Compensation strategies)

1 Grouping

1 Using imagery

4 Representing sounds in memory

Sending messages 2 Using resources for receiving

2 Analyzing expressions

4 Translating

5 Transferring

A Guessing 1 Using linguistic clues

1 Overview and linking with already

your learning 2 Paying attention

3 Delaying speech production to focus on listening

1 Finding out about language learning

2 Organizing

I Metacognitive B Arranging and 3 Setting goals and objectives

strategies planning 4 Identifying the purpose of a language

your learning task (purposeful listening/ reading/

speaking/ writing)

5 Planning for a language task

6 Seeking practice opportunities

your learning 2 Self-evaluating

1 Using progressive relaxation, deep

1 Making positive statements

strategies yourself 3 Rewarding yourself

strategies with others 2 Cooperating with proficient users of the

2.4.1 Applying direct strategies to the speaking skills

2.4.1.1 Memory strategies

One of memory strategies used to develop student‟s speaking skill is the placing new words into a context strategy Whenever student hears or reads new

words or expressions, he/ she should place them into a meaningful context and

practice speaking them to remember them well Another memory strategy is the representing sounds in memory strategy which helps students remember “what they

hear by making auditory rather than visual representations of sounds This involves linking the new word with familiar words or sounds” (Oxford, 1990, p 63) Some

students use rhyme to learn the English sounds and new words such as float, coat,

boat, goat, moat, etc They only replace an initial consonant of the words, they will

have another word and remember it easier Reviewing well strategy is especially

useful for remembering new material in the target language Oxford mentions a structured review which requires students to practice unceasingly until the stage of automatic use is reached Goal is to retain the material in long-term memory and to retrieval it easily and automatically when required

style Formally practicing with sounds strategy can be extended to speaking,

especially focused on perception of sounds rather than on comprehension of meaning Students can speak and use cassette recorder or computer to record their voice while speaking “So, they can hear and compare their own voices with a

native speaker‟s voice” (Oxford, 1990, p 72) Recognizing and using formulas and

patterns strategy helps students build self-confidence, increase understanding, and

enhance fluency and production Oxford advises teachers should teach students some expressions as whole chunks early in their language learning process, and teach them to recognize the formulas which are often used by native speakers when

they hear or read the texts To extend speaking skill, students can use recombining strategy to construct a meaningful sentence or longer expression by putting together

known elements in new ways, and use the language for actual communication by

practicing naturalistically strategy Oxford (1990, p 76) also indicates that

“speaking with other people in natural settings provides interactive, rapid, personal communication” Students should find various opportunities for practice in speaking, for example traveling to the country where English is spoken natively, making friends with native speakers, joining in an international club, actively participating in classroom activities such as role-plays, drama activities, games, group works, structured communication exercises, and so on Such activities can increase learners‟ confidence in their oral communication skills Greater confidence leads to better attitudes and increased motivation to continue using the new

language Translating and transferring strategies can be helpful in early stage of

language learning Students can use their own language as the basis for understanding what they hear and then they produce the new language in speech However, word-for-word translation may provide the wrong interpretation of target language material Furthermore, translating can sometimes slow students down considerably Students cannot expect that all the varied hues of meaning will be the same for words and concepts across two languages; sometimes there is just no equivalent from one language to the other In addition, grammatical differences are sometimes very great

2.4.1.3 Compensation strategies

The compensation strategies are useful for students to overcome knowledge limitations in speaking Especially when they do not know an expression, fail to

hear something clearly, or are faced with a situation in which the meaning is only implicit or intentionally vague Oxford states all the compensation strategies for speaking contribute to learning by allowing students to stay in conversations

Switching to mother tongue strategy is used for speaking and involves using the

mother tongue for an expression without translating it Students will use both English and Vietnamese in a sentence when they cannot find a suitable word to

express their idea For example, Ms Lan says “I want to buy a „cái quạt‟” because she does not know the word „fan‟ in English In the using gesture strategy, students

use physical motion, such as mine or gesture, in place of an expression during a

conversation to indicate the meaning Getting help strategy involves someone for

help in a conversation by explicitly asking for the missing expression, clarification

or verification With this strategy, students can provide their interlocutor some clearer explanations to avoid misunderstanding Another strategy of compensation

strategies is avoiding communication partially or totally strategy Students tend to

avoid communicating when they are not sure about the difficult topics or when they are lack of vocabulary, knowledge, or grammatical structures of the new language

“This strategy goes against the aim of speaking as much as possible but it has an advantage of keeping the learner emotionally protected and possibly more able to speak about other things later in the conversation” (Oxford, 1990, p 96) In this case, students can select the favorite topics of conversation which they possess the

needed vocabulary and structures Adjusting or approximating the message strategy

is used to alter the message by omitting some items of information, make the idea

simpler, or say something slightly different that has similar meaning Using a circumlocution or synonym strategy is another strategy which students use a

roundabout expression involving several words to describe a single concept or a synonym to convey the intended meaning

2.4.2 Applying indirect strategies to the speaking skills

2.4.2.1 Metacognitive strategies

Three sets of metacognitive strategies are (1) centering your learning strategies, (2) arranging and planning your learning strategies, and (3) evaluating your learning strategies

The centering your learning strategies consist of three sub-strategies:

overviewing and linking with already known material strategy, paying attention strategy, and delaying speech production to focus on listening strategy These

strategies are used to develop speaking skills Students should be aware of previewing the basic materials for the upcoming language activities and linking them with what they have already known Students can also create and expand lists

of relevant vocabulary for an upcoming language task, putting those expressions into context and considering similar expressions in the native language In spoken communication, students need to pay attention to the general context and content, and avoid irrelevant distractors They can also pay “selective attention to particular elements of the speech act, such as pronunciation, register, style, physical distance from other speakers, grammar, and vocabulary” (Oxford, 1990, p 156) Delaying speech production to focus on listening may happen automatically in speaking classes for hours because students often delay their speaking and focus on listening comprehension until they feel confident and comfortable enough to speak Teacher should not teach this strategy On the contrary, teacher should motivate students to speak when they are ready without any unnecessary delay

Finding out about language learning strategy is really necessary for students

because they do not often know much about the mechanics of language learning Such knowledge would make them more effective learning Students should be allowed to talk about their language learning problems, to ask questions, and to share good experience or effective ways in learning English that they have tried

Organizing strategy helps students create the best possible physical environment for