Using the task based appoach in teaching and learning efl writing skill an action research in suburban young learner class in ho chi minh city ma

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE USING THE TASK-BASED APPROACH IN TEACHING AND LEAR

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE

USING THE TASK-BASED APPROACH IN

TEACHING AND LEARNING EFL WRITING SKILLS:

AN ACTION RESEARCH IN SUBURBAN YOUNG LEARNER CLASSES IN HO CHI MINH CITY

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of English Linguistics & Literature

in partial fulfillment of the Master‟s degree in TESOL

By MAI TAN PHAT

Supervised by NGUYEN THI HONG THAM, Ph.D

HO CHI MINH CITY, JULY 2022

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY v

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x

ABSTRACT xi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background to the study 1

1.2 Problem statement 3

1.3 Aims of the study 4

1.4 Research questions 5

1.4 Significance of the study 5

1.5 Scope of the study 5

1.6 Organization of the thesis chapters 6

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Teaching EFL writing skills to young learners 7

2.1.1 The definitions of writing and writing skills 7

2.1.2 Writing as a product and writing as a process 8

2.1.3 Young learners 10

2.1.4 Young learners and writing learning 12

2.1.5 Factors affecting young learners‟ EFL writing 13 2.1.6 Approaches to teaching EFL writing skills to young learners 15

2.2 The task-based approach 18

2.2.1 An overview of tasks 18

2.2.2 Development of the task-based approach 20

2.2.3 Frameworks for the use of the task-based approach 23

2.2.4 Principles and guidelines for the implementation of the task-based approach 25

2.3.5 Rationale for using the task-based approach in teaching EFL writing 26

2.3 Previous studies on the use of the task-based approach in young learners‟ EFL writing skills teaching and learning 28

2.4 Conceptual framework of the study 30

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 32

3.1 Context of the study 32

3.2 Research participants 33

3.3 Research design 33

3.3.1 Reasons for the choice of qualitative action research design 34

3.3.2 Applying the action research design to the study 35

3.4 Research instruments 37

3.4.1 Observations 38

3.4.2 Students‟ writing samples 38

3.4.3 First semi-structured focus-group interview 41

3.4.4 Students‟ qualitative questionnaire 42

3.4.5 Teacher‟s focus-group interview 42

3.5 Data collection procedure 42

3.6 Data analysis schema 44

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 47

4.1 The preliminary cycle 47

4.1.1 The first two writing samples 47

4.1.2 Data from teacher‟s journal 50

4.1.3 The first focus-group interview 50

4.1.4 Discussions on the preliminary cycle 52

4.2 The first intervention and cycle 1 53

4.2.1 Action plan for cycle 1 53

4.2.2 Three writing samples in Cycle 1 54

4.2.3 Data from teacher‟s journal 59

4.2.4 Discussion of Cycle 1 60

4.3 The second intervention and Cycle 2 61

4.3.1 Action plan of cycle 2 61

4.3.2 Three writing samples in Cycle 2 62

4.3.3 Data from teacher‟s journal 65

4.3.4 Data from questionnaires 66

4.3.5 The second focus-group interview 67

4.3.6 Discussions of Cycle 2 69

4.4 Answers to the research questions 70

4.4.1 The assistance of the task-based approach 70

4.4.2 Students perceptions 70

4.4.2 The strengths and weaknesses of the approach 71

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS 73

5.1 Summary of the study 73

5.2 Implications of the study 75

5.3 Limitations of the study 75

5.4 Recommendations for further research 76

References 77

Appendices 81

Appendix 1: Writing tasks 81

Appendix 2: Lesson plans 87

Appendix 3 First focus-group interview form 103

Appendix 4 Observation form 105

Appendix 5: Questionnaire 107

Appendix 6 Second focus-group interview form 111

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

I certify that the thesis entitled “USING THE TASK-BASED APPROACH IN TEACHING AND LEARNING EFL WRITING SKILLS: AN ACTION RESEARCH IN SUBURBAN YOUNG LEARNER CLASSES IN HO

CHI MINH CITY” is the product of my own work

The thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degrees or diplomas in any other institutions The thesis's content, except where clearly acknowledged within the text, has not been published by other authors

