The present research aims at investigating: 1 the available technology support tools that can be used to facilitate teachers and students; 2 whether and how technology may enhance teachi
Trang 1HoChiMinh City-National University University of Social Sciences and Humanities
******
SỬ THỊ ÁI MỸ
A Thesis in Master’s Programs
Major: TESOL Code number: 5.07.02
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the Degree of Master of TESOL
SUPERVISOR: NGUYỄN VĂN MƯỜI, Ph.D
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HoChiMinh City - 2005
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I hereby certify my authorship of the thesis submitted
today entitled:
“THE APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY
IN TEACHING TECHNICAL ENGLISH”
In terms of the Statement of Requirements for the Thesis in Master’s Programs
Issued by the Higher Degree Committee
Sử Thị Ái Mỹ
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Trang 3R E T E N T I O N A N D U S E O F T H E T H E S I S
I, hereby state that I, Su Thi Ai My, being the candidate for the degree of Master of TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Thesis deposited in the library
In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original
of my thesis deposited in the library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the library for care, loan and reproduction of thesis
Ho Chi Minh City, October 15th, 2005
Sử Thị Ái Mỹ
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Trang 4A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
First of all, I should like to express my deepest gratitude to
my course lecturer and supervisor, Dr Nguyen Van Muoi, who spent a lot of time reading my draft with great care and giving me valuable advice and guided me to complete my thesis
I should also like to express my special thanks to the librarians working at the University of Technical Education (UTE) and the University of Social Sciences and Humanities who helped me a lot during my search for reference materials
I am greatly indebted to all the teachers who were willing to participate in the questionnaire and give me thoughtful advice and experience and the teaching staff of Division of Foreign Language at the UTE who shared my division’s duties to release me more time to fulfil my thesis
I took this chance to express my thankfulness to my students for their cooperation in filling in the questionnaires and taking part in the experiment
Finally, my special thanks go to my friends for encouraging and supporting me throughout the completion of this Research Paper
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Trang 5A B S T R A C T
A persistent problem facing English teachers at the University
of Technical Education (UTE) is the attempt to stimulate and maintain students’ interest in learning English for the specific purposes and
to enhance learning and teaching The increasingly and drastically impacts of new technology generated an idea of application of technology in teaching The present research aims at investigating: 1) the available technology support tools that can be used to facilitate teachers and students; 2) whether and how technology may enhance teaching and learning technical English; 3) whether or not technology can stimulate and maintain students’ interest in learning technical English; 4) teachers’ and learners’ attitude towards instructional technology including computers and other media 35 second-year students belonging to the electronic and electrical faculty of the UTE participated in an experimental course in which technology was highly applied Data were collected by direct observation, background and attitude questionnaires administered to students at the UTE to identify their attitude and perception towards learning technical English, and learning English with technology An additional questionnaire was also delivered in the meantime to request for teachers opinion on using technology in teaching as well
as their experience in teaching ESP The findings were consistent with those from prior researches about the enhancement of technology
in teaching Although there are barriers to the use of technology, the findings of the research showed that it was worth trying Most of the students participating in the experiment showed their positive attitude towards the course The limitations of small samples and of anonymous questionnaire led to recommendations for further researches
to assess students’ progress and viability of instructional software
in teaching ESP
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Trang 6L I S T O F A B B R E V I A T I O N S
CMC Computer-mediated communication
EFL English as a Foreign Language
ESL English as a Second Language
ESP English for Specific Purposes
EST English for Science and Technology
IT Instructional Technology
TESOL Teaching English to Speaker of Other Languages USSH University of Social Sciences and Humanities UTE University of Technical Education
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Figure 1.1 Relationship among learner, teacher, instruction and learning 6
Figure 2.1 Relationship of media and teaching 15
Figure 2.2 ELT tree (modified) 24
Figure 2.3 A positive learning cycle by Hutchison and Walters 27
Figure 2.4 Technology integration checklist for teachers (modified) 29
Figure 3.1 A possible schematic of the electronic classroom 34
Figure 5.1 Ownership of home computer 54
Figure 5.2 Most frequent location where students use computers 54
Figure 5.3 Average number of hours spent on computers 55
Figure 5.4 Prior experience in using computer to learn English 56
Figure 5.5 Prior experience with technology-based classrooms 56
Figure 5.6 Prior experience in learning English through special websites 57
Figure 5.7 Necessity of technical English 58
Figure 5.8 Students’ first priority in studying English 59
Figure 5.9 Error correction preference 61
Figure 5.10 Difficulties in learning 62
Figure 5.11 Students’ evaluation of the course 63
Figure 5.12 Perceptions of teaching method used 64
Figure 5.13 Media preferences 64
Figure 5.14 Preference in Vocabulary learning 65
Figure 5.15 Teaching aids used 69
Figure 5.16 Effectiveness of the course 69
Figure 5.17 Teachers’ perceptions of using instructional technology 70
Figure 5.18 Four-stroke engine 85
Figure 5.19 Example of useful websites 90
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Trang 8L I S T O F T A B L E S
Table 4.1 Scores in the last achievement test of English 41
Table 5.1 Students’ expectation towards ESP course 59
Table 5.2 Preference in reading styles 60
Table 5.3 Error correction preference 61
Table 5.4 Students’ self assessment of progress 62
Table 5.5 Difficulties encountered during the program 66
Table 5.6 Description of teachers’ experience 67
Table 5.7 Frequently performed activities 67
Table 5.8 Vocabulary introducing techniques 68
Table 5.9 Evaluation of the method 70
Table 5.10 Difficulties encountered 71
Table 5.11 Teachers’ familiarity with computers 72
Table 5.12 Number of hours spent on computers 72
Table 5.13 Teachers’ barriers to the use of technology 73
Table 5.14 Test scores 73
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Trang 9C O N T E N T S
Certificate of originality i
Retention and use of the thesis ii
Acknowledgements iii
Abstract iv
List of abbreviations v
List of figures vi
List of tables vii
Contents viii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 - 7 1.1 Research setting 1
1.2 Research purposes 2
1.3 Research questions 2
1.4 Definitions and scopes 2
1.5 Research methodology 5
1.6 Organization 6
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 18 - 31 2.1 The enhancement of new technologies in teaching and learning 8
2.1.1 The case for motivation and individualization 9
2.1.2 Authentic material for study 11
2.1.3 Students’ attitude and reaction 11
2.2 Unique instruction capabilities 12
2.2.1 Input 12
2.2.2 Display 13
2.2.3 Stimulate ability 13
2.3 Using technology support tools 15
2.3.1 Using multimedia and hypermedia 15
2.3.2 Using software tools in teaching and learning 17
2.3.3 Using internet and internet related tools 20
2.4 The theoretical base of technical English 22
2.4.1 Definition of technical English related to ESP 22
2.4.2 The role of needs analysis in ESP teaching 25
2.4.3 Principles and techniques of learning and teaching ESP 26
2.4.4 The role of ESP teachers 28
8
Trang 102.5 Teacher planning and preparation for technology use 29
CHAPT 3.1 P 3.3 T 3.4 T 3.1.2 The coursebooks of technical English 36
C 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 Limitations 51
CHAPT 5 1 F 5.1.7 Teachers’ encountered difficulties 70
ER 3: PRACTICAL BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 32 - 38 hysical facilities 32
3.1.1 Description of access and content 32
3.1.2 Class organization 33
3.1.3 Configurations of technology-based classroom 34
3.2 The learners’ profiles 34
he teaching staff 35
he English courses 36
3.1.1 The English syllabus 36
3.5 Summary 38
HAPTER 4: DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 39 - 52 4 1 Research setting 39
Research design 40
Participants 41
4.3.1 Participants of the experimental teaching 41
4.3.2 Participants of the additional questionnaire 41
Procedures and materials 42
4.4.1 Questionnaires to students 43
4.4.2 Questionnaire to teachers 44
4.4.3 Descriptions of teaching method 45
4.4.4 Direct observation 51
4.4.5 Achievement test 51
4 6 Summary 52
ER 5: FINDINGS, DISCUSSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 53 - 91 indings 53
5.1.1 Students’ experience and habits of computers and internet 53
5.1.2 Students’ expectation and attitudes towards the English course 57
5.1.3 Students’ attitudes towards learning with technology 62
5.1.4 Encountered difficulties in learning with technology 65
5.1.5 Teachers’ perceptions on the English courses 66
5.1.6 Teachers’ evaluation of the method and techniques used 67
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Trang 115.1.8 Teachers’ familiarity with computers and the internet 71
5.1.9 Barriers to the use of technology in teaching 72
5.1.10 Achievement test 73
5 2 D ogical resources 74
5.2.2 5 3 I t 5 4 Summary 91
C 6 3 Limitations and recommendations 94
BIB • 98
Appendix 13: An example of a quiz generator 113
iscussions 74
5.2.1 Teachers’ and students’ readiness in using technol Students’ needs and problematic areas that have technological solutions 75
5.2.3 Students’ and teachers’ perceptions towards instructional technology 81
mplica ions for teaching 84
5.3.1 To the problems that students lose their interests in learning 84
5.3.2 To the question why use instructional technology 87
5.3.3 To the question how to lift the barriers and use technology effectively 88
HAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 92 - 94 6 1 Summary 92
6 2 Conclusion 92
LIOGRAPHY • Books 95
Websites APPENDICES Appendix 1: Questionnaires to students 99
Appendix 2: Questionnaire to teachers 101
Appendix 3: Electronics in the home 103
Appendix 4: Electronic diagrams 104
Appendix 5: Crossword puzzles 105
Appendix 6: Electronic diagram A and B 105
Appendix 7: Matching labels and circuit symbols 106
Appendix 8: Electric generator 107
Appendix 9: Component values 108
Appendix 10: Resistor value quiz 109
Appendix 11: Achievement test 110
Appendix 12: Examples of useful websites 112
10
Trang 12C H A P T E R 1 : I N T R O D U C T I O N
The advent of technology including computers and other media increasingly and drastically impacts every aspect of society The increasing speed and new applications for computers continue to be developed more and more rapidly than
we can humanly anticipate In the early 90's education started being affected by the introduction of word processors in schools, colleges and universities In the last few years, the number of teachers using computer-assisted language learning technology has increased remarkably and numerous articles have been written about the role of technology in education in the 21st century
Technology is endlessly developed and English become an accepted international language of science and technology, commerce, politics, etc A receptive and productive competence in English is indispensable to every student It
is rather important for students to approach the achievement of technology In the meantime, at many universities including the Universities of Technical Education (UTE), teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has been widespread with obstacles with which teachers are facing and are trying to find creative solutions to their problems as well as their students’ Surveys showed that more and more students lost their interest in learning ESP and absented themselves from participation in class The falling rate of students in technical English tests has been also significantly higher than that of general English and much higher than that of other subjects Undergraduates fail to read specialist books which are only available
in English Graduates are refused by employers due to their inadequate competence
in reading manuals of operation, service and maintenance
Is technology a possible solution to the persistent problems? How to employ instructional technology effectively in the specific context of the UTE? There is a paradox that little information is available on the application of technology in teaching and learning ESP, especially technical English These aspects of the setting generated the ideas from which this research begins
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Trang 13Figure 1.3 RESEARCH PURPOSES
The overall purpose of the research is to investigate:
¾ the available technology support tools that can be used to facilitate teachers and students;
¾ whether and how technology may enhance teaching and learning technical English at the UTE;
¾ whether or not technology can stimulate and maintain students’ interest
in learning technical English;
¾ teachers’ and learners’ attitude towards instructional technology including computers and other media
More specifically, to accomplish the proposed purposes, the research is guided by the following questions:
¾ What are technological support tools available?
¾ Why is technology used in teaching technical English at the UTE?
¾ What can be done with instructional technology?