Ho Chi Minh City, July 2022

Mai Tấn Phát

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, Mai Tấn Phát, being the candidate for the degree of Master in TESOL at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities – Vietnam National University – Ho Chi Minh City, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master's Thesis deposited in the library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that my thesis deposited in the library should be accessible for the purpose of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the library for the care, loan or reproduction

of theses

Ho Chi Minh City, July 2022

Mai Tấn Phát

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Nguyễn Thị Hồng Thắm, for her wholehearted guidance, timely assistance, and continuous encouragement throughout the process of doing this thesis I would have been lost and the completion of this thesis would not be possible without her supervision

Next, my thankfulness goes to all the instructors and the staff of the Faculty of English Linguistics and Literature at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities – Vietnam National University – Ho Chi Minh city They have inspired and provided me with valuable lessons, which not only broadened my horizon but also helped me grow up as a whole person

I also wish to thank my friends and my classmates in the class of 2018A for their encouragement, material sharing, and helpful advice whenever I am in need

Last but not least, my heartfelt thanks must go to my family and my siblings, who are always by my side and support me Without them, I would not have the courage and determination to complete this thesis

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 The characteristics of EFL young learners and older learners 11

Table 2.2 Ellis‟s framework for task-based lessons 24

Table 3.1 Summary of the instruments employed 37

Table 3.2 Summary of the tasks used in the study 40

Table 3.3 Mark schema for A2 writing level 45

Table 4.1 Summary of results of students‟ writing in the preliminary cycle 48

Table 4.2 Summary of results of students‟ writing in Cycle 1 55

Table 4.1 Summary of results of students‟ writing in Cycle 2 63

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Willis‟s framework for task-based approach 23

Figure 2.2 The conceptual framework of the study 30

Figure 3.1 The cyclical model of the study 36

Figure 3.2 Thematic network for data analysis 44

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CLT: Communicative language teaching

EFL: English as a foreign language

TBI: Task-based instruction

TBLT: Task-based language teaching

YLs: Young learners

Ss: Students

ABSTRACT

Recent years have witnessed an upsurge of attention towards teaching EFL writing to young learners Learning writing is an essential, integral, and delightful part of foreign language learning; however, to teach writing skills to young learners effectively demands much effort from EFL teachers The advent

of the task-based approach has revolutionized English language teaching and become one of the most popular English teaching approaches Nevertheless, whether the use of the task-based approach is effective and practical in improving young learners‟ EFL writing skills remains a question An action research consisting of 3 cycles were conducted during 22 weeks to improve the young learners‟ writing skills and the researcher‟s teaching practice in the use of the task-based approach The study also explored the learners‟ perceptions towards the implementation of the approach, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the approach The two classes with a total of 20 young learners aged from 9 to 12 were the sample of the study Data were collected through four research instruments: teacher‟s journals, students‟ sample papers, qualitative questionnaires, and focus group interviews The findings indicate that the use of the task-based approach greatly assisted teaching and learning EFL writing as it helped young learners improve their writing skills In addition, the implementation of the approach received positive feedback from young learners The study also identifies some of the benefits and disadvantages of the approach

in teaching EFL writing skills in young learner classes Moreover, the implications of the study and the directions for further research on the use of the task-based approach are presented in the final chapter of the study

Keywords: writing skills, young learners, the task-based approach

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides an overview of the study, including the background

to the study, the statement of problems, the aims of the study, the research questions, the significance of the study, the scope of the study, and the organization of the thesis chapters

1.1 Background to the study

English has now gained dominance in global communication and has been considered a world language English is the only language that is widely spoken all over the world, and it is the most commonly studied foreign language in the world English is used for various purposes such as business, finance and commerce, international relationships, higher education, employment, travel and tourism, scientific research, engineering, technology, and

so on The ultimate aim of learning English language skills is to be able to communicate and contribute to the goals of industrialization and modernization of our country in this integration era Thus, to achieve this, students are supposed to be good at all language skills, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing

Each skill is equally important among these four language skills, and English language learners should never ignore or neglect any of these since they are interlinked However, writing seems the most challenging skill to acquire for many learners of EFL learners because of the complexity of writing in spelling, vocabulary, grammatical structures, cohesion, coherence, and other factors For young learners (YLs), learning writing skills is even more challenging due to their specific characteristics and learning styles that are distinctive to other age groups

For children to be well-prepared for the future as international citizens, to make their voices heard, and be able to communicate, becoming confident writers in different languages, especially in English, is essential Scott and Ytreberg (1990, as cited in Nunan (2011)) argue that learning writing is not only

a good thing but also a crucial, integral, and enjoyable part of foreign language

learning Scott and Ytreberg (1990, p.69) highlight some reasons why young language learners should learn writing skills:

 “It adds another physical dimension to the learning process Hands are added to the eyes and ears

 It lets pupils express their personalities Even guided activities can include choices for pupil

 Writing activities help to consolidate learning in other skills areas Balanced activities train the language and help the memory

 Particularly as pupils progress in the language, writing activities allow for conscious development of language

 Writing is valuable itself There is a special feeling about seeing your work in print and enormous satisfaction in having written something that you want to say.”

For the abovementioned benefits of teaching and learning writing, recent years have witnessed an upsurge of attention towards teaching EFL writing to young learners More and more writing tasks are included in EFL textbooks and examinations for young learners (Nunan, 2011) For example, the Cambridge YLE Movers and Flyers examinations (since 2018) and the Cambridge KET examination (since 2020) have their formats updated with additional writing tasks (Cambridge English Assessment, 2019) Writing skills is not only a way for young learners to express their ideas, but also help them to be more logical in their thoughts, creative and artistic However, due to the fact that writing is a complex skill for young learners to develop and language teachers find it challenging to effectively teach writing skills to young learners, it tends to be neglected in most EFL young learner classes (Anderson and Arnold, 2016) That issue raises an urge for appropriate approaches to teaching EFL writing skills to YLs

Since the 80s, the emergence of the task-based approach, also known as task-based language teaching (TBLT) or task-based instruction (TBI), has revolutionized English language teaching and has become a thriving field of investigation Task-based approach not only enables learners to use the language

communicatively through the performance and attainment of tasks, but also promotes learner autonomy and motivates learners through meaningful language use (Nunan, 2004) In teaching and learning writing, the task-based approach has been theoretically and empirically proven to be an effective approach since it provides both teachers and learners with multiple advantages (Long, 2015) As aforementioned, for the fact that teaching EFL writing skills to young learners are challenging, using the task-based approach is a promising strategy for EFL teachers to enhance their teaching practice, and improve the students‟ writing skills

In the Vietnamese educational context, English has become a compulsory subject in primary schools since 2018 It can be seen that the majority of EFL coursebooks being used in Vietnam follow the task-based curriculum Likewise, the use of the task-based approach has gained popularity in English language teaching in Vietnam In addition, in Vietnam, language centers for young learners have become one of the most popular English teaching and learning contexts, where innovative language teaching approaches such as communicative language teaching, task-based language teaching, project-based language teaching, etc., are being in use Nevertheless, whether the use of the task-based approach is suitable or not for teaching English writing skills to young learners and the appropriate use of the task-based approach in teaching writing to young Vietnamese learners of English remain a question

1.2 Problem statement

In the Vietnamese context, especially in rural and suburban areas, the use

of the Grammar-Translation teaching method and Production (PPP) teaching approach remains dominant in spite of the drawbacks

Presentation-Practice-of these methods and approaches As a result, Vietnamese EFL learners are overwhelmed with grammatical structures and vocabulary, which hinders them from creatively expressing their ideas, personalities, and perceptions through writing (Hoang, 2018) Moreover, despite the benefits of writing skills, it can be seen that teaching and learning writing skills are being neglected or even ignored

in Vietnamese public schools, as evidenced by the fact that there are no writing

tests in major national examinations Likewise, the aforementioned problem is even worse for young Vietnamese EFL learners who are still at the early stage of cognitive development and lack essential linguistics resources, as they often feel discouraged when learning writing and fail to complete writing tasks without teachers‟ assistance Therefore, there is an urge for changes in teaching approaches to tackle these problems