¾ What are teachers’ and students’ perceptions on the enhancements and hindrances of technology?
The results of this study may be useful to ESP teachers in providing them with an alternative to enhance the teaching and learning and to solve the persistent problems The results of the study will be helpful in facilitating teachers with variety of support tools
3.5.1 Technology
Generally, technology is defined as
1 Scientific study and use of mechanical arts and applied sciences;
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Trang 142 Application of this to practical task” (Hornby, 1992)
Technology is often thought of as modern machines or tools like computers, multimedia, scanners etc Indeed, it is important to understand that technology is more than just machines and that the term “technology” is not merely a synonym for “computer”
First, technologies are not only computers but blackboards, pens, pencils sharpeners, rulers and even chalk as well
Second, technology does not merely imply the uses of machines, but refers
to as any applications of scientific or other organized knowledge to practical tasks
Technology other than computers is utilized in many innovative ways of teaching and is divided into two categories: product and process technology
3.5.2 Process and product technology
According to Hooper and Rieber (1995), there have been two main types of technology labelled as "product technologies" and "idea technologies."
Product or hard technologies include: 1) hardware, or machine-oriented, film strips, movies, audiocassette players/recorders, videocassette players/recorders, laserdiscs, computers, CD-ROM and; 2) software technologies, such as print-based material (i.e books, worksheets, overhead transparencies) and computer software (i.e computer-assisted instruction)
In contrast, idea or process technologies do not have such tangible forms Idea technologies are usually represented in or through some product technologies Ideas technologies are techniques or ways of thinking applied to problems and practical tasks According to Hooper and Rieber:
“The benefit of technology is not simply its potential to replicate
existing educational practice, but its ability to combine idea and
product technologies to encourage students to engage in deeper
cognitive activity”
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Trang 15Generally, to be used effectively, idea and product technologies must be united
3.5.3 Instructional and educational technology
With the hope that technology would enhance teaching and learning, in history of education, technology has been introduced at various times Along with development of technology and education a lot of conceptions concerning their relationship are also evolved Among the conceptions are instructional and educational technologies
Generalizing from the previous definitions, instructional technology (IT) has been defined as:
“applying scientific knowledge about human learning to the practical
tasks of teaching and learning” (Heinich, Molenda, & Russell, 1993,
p 16)
Newby, Stepich, Lehamn and Russel (2000) identified that IT acts as a match between linguists and teachers According to them,
“Instructional technology is the bridge between who conduct research
on human learning and those who are teaching and learning” (p 10)
Instructional technology is not just media which are used for instructional purposes Media is a form of mass communication Instruction is not just information which can be easily transferred through media Instructional technology is more than computers, projectors, cassette players, etc
“It is a complex field that is equally concerned with the processes of
learning as it is with the products that support learning” (Albright,
1995)
IT, therefore, affects specifically instructional problems Meanwhile, educational technology affects all educational endeavours including scheduling, registering, budgeting, etc
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Trang 16Educational technology includes instructional technology and other fields in teaching and learning So it can be said that educational technology is broader than instructional technology Instructional technology itself is consisted from two major parts: teaching technology and learning technology The application of technology
in teaching is not merely the implementation of computers or mass media It is also the appropriate methods and strategies for implementing them in a specific context
3.5.4 Instructional software and software tools
Software is an indispensable element which controls all operations of a computer Instructional software are programs developed for the sole purpose of delivering instruction or supporting learning activities, such as Galaxy, Mac reader for reading, CAVOCA for vocabulary, etc
Software tools such as word processing, database and spreadsheet program serve a variety of purposes other than teaching like creating, storing data, calculating, etc
3.5.5 Scopes
The main interest of the study is instructional technology which is referred
to as hi-technology equipment or hardware as computers, multimedia and other related technologies and as instructional strategies, methods, principles and techniques
Although the writer appreciates the effectiveness of instructional software, the availability, expenses and above all the physical setting and the implementation into teaching at the UTE limit the study to software tools
The emphasis of the study is on the improvement of ESP teaching and learning in technological environment and not on identification the effectiveness of reconstructed classroom over the current one
Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russel (2000, p 11) illustrated relationship
11
Trang 17among learner, teacher, instruction and learning as a triangle (figure 1.1) Learning
is the central focus and each angle has its own position and has certain affects to each other and to the process of learning A part from these, learning is also affected by various factors For the purposes of the study, a research was conducted
at the UTE and the research method was designed as follows:
FIGURE 1.1 Relationship among learner, teacher,
instruction and learning
Learners
Instructional technology
Instructional technology
Teachers Instruction
Learning
Instructional technology
Firstly, the data on learners’ view on their learning needs and expectation,
on teachers and learners background and on their attitudes towards the English course are collected and analyzed to find out the problematic areas and how they are ready for technology learning and teaching Techniques of gathering data included questionnaires administered to students and teachers at the beginning of the experiment
Then, to test the practicability and enhancements of the integration of technology in teaching and learning, teaching practice was carried out for students
at the UTE
An achievement test and an attitude questionnaire to students were conducted after the experimental teaching to evaluate their perceptions towards the experimental course Direct observation is also carried out along with the experimental teaching