Concerning the use of the task-based approach, the task-based approach is now a well-developed pedagogical approach; however, problematic issues remain, such as whether the approach is appropriate for all learners at different ages and levels and in all instructional contexts (Ellis, 2018) Evidently, a number of previous empirical studies on the implementation of the task-based approach in teaching writing skills from many Asian countries such as China (Cao, 2012; Ji, 2017), Indonesia (Sundari, 2018), and Vietnam (Phuong, 2014;

Le & Huynh, 2019) have proven the task-based approach effective However, that the task-based approach‟s practicality and suitability for teaching young learners in suburban areas remain unresolved provokes a need for further studies

to shed light on this matter

1.3 Aims of the study

Since the general aim of action research is to create context-specific knowledge that drives actions to improve an immediate situation (Mills, 2011),

my study aims to improve my learners‟ writing skills through the implementation

of the task-based approach, as well as to improve my teaching practice

Specifically, my study aims to:

• Investigate how the task-based approach assists the process of teaching and learning EFL writing skills in young learner classes

• Explore the young learners‟ perceptions towards the implementation of the approach

• Identify the strengths and weaknesses of the approach in teaching EFL writing skills to young learners to improve my teaching practice on the use

of the task-based approach in the near future

1.4 Significance of the study

This study is significant as it may bring benefits to myself as a teacher and

a researcher, other EFL teachers, and ultimately my learners By using the based approach in teaching young learners EFL writing skills, I will gradually enhance my teaching practice and be able to apply the task-based approach appropriately in my teaching context Upon the successful implementation of the task-based approach conducted in this study, other language teachers in similar instructional contexts will have a guideline to apply the task-based approach in their teaching since the exploration of the young learners‟ perception towards the use of the approach and the strengths and weaknesses of the approach would be explored in this study With regard to the learners, they will have opportunities to experience task-based approach and improve their writing skills

task-1.5 Scope of the study

The focus of this study is the implementation of the task-based approach

in teaching and learning writing skills in young learner classes in a suburban language center, and the investigation of young learners‟ perception toward the implementation of the approach and the strengths and weaknesses of the approach Therefore, the use of the approach in the other three language skills, namely reading, listening, and speaking, will not be mainly discussed in this thesis Likewise, the implementation of the approach in teaching learners in older age groups will not be presented

1.6 Organization of the thesis chapters

This thesis consists of five chapters Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the study Chapter 2 reviews related literature on teaching EFL writing skills to young learners and the use of the task-based approach Chapter 3 presents how the study will be conducted, including the research design, the research context, the participants, and the schemes of data collection and data analysis In Chapter

4, the findings will be presented and discussed in order to find answers to the three research questions The last chapter, Chapter 5, will conclude the thesis by summarizing the major findings, addressing pedagogical implications, admitting limitations of the study, and making recommendations for further studies

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter first reviews previous related literature on teaching young learners EFL writing skills, including the definitions of writing, the differences between writing as a product and writing as a process, young learners, the relationship between young learners and teaching and learning writing, and the approaches in teaching EFL writing to young learners Secondly, the use of the task-based in teaching and learning EFL writing, including the definitions of the task-based approach, its framework, and principles, and the reasons for using the approach in teaching EFL writing skills to young learners is discussed The final part of the chapter reviews some prior research on using the task-based approach

in teaching and learning EFL writing

2.1 Teaching EFL writing skills to young learners

This section includes literature on EFL writing, articulates the differences between product writing and process writing, points out who young learners are, and discusses the approaches to teaching EFL writing to young learners

2.1.1 The definitions of writing and writing skills

The answer to the question “What is writing?” has remained controversial for decades since various authors define writing in different ways According to Byrne (1988, p.1), writing is a process of encoding one‟s thought into language by forming graphic symbols and the arrangement of which is based

on certain rules to form individual words; then, the words are in turn arranged according to the conventions to form sentences However, normally, we do not write just a single sentence or a number of unrelated sentences; instead, “we produce a sequence of sentences arranged in a particular order and link together in a certain way” (ibid, p.1) in order to form a coherent text