12
Trang 18Figure 1.7 ORGANIZATION
To be convenient, the thesis has been organized into six chapters:
Chapter one is the introductory chapter, which has been presented It
focuses on the situation that leads to the study as well as the aims of the study and the research methodology Some of the key words like technology and software are also mentioned and clarified
Chapter two labelled as ‘literature review’ identifies how technology can
enhance teaching and learning through an overview of prior researches’ findings This chapter is also concerned with available technology support tools including computers and other media which can be applied in teaching technical English The term “technical English” is clarified after that In this subsection, some principles of teaching and learning relevant to the study are also mentioned
Chapter three focuses on describing the ‘practical background’ Firstly, the
issue of access and content must be examined as students and teachers must have the physical tools in order to utilize this new technology in learning and teaching This chapter is also the overview of the teaching staff, learners’ profiles and English courses at the UTE
Chapter four discusses the research methodology, with the focus on mixed
method including a quasi-experiment, direct observation, achievement test and questionnaires administered to teachers, students at the UTE The limitations of the research are listed finally
Chapter five presents the findings of the experiment and the survey and discussion of which in the light of the research literature The left of this chapter is saved for far reaching implications for teaching ESP with technology
Chapter six, the last chapter, set out the conclusion of the study and some
recommendations for further researches
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Trang 19CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
In the first chapter, the purpose of the research, which is to find out an effective and efficient way to enhance teaching and learning technical English through the application of technology, has been modified Indeed, there has been a strong controversy that technology should be appreciated and why? During the advent of technology, it has witnessed a variety of researches at all levels of education and training and at all aspects of teaching and learning Various studies have been carried out to pick out the difficulties and to find the effective solutions for them To have a satisfactory reply for the question about technology uses, this section is saved for:
9 The reviews of reasons for using instructional technology Specifically, what prior researches have found out about the enhancement of technology in teaching and learning is presented in this very first part
9 An overview of unique instructional capabilities What technology does to facilitate teachers in reconstructed classrooms is introduced
9 A description of technology support tools and how to employ them effectively in class
9 An overview of the principles of teaching and learning ESP or technical English
9 Guidelines for planning and preparation for technology integration which must be done by teachers
2.1 THE ENHANCEMENT OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Why instructional technology is used Lots of teachers may wonder what we need technology for or why the familiar blackboard and chalk should be replaced
by an LCD screen and a mouse or a stick Simply, it is because what you can do technologically cannot be done in traditional setting classroom with only chalk and board It is because technology, from the functional point of view, opens a number
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Chapter 2 Literature review 9
of enhancements supporting educational processes Lots of prior researches have
shown how and where technology is effective
2.1.1 The case for motivation and individualization
“Motivation is some kind of internal drive that encourages some body to
pursue a course of action” “The motivation students bring to class is the
biggest factor affecting their success” (Harmer, 1998, p.3)
What happens in classroom has strong effect to student’s attitudes to
learning Finding an effect way to motivate students is always the interest of
teachers, reseachers and linguists Roblyer and Edwards (2000, p 12) stated the
benefit of technology in the case of motivation:
“Technology-based methods have successfully promoted several kinds of
motivational strategies that can be used individually or in combination”
The kinds of motivational strategies mentioned may be the visual and
interactive features as suggested by Pask-McCartney, (1989)
“The visual and interactive features of many technology resources seem to
have focus students’ attention and encourage them to spend more time on
learning tasks.”
Instructional technology can also create the control of students in their
learning and according to (Roblyer and Edwards, 2000, p 13),
“When students perceive themselves as in control of their learning, the
result has been called intrinsic motivation, or being motivated by the
awareness that they are learning This finding reported from the earliest
uses of computered-based materials, continues one of the most potentially
powerful reasons for using technology-resources as motivational aids.”
However, a lot of students are fear of making mistakes and it keeps them
away from participating in classroom activities It takes teachers a lot of time and
effort in making these students more confidents in conventional class Instructional
technology including computers and other media can more easily deal with the
problems for the reason which is stated by Roblyer and Edwards (2000, p 84):
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Chapter 2 Literature review 10
“Computer-based practice may motivate students to do the practice they
need Computers don’t get impatient or give disgusted looks when students
give a wrong answer”
“Once the requisite programming is in place, computers can tirelessly
provide feedback in response to student work Unlike feedback from an
instructor or tutor, the feedback can remain unbiased, accurate, and
non-judgemental, irrespective of student characteristics or the nature of the
student response.” (Mason and Burning)
In other words, shy or inhibited students can be greatly benefited by
individualized, student-centred collaborative learning Adding computers and other
media to conventional class, which is teacher-centred, may provide the flexibility
The tools not only free teachers from a lot of usual tasks but interest students in a
lot of ways Students prefer being given feedback by computers to being given by
teachers as it used to for a long time; and they enjoy discovering and learning the
new from computers and other media Mason and Bruning found that
“One of the main advantages of computer-based education is the ability to
provide immediate feedback on individual responses Among the most
important outcomes of feedback are helping learners identify errors and
become aware of misconceptions Feedback is also a significant factor in
motivating further learning.”
Feedback is an indispensable element in the process of transformation
between teachers and learners It is conventionally and uniquely carried out by
teachers Technology not only facilitates the teachers’ tasks and save their time and
effort but gives immediate, accurate and individual feedback which interests most
students and benefits students who are not confident doing their tasks in front of
class
In short, technologies motivate students by providing visual and interactive
features They also help students to be more comfortable and confident through
immediate and individual feedback Technology with the present of the internet
also supplies teachers and students with a tremendous resource in which the
materials required can be retrieved in seconds and with some simple manipulations
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Chapter 2 Literature review 11
2.1.2 Authentic materials for study
The development of the Internet brought about a revolution in the teachers'
perspective Nowadays, the Internet is gaining immense popularity in foreign
language teaching and more and more educators and learners are embracing it
With the help of the internet, all students can use various resources of authentic
reading materials either at school or from their home Significantly, those materials
can be accessed 24 hours a day
“Using the World Wide Web (WWW), students can search through millions
of files around the world within minutes to locate and access authentic
materials (e.g., newspaper and magazine articles, radio broadcasts, short
videos, movie reviews, book excerpts) exactly tailored to their own personal
interests.” (Warschauer, 1996)
In 2001, Brinton confirmed how authenticity can be integrated into
classroom with the help of media:
"Media materials can lend authenticity to the classroom situation,
reinforcing for students the direct relation between the language classroom
and the outside world" (p 461)
Hartnett (as cited in Brinton, 2001) shared that perspective by saying that
media tools appeal to students' senses and help them process information, thus
empowering their understanding of the target language and increasing their
motivation toward language learning, reinforcing the teaching points, and saving
the teacher unnecessary explanation
2.1.3 Students’ attitudes and reaction
Technology–based instruction enhances student attitudes toward several
aspects of schooling The line of inquiry has brought most researchers to the
conclusion that the use of computers leads to more positive students attitudes than
the use of conventional instruction The following is a modified list of reasons why
students like learning with computers and multimedia collected by Cotton (1991)
Students say they like working with computers because computers:
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Chapter 2 Literature review 12
- are infinitively patient
- allow students to work privately
- are fun and entertaining
- individualize learning
- give immediate feedback
- are great motivator
- make it possible to experiment with different options
- are self-paced
- do not embarrass students who make mistakes
- are great motivators
- never forget to correct or praise
These student preferences show their appreciation of computers’ integration
It leads to their positive attitudes towards computers, course content and quality of
instruction
2.2 UNIQUE INSTRUCTIONAL CAPABILITIES
On the part of the teachers, instructional technology can give benefits
through a lot of ways The input-ability and display ability of modern media
endlessly changed the classroom The simulate ability makes possible what could
never be done before
2.2.1 Input
At first, the input of material in education includes papers with text and
graphics, lectures, discussions and libraries In the recent past, the input of
educational material is restricted to the keyboard (of typewriters and computers
with the software MS-DOS) which limited to text With the tremendous advent of
technology the input now can be coloured animated graphics with mouse, touch
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Chapter 2 Literature review 13
screen, digital camera and scanners It gives teachers and students lots of benefits
that have never been thought about
“Graphical input allows students and instructors to input drawings of higher
quality, precision, and complexity with greater ease than possible in the
paper medium Graphical draw programs make it a snap to draw near perfect
circles and boxes without the use of a compass and straight edge; they can
fill with color and texture nearly instantaneously; and they can resize, rotate,
and copy without having to redraw everything again Furthermore,
electronic input often provides a product whose resolution is often superior
to traditional hard copy generation of material” (Norman, 1997)
“…instead of the poorly drawn figures on the blackboard, the instructor will
have rich diagrams and figures; instead of the reference to a person, place,
or painting, the teacher with be able to show the picture; and instead of
imagining the a sequence of movements in a engine or a heart value, the
students will see it operate The sparse, colorless, static classroom
environment will burst into a rich, full color, dynamic display of information
because of the ease of input.” (Norman, 1997)
2.2.2 Display
Display is the other side of input In traditional classroom, input and display
are tightly linked together The teachers wrote on the board and simultaneously
students read and wrote what the teachers had just given word by word to keep it
for future reference With the help of the presentation software like power point,
what teachers have to do in class is just to click of the mouse and all the
information required is shown in seconds Students’ tasks are now not seen and
corrected by teachers until they hand out the finished products Display technology
rapidly improves this matter in teaching and learning These are what Norman
stated about display ability (1997)
“The student in the back row that could not see the blackboard has no
trouble seeing the instructor's notes now de-coupled from the input and
displayed on his or her screen 18 inches away Instructors can view a
student's exam on their own monitor as it is being written at the student's
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Chapter 2 Literature review 14
workstation and avert any misunderstandings or problems before it is
handed in Whatever is input at one point can be displayed wherever it is
needed at another point The interesting thought written in the student's
notebook can be displayed on a wall monitor for the whole class to see”
2.2.3 Simulate-ability
Simulate ability of modern media made possible what teachers could never
be carried out in conventional class It is said that we learn and we remember we
see and we forget Educational researchers have demonstrated time and again that
the most meaningful learning takes place when students have direct, first-hand
experience with concrete materials Simulation programs normally model some real
life situation where real things are too expensive, too dangerous or too time
consuming and they are enable students to manipulate and experiment with it
Without the help of technology it would be impossible to do such things in class
“Today’s computer-based technologies offer powerful new ways to provide
students with direct experience in the classroom curriculum And, through
using teaching and learning resources that can be manipulated
electronically, technology can extend the experience of students far beyond
the time and space limitations of conventional materials.” (Dyrli &
Kinnaman, 1995)
“Simulations have allowed students to experience, experiment with, and
analyze systems in ways that are not possible in the real world Simulations
allow students to speed up (e.g evolutionary models, models of epidemics)
or slow down (e.g., internal combustion engines, nuclear chain reactions)
the time line so that they can observe the changes in a reasonable length of
time Watching simulations in process help students to identify patterns,
observe sequences, and discover inter-relationships in the system being
observed.” (Norman, 1997)
An example of the most benefit of simulations is that they allow the students
to run experiments Students can set the initial conditions, define relationships and
objects, start the simulation, and see what happens
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Chapter 2 Literature review 15
“Many simulations can be conducted as games to make otherwise dull
systems interesting and challenging The object of the game is to define or
to set conditions so as to lead to favourable outcome conditions.” (Norman,
1997)
Those are some of effects of instructional technology that have been found
out in prior researches However, what makes teaching so superior and more
effective in technology-based environment? What can we do with technology?