Dyson and Freedman (1991, p.58) define writing as “a process-oriented, goal-directed and problem-solving process, which involves the writer‟s awareness of the composing process and the teacher‟s or peer‟s intervention at any time needed.” In other words, writing is a process in which learners or writers consciously put down their ideas to achieve a goal

Brown (2001) claims that writing is a process of putting the writers‟ ideas down on paper to transform thoughts into words to sharpen the main ideas and organize the structure and coherence of the written text In writing, the writers must arrange words into sentences and sentences in a particular order to make meaningful text

Nunan (2011) emphasizes that writing is a complex, cognitive process that requires sustained effort over a considerable period of time He proposes a model of a process-oriented approach, which includes three main stages: prewriting, while-writing, and post-writing for language teachers and learners

In brief, writing is a means of communication by putting ideas down on paper, and it requires writers to go through a complex process including three main stages: prewriting, while-writing, and post-writing

2.1.2 Writing as a product and writing as a process

In English language teaching and learning, there is a continuing tension between the two views of teaching and learning writing (Nunan, 2011) The first view is known as the product approach, while the second is called the process approach

The product approach writing has a focal point on the final product of the writing: a coherent text that clearly shows what the writer means without any grammatical and structural error Language teachers who are in favor of this approach pay attention to tasks in which learners imitate, copy and transform model sentences, paragraphs, and texts provided in the textbooks or by the teachers These activities aim at a coherent error-free text, regardless of the process the writer has gone through to produce it However, Reid (1993) claims students following the product-oriented approaches often conduct writing without a sense of audience and purpose, the two crucial components for writing

The process approach, on the other hand, focuses on the steps involved in drafting, re-drafting, and polishing the piece of writing to produce the final

product White and Arndt (1991) suggest a procedure of process writing including 13 steps:

1 Discussion

2 Brainstorming; making notes; asking questions

3 Fast writing; selecting ideas; establishing a viewpoint

Like most dichotomies, the process-product distinction is a false one As language teachers or as writers, we should pay attention to both process and product The second language writing specialist Ann Raimes clarifies this:

“In a writing class, students need to be taught both how to use the process to their advantage as language learners and writers, and also how to produce an acceptable product on demand A shortcoming of the debate around these issues is that process and product have been seen as either/or rather than both/and entities However, while students certainly need to learn how to pass exams, they also need to perceive writing as a tool for learning, a tool that can be useful to them throughout their professional and personal lives.” (Raimes, 1983, p.245)

To summarize, there are two points of view of writing: product writing and process writing While product writing orient the final writing product, process writing focus on the steps which writers go through to produce the text Language teachers should pay attention to both process and product when teaching writing to EFL learners

Young learners possess unique characteristics and learning styles compared to other those of other learner groups Pinter (2006, p.2) points out that

“all children are unique, and two children at the same chronological age can exhibit markedly different characteristics.” According to Cameron (2001) and Cohen (2010), young learners, in general, are enthusiastic and prefer visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning styles; however, they have a lower level of awareness of the learning process and short attention span, easily and quickly lose interest, and are unable be kept motivated Therefore, it is normal to see young learners drop a task out when they find it difficult to perform and complete

According to Nunan (2011), physical activities greatly assist young learners in learning languages as they explore the surrounding environment by experiencing through their senses Whatever young learners experience, they are actively trying to define and give comments In addition, YLs will not focus on the activity if the activity no longer attracts them and will tend to switch their attention to other activities that they find more attractive

Nunan (2011) (see Table 1) presented a table of the main typical features

of young learners from the point of view of psychology and compared YLs‟ features with those of older learners

Table 2.1: The characteristics of EFL young learners and older

learners (adapted from Nunan (2011, p.3))

Holistic approach to language Analytical approach to language Lower level of awareness about

themselves and the process of

The first thing to notice is that young learners possess “holistic approach

to language” which means that they cannot understand the structure of the language and analyze it However, they are able to understand and produce meaningful messages Second, they are more self-centered and have a lower level

of awareness of themselves than other age groups, which means they are only interested in doing their own activities Next, YLs have limited comprehension and writing abilities as they have limited general knowledge of the surroundings