2.3 USING TECHNOLOGY SUPPORT TOOLS
FIGURE 2.1 Relationship of media and teaching
Method Teacher Media Information Learner
The process of teaching and learning (To Xuan Giap, 2000, p 6) is
illustrated through figure 2-1 Media plays a vital role of transforming information
from the teachers to learners In history of education, teachers have been endlessly
created new tools in their teaching In the era of information and technology, these
needs are satisfied in a way that they have never imagined Tools application is one
of the salient characteristics of instructional technology
There is a wide range of applications which are already available for use in
foreign language classes They can be seen in the following parts: using multimedia
and hypermedia, using software tools and using internets and internet related tools
2.3.1 Using multi-media and hypermedia
“Instructional media are means by which information can be delivered to a
learner” (Heinnich at al., 1993, p.5) These means may be video, audio, text,
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Chapter 2 Literature review 16
graphics, a combination of various media called multimedia or the powerful and
indispensable tool: computer software “The term multimedia conveys the notions
of a system in which various media are integrated into a single delivery system
under computer control” (Newby, Stepich, Lehman & Russel, 2000) That may be
the reasons leading to their indication that:
“Media can provide vicarious experiences Students don’t have to go to a
foreign country to see it Visuals give added meanings to words Students
can see what a new invention looks like, not just hear or read a verbal
description of it Motion media and sequential still visuals can demonstrate
a process It is better if learners see a skill demonstrated before being asked
to practice it” (p 100)
What make multimedia even more powerful is that it also entails
hypermedia The multimedia resources are all linked together and teachers and
learners can navigate their own path by simply pointing and clicking a mouse This
power is described by Norman in his online book (1997):
“Link-ability will not only make information more accessible, it will help to
order it in an instructional framework Although information may be
initially stored hierarchically, it can be linked laterally to allow instructors
to lead their students through a pedagogically meaningful path and to allow
students to explore it according to their interests”
By this way, hypermedia provides a number of advantages for language
learning which was stated by Warschauer in 1996
“First of all, a more authentic learning environment is created, since
listening is combined with seeing, just like in the real world Secondly, skills
are easily integrated, since the variety of media make it natural to combine
reading, writing, speaking and listening in a single activity Third, students
have great control over their learning, since they can not only go at their
own pace but even on their own individual path, going forward and
backwards to different parts of the program, honing in on particular aspects
and skipping other aspects altogether Finally, a major advantage of
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Chapter 2 Literature review 17
hypermedia is that it facilitates a principle focus on the content, without
sacrificing a secondary focus on language form or learning strategies.”
With hypermedia students can have access to variety of background
links which provide them with the required information rapidly and precisely
Another form of media which has a rather strong impact in the field of
education is computer Although it is a form of media, its power is so versatile that
it is set apart from other media and it is worth considering separately The next
section is devoted to the questions how to use and adapt computers for teaching
and how to integrate computers into classroom effectively and efficiently
2.3.2 Using software tools in teaching and learning technical English
In 1980, Taylor proposed a classification system for instructional technology
that grouped computer resources according to their functions Computer is a tutor,
tutee and tools On the basis of the background and the purpose of the research, the
next section as well as the whole research just focuses on computers in the roles of
tools Technology resources that involve computer software tools and integration
strategies for them are the concern Productivity software tools and a wide variety
of other computer-based products that are available can support teachers and
students These tools vary greatly in their purposes, the kinds of benefits they offer
and their utility for teachers Basing on the capabilities of a particular tool, the
needs for the situation and the background of the study the writer illustrates the
software support tool into following categories: word processors, graphics tools,
presentation software and research and reference tools
2.3.2.1 Word processors
Words processors are probably the most common type of software which
are mainly used to create, store, and manipulate texts
“Word processors can support nearly all kinds of task of teaching activities
that were previously done by handwriting or typewriters but offers more
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Chapter 2 Literature review 18
capability and versatility than either of these methods” (Newby, Stepich,
Lehman and Russel, p.46)
Word processors benefits teachers’ tasks by saving their preparation time
They can modify the materials stored in the computer instead of creating the new
ones They can easily use the old documents and update them with little efforts
The materials created by word processors have a better appearance than hand
writing because of their various features and capabilities
“At least with a computer the raw material can be much more quickly
copied, allowing more time for the useful task of shaping, reviewing and
working with the text to produce a high quality and well thought out piece
of work.” (Ager, 2000, p 32)
Some common features that can be used in teaching are: Preparing text
documents, recording ideas in class brainstorming sections, creating quizzes, tests
and other forms of evaluation Perhaps, one of the most salient features of word
processors is to teach writing skill Word processors have got a lot more to do with
the writing process of learners than with their presentation of final products Word
processors with vocabulary and grammar checker and thesaurus can assist language
development by discovering mistakes and suggesting alternatives which require
learners to identify words they actually wanted to use
2.3.2.2 Graphic tools
If the word processors are rather helpful in preparing as well as in teaching
in term of text documents, graphics tools relate to pictorial information including
charts, diagrams, graphs, pictures, animated images, photographs, etc A variety of
graphics tools have been developed to produce images and illustrations for both
print and on-screen presentations
Draw/Paint and image programs create images by painting or drawing on the
screen with a mouse or a light pen Popular graphics packages include Adobe
Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator, Corel Draw, MetaCreations Painter, Microsoft
PhotoDraw 2000, Auto CAD, etc
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Chapter 2 Literature review 19
Images can also be uploaded from clip-art and graphics libraries such as
Deluxe or downloaded from the internet With these packages, teachers do not take
them time to learn to create original pictures They are all created by artists or
designers or optically scanned from books, stored on disk and imported to the
documents
“Clipart packages and video collections are invaluable tools to help both
teachers and students to illustrate and decorate their written products”
For teachers and students who want to develop their own multimedia
presentations, collection of sound effects and movie clips is a common choice In
addition, they can also use movie-making software in their graphics production
Macromedia have been recently recommended by lots of educators Macromedia
Flash creates simulations and animated graphics, Macromedia Director with Lingo
language helps to create films or distance learning programs, Macromedia
Freehand processes graphics, etc
Digitizing systems and video development systems are software tools that
handle pictures scanned into the computer and stored as picture files Teachers can
also produce pictures by taking photos from digital camera, storing them on disk
and importing them to video presentations or desktop publishing products
2.3.2.3 Presentation software
It offers advantages over its traditional counterparts Information is easily
entered, edited and presented Popular presentation packages include Microsoft
PowerPoint, Adobe Persuasion, Lotus freelance graphics, Corel Word Perfect
presentation, Macromedia Flash, etc These packages help teachers create on-screen
images, description, demonstrations which are often enlarged
“These are especially useful for teacher presentation to whole classes of
students but can also be used to enhance conference presentations or talk to
large groups They can enhance instruction in traditional large group lecture
courses ” (Roblyer & Edwards, p 152)
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Chapter 2 Literature review 20
In addition, presentation software also allow teachers to add, delete, move,
restore or link quickly to other pages with some simple manipulations at any times
But there must be another reason to spend a large amount of money, time and effort
in using presentation software The reason was stated by Ager (2000):
“By using colour slides, you are likely to be able to make the presentation
more visually interesting because you can include relevant colour illustrations
to supplement the text By using the power of a piece of presentation software
you can animate elements of the material as well as incorporating sound and
video into it.” (p 48)
2.3.2.4 Research and reference tools
Books used to be the unique reference and seemed to be irreplaceable
Nowadays, CD-ROM not only the great resources for reference but make it easier
to retrieve information
“CD-ROM and encyclopaedias have several advantages over books Users
can search to locate one specific item or all references on a given topic”
“CD-ROM dictionaries specify pronunciation, definition, and example uses for
each word entry Many CD-Rom dictionaries can play an audio clip of the
pronunciation of the desired word” (Roblyer & Edwards, 2000, pp
156-157)
The software tools discussed in this section have been identified teaching and
learning benefits from using multimedia and computers bring to classroom With the
expanding development of computing technology and information of technology,
the role of the internet in education cannot be ignored and it is presented in the next
part
2.3.3 Using internet and internet related tools: E-mail, internet sites
The internet provides easy access to every possible kind of information and
serves as effective tools in learning: internet tools for communication, internet tools
for inquiry and internet tools for construction Those are the main focuses in this
section
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Chapter 2 Literature review 21
2.3.3.1 Internet as tools for communication
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is a termed which refers to
human communication via computers Synchronous CMC includes online chat,
audio, and video conferencing Asynchronous CMC includes email, mailing lists,
discussion forums
“Valuable qualities of such communication are learner collaboration and
autonomy because of an automatically diminished role of teachers during
online exchanges.” (Kavaliauskiene, 2003)
CMC can change some of the basic characteristics and encourage greater
and more diverse participation Because E-mail communication is
time-independent, students have more time to create massages The use of e-mail
facilitates direct communication between student and instructor at times convenient
to both This has advantages for students unable to adhere to a schedule of office
hours This flexibility allows students to choose when and how much they interact
outside the classroom
2.3.3.2 The internet as a tool for inquiry
Web is a collection of a vast number of reference materials which could be
assessed and selected through using common search engines or directories For
example: http://www.google.com/ , http://www.yahoo.com/, http://www.ask.com/,
http://www.about.com, etc
“The use of the World Wide Web may enable students to access
information that is otherwise unavailable The web provides resources that
are easier to access than more traditional sources On-line journals and web
pages contain graphic in addition to text-based information”
2.3.3.3 Webquests
Webquests are inquiry-based activities designed for the purpose of
integration the internet into the classroom
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Chapter 2 Literature review 22
“The advantages of webquests are numerous: fostering cooperative
learning, engaging students in performing real world tasks, using authentic
online materials, promoting leaner motivation, developing reading skills
such as scanning, skimming, paraphrasing, summarizing, organising,
analysing as well as problem solving skills” (Marco, 2002)
2.3.3.4 Internet for self-study
The internet can serve as teaching medium, which not only contains text but
also pictures, quizzes, crosswords, sounds, music and film A lot of web-assisted
lessons which are free (of charge) but may supplement learning grammar,
vocabulary, reading and writing at learners’ own pace as a self-study Learners
may practice grammatical structures, improve listening and speaking skills and
build up their vocabulary
To sum up, new technologies including computers and internet make dramatic
alternatives in classroom They facilitate teachers in preparing their lesson plans
and with tools to arouse students’ interest in learning Thus they enhance the
teaching and learning process and assist language development To be more
effective in applying technology in teaching and learning technical English, a
overview of theories relevant to teaching and learning ESP is worth considering
2.4 THE THEORETICAL BASE OF TECHNICAL ENGLISH
2.4.1 Definition of technical English related to ESP
2.4.1.1 Definitions of ESP
There are various definitions of ESP - ESP is for study in a discipline or as
school subject; ESP course are those where the syllabus and materials are
determined in all essentials by the prior analysis of the communication needs of the
learner To have a clearer view of ESP, Hutchinson and Walters (1989) stated not
only what is ESP but what is not ESP:
“ESP must be seen as an approach not as a product ESP is not a particular
kind of language or methodology, nor does it consist of a particular type of
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Chapter 2 Literature review 23
teaching material Understood properly, it is an approach to language
learning, which is based on learner need.” (p )
Dudley-Evans and St John (1998, p 4) have recently modified definitions
of ESP in two perspectives: Absolute characteristics and variable characteristics:
1 Absolute characteristics
ESP is designed to meet the specific of the learners;
ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the
disciplines it serves;
2 Variable characteristics:
ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;
ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology
from that of general English
ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at tertiary level
institution or in a professional work situation It could, however, be
used for learners at secondary level;
ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students Most
ESP courses assume basic knowledge of the language system, but it
can be use with beginners
All the above definitions show that ESP is part of English language teaching
in theory and that the specific needs of learners must be taken into consideration
However, in practice, the purposes for which the learners learn English are quite
different and in specific teaching situation, a different methodology may be used
A broader definition of ESP by Hutchinson and Waters (1989) is as follows:
“ESP, then, is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to
content and method are based in the learners’ reasons for learning.” ( p 19)
In other words, successful ESP teachers must start teaching ESP students
when they acknowledge what their needs for the language are and what they want,
what the content of the course is, which approaches should be used and what their
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Chapter 2 Literature review
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roles are Those are factors affecting the process of learning ESP according to
linguists and researchers and mentioned in the next sections
2.4.1.2 The categorizations of ESP