Finally, young learners love doing activities that are fantasy and have imagination and movement

In brief, young learners are learners at an early age, from the age of three

to fifteen, and they possess remarkably different characteristics and learning styles compared to older learners

2.1.4 Young learners and writing learning

Numerous studies have shown that EFL language teachers face formidable challenges when teaching young learners to write Since they are in an early stage of cognitive development with limited abstract thinking abilities, they are unable to make decisions on what and how to write (Shin & Crandall, 2019) In addition, having little motivation and attention span usually hinder young learners from following the writing process and completing their papers (Harmers, 2007) Despite the challenge and difficulty teachers and learners face

in teaching and learning EFL writing, Scott and Ytreberg (1990) argue that writing is a fundamental, integral, and probably the most enjoyable part of a language lesson

Nunan (2011) addresses several challenges and possible solutions in teaching EFL writing to young learners: cognitive development, motivation, attention, multi-group level, and assessment

 Cognitive development

As young learners go through significant developmental changes, their social and psychological characteristics must be taken into consideration when designing learning experiences and creating writing tasks and materials for young learners Inductive learning activities which require learners to generate grammatical rules from sample languages are likely to be unsuccessful Also, it makes little sense to focus on teaching formal grammar in writing

 Motivation

The lack of motivation comes from a number of factors: the lack of clarity over the learning goals, the content to which learners cannot relate, and most

importantly, the feeling that the efforts the learners make when they write do not pay off as there is little or no evidence of progress they make

Strategies to maintain young learners‟ motivation include: making the goals of learning explicit, choosing the content of the writing to which the learners can relate to their real lives, scaffolding the learning process, personalizing learning, encouraging group/collaborative learning, and providing evidence for learners‟ progress

 Assessment for writing

Teachers need to assess learners for many reasons: class placement, diagnosing learners‟ strengths and weaknesses, and providing them with evidence for their progress In assessing learners‟ writing, it is important to have clear criteria and feedback mechanisms

In summary, there are several difficulties in teaching writing to young learners, and language teachers need to be mindful when choosing suitable teaching approaches for young learners

2.1.5 Factors affecting young learners’ EFL writing

This section discusses some key factors that affect young learners‟ EFL writing, including linguistic knowledge consisting of grammar and vocabulary; discourse knowledge which includes cohesion and coherence; and motivation, which are proposed by Byrne (1991), and Harmer (1991)

 Grammar:

Ur (1996, p.75) defines grammar as “the way words are put together to make correct sentences” Brown (2001, p.362) states that grammar is “a system

of rules governing the conventional arrangement and relationship of words

in a sentence.” As the important role of grammar cannot be denied, Bowen and Harmer (2007) remark on the irreplaceable role of grammar in second language acquisition:

 Grammar plays an essential role in a language since any minor change in any grammatical structure will change the meaning of the sentence

 Grammar helps organize the structures of a language and makes it comprehensible

 Grammar is considered the most important thing in foreign language learning One will be unable to write or speak a language without understanding grammar

However, for young learners, it makes little sense to solely focus on teaching grammatical rules and structures; instead, teachers should find a way to integrate grammar instruction into other activities (Nunan, 2011)

 Vocabulary

Besides grammar, word stock is also very important in learning writing Without words, students cannot express their ideas, as Harmer (1991, p.153) notes:

“Grammatical knowledge allows us to generate sentences At the same time, though, we must have something to say; we must have meanings that

we wish to express, and we need to have a store of words that we can select from when we wish to express these meanings.”