Figure 2.2 ELT tree by Hutchison and Walters (modified)
- ELT: English Language Teaching
- EMT: English as a Mother Tongue
- EFL: English as a Foreign Language
- ESL: English as a Second Language
- ESP: English for Specific Purposes
- GE: General English
- EST: English for Science and Technology
- ESS: English for Social Sciences
- EBE: English for Business and Economics
- EAP: English for Academic Purposes
- EOP: English for Occupational Purposes
ELT
ESL
Language Teaching
Trang 36ESP is divided into 3 mains branches It seems that technical English can also be called English for technology, which forms an inseparable part of English for science and technology The tree of ELT by Hutchison and Walters (1987) (figure 2 2) illustrates the relationship between technical English and ESP
The tree illustrated shows that English for technology or technical English is not different in kind from other form of language, it is just a developing branch stretched out from the stem of the tree Technical English is a branch of ESP, and ESP is part of EFL which belongs to language teaching Thus, technical English is
a part of language teaching in general and is not a new kind of English that needs a special teaching methodology However, the language people use may varies according to the context, it leads to some typical differences in technical English and general English That is why needs analysis is necessary and is discussed in the very next part Right after that the method of teaching, the teachers’ roles are presented As for the language issues for technical English, it is left to the next chapter
2.4.2 The roles of needs analysis in ESP teaching
Dudley-Evans (1998) believed that: “needs analysis is the corner stone of ESP and leads to very focused course” The word English for Specific Purposes or English for technology orients teachers to one direction only: meeting the target need which is known as the necessities, lacks and wants of particular learners As previously mentioned, ESP is not an odd from other kind of language; it is nạve to concern only on the target objectives in the process of teaching and planning the lesson It is for the reason that: “Analysing what people do tells you little, if anything, about how they learnt to do it Yet, the whole ESP process is concerned not with knowing or doing, but with learning” (p 61) In short, to make the teaching and learning process more effective, apart from target needs, learning needs - students’ level, field knowledge, motivation, methods of learning, etc - should be greatly concerned by ESP teachers
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Trang 372.4.3 Principles and techniques of learning and teaching ESP
2.4.3.1 Principles of learning
To determine the best roles of technology in education, appropriate teaching strategies, techniques and method need to be discussed critically
“Teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enable the learner to learn,
setting the conditions for learning.” (Brown, p 8)
Teachers should master the way their students learn to have a particular techniques Methods always have a certain role in the process of teaching and learning
Here are some basic principles of language learning (by Hutchison and
Walters, p 128)
1 Second language learning is a developmental process “Learners use their existing knowledge to make their new information comprehensible Learner’ existing state of knowledge is, therefore, a vital element in the success or failure of learning, and a good teacher will consequently try to establish and exploit what learners already know”
2 Learning a language is an active process “It is not enough for a learner just
to have the necessary knowledge to make things meaningful, they must also use that knowledge.”
3 Language learning is a decision-making process “The process of developing and using a network of knowledge relies upon a train of learner decisions Learners must be decision-makers”
4 Language learning is not just a matter of linguistic knowledge “The second language learner is someone who is conceptually and cognitively mature but is linguistically infant.”
5 Language learning is not the learners’ first experience with language
“Learners’ knowledge of communication should be actively exploited in second language learning, for example, by getting students to predict before reading or listening”
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Trang 386 Learning is an emotional experience Human beings are emotional animals
In education, our concern should be to develop the positive emotion as apposed to the negatives ones, for example: making interest, fun, variety, primary consideration in materials and methodology, rather than just added extras
Figure 2.3 A positive learning cycle
by Hutchison and Walters (1989)
ENTRY POINT
Leaner see learning as
an enjoyable and satisfying experience
Leaner applies cognitive powers to acquire knowledge
Increased competence
enables learner to learn more easily
Learning is successful
Learner’
competence develops
Learner wants to learn
Leaner see learning as
an enjoyable and satisfying experience
Leaner applies cognitive powers to acquire knowledge
Increased competence
enables learner to learn more easily
Learning is successful
Learner’
competence develops
Learner wants to learn
3 Prediction: prediction is the matter of using existing knowledge to anticipate what is likely a novel
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Trang 394 Enjoyment: it is the simplest of all ways of engaging the learners’ mind It doesn’t matter how relevant a lesson may appear to be; if it bores the learners, it is a bad lesson
5 An integrated methodology : using a range of skills greatly increases the
range of activities possible in the classroom
6 Coherence: each stage should build on previous stages and lead naturally to the following stages
7 Preparation: the preparation for an activity forms the greater part of the study This is a matter of building up a context of knowledge around the materials and so preparing the learners’ mind to learn
8 Involvement: learners need to be involved both cognitively and emotionally
in the lesson The ways in which the learners can be involved are prediction, variety, etc
9 Creativity: activities should allow for different answers, different levels of responses
10 Atmosphere: effective learning depends heavily on intangible factors such
as the relationship between teachers and students
2.4.4 The roles of the ESP teachers
For some reasons, Dudley and Evans (1998: pp.13-14) prefer to use the term practitioner rather than teacher
“There is one basic difference that affects the methodology and become
more pronounced as the teaching becomes more specific: this is that the
teacher is not in the position of the primary knower of the carrier content of
the material Students, in some cases, know the content more than the
teacher”
“Teachers remain the classroom organisers; they have clear objectives for
the class and a good understanding of the carrier content of the teaching
material”
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Trang 402.5 TEACHER PLANNING AND PREPARATION FOR TECHNOLOGY
USE (Roblyer and Edwards (2000))
The literature on education showed a lot of activities and outcomes To apply instructional technology in classroom, three levels of preparation have to be discussed in detail On the purpose of the current study, the third levels-teacher planning and preparation- should be mentioned Teachers are responsible for creating an environment in which technology can effectively enhance learning To
do this, teachers must do some tasks beforehand Figure 2.3 illustrates the modified checklists for ESP teachers which are extracted from ‘integrating educational technology into teaching’ by Roblyer and Edwards (2000)
FIGURE 2.4 Technology integration checklists for teachers
— Activities involved in learning present logistical hurdles for students (handwriting, calculations, data collection) which interfere with acquiring higher level skill
— Learning requires extensive individual, teacher-corrected practice; leaving limited time for individual help
— Students find topics uninteresting/tedious; motivation and transfer are constant problems
— Teacher-led activities are needed but teacher and/or materials are not available
— Students need practice in skills that will make them technologically competitive as students and workers; technology literacy, information
literacy and visual literacy
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