Having initial tasks before writing activities to equip young learners with adequate lexical resources is strongly recommended

 Cohesion and coherence

Concerning cohesion in writing, Connor (1997, p 83) defines it as “the use of explicit linguistic devices to signal relations between sentences and parts

of texts.” Cohesive devices are signal words or phrases that enable readers to

understand the connection between different parts of the text Some commonly used cohesive devices are firstly, next and moreover

Coherence in writing is the property that causes a text to adhere to a consistent worldview based on the author‟s experiences, culture, or norms (Celce-Murica & Olshtain, 2000)

In other words, it can be said that cohesion and coherence are the qualities

of how sentences are sequenced and linked, and they comfort and help readers understand what the readers mean

 Motivation

Ultimately, motivation is an essential factor for teaching and learning EFL writing since it powerfully influences the learning process (Harmer, 1991) Motivation is the decision people make regarding the experiences or goals they will pursue or avoid, as well as the amount of effort they will put forth in that regard (Keller, 1983)

In teaching young learners, learners‟ motivation lack is one of the most obvious challenges teachers face (Linse, 2005) Therefore, teachers should find ways to motivate and encourage their learners Nunan (2011) suggests various ways to keep young learners motivated, such as varying the activities so that learners do not get bored, personalizing the writing activities to which learners can relate, and providing learners evidence of their progress to let them know their efforts pay off

In summary, it is not easy to learn EFL writing effectively, especially for young learners, since several factors affect the success of EFL writing learning Learners need to cope with grammar, vocabulary, cohesion, and coherence Moreover, they also need to be motivated to be willing to write and complete their writing Language teachers should take these factors into consideration when teaching EFL writing

2.1.6 Approaches to teaching EFL writing skills to young learners

The young learners' psychological characteristics and their learning styles make the approaches to teaching them EFL writing skills distinguish from those

of other age groups Several language researchers and teachers have proposed various approaches and techniques for teaching EFL writings to YLs

In writing, young learners make progress from the very basic level to higher ones, starting with copying words and familiar structures up to recognizing structures of texts and finally producing their own writing pieces According to Pinter (2006), there is no flawless method for teaching writing to young children because learning to write in English is a complex skill that often requires a lot of practice to acquire

Pinter (2006) also suggests some practical and effective ways to teach EFL writing to YLs Teachers might offer a creative copying activity where students choose which words to copy from a list and then add one of their own to make these initial activities engaging and relevant for EFL learners Other exercises can involve just copying words that start with the same letter or only copying names from previously recounted stories Next, language teachers can employ guided writing, which requires students to construct a sample piece of writing using their own thoughts and pertinent information These kinds of activities typically involve writing in the form of greeting cards, letters, invitations, stories, or even posters The kids will be able to understand that we write differently depending on whom we are writing to or for thanks to this Since guided writing exercises give kids more freedom to express themselves, the writings they produce are likely to be lengthier Additionally, young learners will be able to keep records through writing They can preserve a record of what they are learning by writing lists of new words, conversations, or brief paragraphs, for instance

Nunan (2011) proposes a model of a process-oriented approach called the

task-based approach that includes three main stages: prewriting, while-writing,

and post-writing

First, prewriting is the planning stage which involves discovering,

gathering, and organizing ideas about a topic Moreover, prewriting helps the writer recognize the purpose of their writing as young learners always ask, “Why

am I writing this paper?” The prewriting stage may include some techniques

or activities to help students engage with an assigned writing topic, such as brainstorming, clustering, making a list, using questions, and discussing and preparing an outline

Second, while-writing is the stage when learners get the thoughts down on

paper once sufficient ideas are gathered at the prewriting stage In this stage, more attention is paid to the fluency of writing than to neatness and grammatical accuracy of the writing According to Hedge (1988), writing the first draft is frequently interrupted by breaks for reading and reviewing, getting a sense of how the text is growing, revising plans, adding new ideas, or rearranging those that have previously been stated He concludes that good writers “tend

to concentrate on getting the content right first and leave details like correcting spelling, punctuation, and grammar until later” (ibid p 23)

Finally, in the post-writing phase, students review their writing to assess how well they have conveyed their meanings for readers to understand and try to

revise their writing Revising involves more than just proofreading for grammar and syntax This step is done to enhance the overall content, and the way thoughts are organized so that the reader may better understand the writer's objective (Seow, 2002) Also, in this stage, learners receive feedback from the teacher or their peers so as to learn from others and improve their papers; this is considered the most important part of writing (Nunan, 2011) At the end of this stage, learners publish their writing by finalizing or rewriting their paper

Nunan (2011) suggests some real-world related activities that motivate young learners to write because they illustrate the connection between in-class learning and the world beyond the classroom: address labels, book titles, bumper stickers, bus passes, buttons, cards (birthday, Father‟s/Mother‟s Day, Get well, etc., cartoon speech balloons, family trees, invitations, labels, name cards, permission notes, postcards, posters, signs, and tickets

In summary, because of the unique characteristics and learning styles of young learners, language teachers should be mindful when choosing a suitable teaching approach The chosen approach needs to balance both the writing process and the final writing product Moreover, the writing activities should

engage learners in meaningful real-world activities In this thesis, I used an approach called “the task-based approach,” also known as “task-based language teaching,” which will be discussed in the following part

2.2 The task-based approach

This section reviews the literature on the use of the task-based approach in teaching EFL writing skills, including the tasks, historical development of task-based language teaching, proposed frameworks, principles, and guidelines for the use of the approach, the reasons why I used the approach, and previous studies

on the use of the task-based approach in teaching and learning writing

2.2.1 An overview of tasks

A task is a basic unit in the use of the task-based approach Language teachers must clearly understand the concept of “tasks” before using the approach The definitions of tasks have proliferated over the years, which is not favorable (Ellis, 2018)

Larsen-Freeman and Anderson (2011) describe tasks as meaningful communicative activities with clear outcomes for students In order to fulfill the tasks assigned to them, students must communicate in the target language This task definition is consistent with Willis's (1996, p 23) perspective on tasks, in which she defines tasks as activities when learners engage in communication in the target language in order to accomplish a goal Larsen-Freeman and Anderson‟s (2011) definition of tasks also aligns with Nunan‟s (2004) focus when they claim that a communicative task in the classroom is a task that engages students in understanding, using, producing, or engaging in the target language while their attention is primarily focused on meaning rather than form

It can be seen that features of meaningful communication, target language use, and explicit outcomes are revealed in these definitions

When tasks are brought into the classroom from the actual world, they take on a pedagogical nature (Nunan, 2004) According to Ellis and Shintani (2014), a pedagogical task is a “work plan” which has a clearly defined communicative outcome, focuses on meaning, has some kinds of gap, and in

which learners have to depend on their linguistics and non-linguistics resources

to achieve the assigned tasks

In summary, tasks can be defined as meaningful communication activities

in which students must comprehend, engage, and communicate in order to solve problems Tasks should be well designed based on learners‟ needs and with clear outcomes to help teachers and students know whether the completion

of the tasks has been achieved or not

There are several remarkable characteristics of tasks that users should put into their consideration for an appropriate use of TBLT Skehan (1998) (as cited in Nunan (2004, p.3) puts forward five key characteristics of a task:

• “meaning is primary

• learners are not given other people‟s meaning to regurgitate

• there is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities

• task completion has some priority

• the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome.”

Similarly, according to Ellis (2009), a task has to meet the following requirements in order to qualify as one:

• “A task involves a primary focus on pragmatic meaning

• A task has some kind of „gap‟; three main types are information gap, reasoning gap, and opinion gap

• The participants choose the linguistic resources needed to complete the task

• A task has a clearly defined, non-linguistic outcome.”

As can be seen, a task places a focus on learning the target language through interacting with others and incorporates real texts into the learning environment and aims to connect classroom language learning with language activation outside of the classroom by enhancing the learner's own life experiences as significant contributing aspects to classroom learning

Different educational researchers try to categorize “tasks” in various ways Ellis (2009) classifies tasks into three types: information-gap task, opinion-gap task, and reasoning-gap task An information-gap task is an activity in

which students exchange information within pairs or groups in order to fulfill a given task An opinion-gap task is the type of task in which students are required to give their opinions and show their personal preferences, feelings, or attitudes in order to accomplish the task A reasoning-gap task

is an activity in which students are required to infer information from some given clue(s) On the other hand, Ellis (2003) categorizes task types into focused/unfocused tasks or input-providing/output-prompting ones Unfocused tasks can be attached to TBLT lessons for learners‟ opportunities of general communication Focused tasks are tasks in which learners have opportunities to communicate using some specific linguistic items (a grammatical structure, typically) Input-providing tasks are ideal for receptive skills of listening and reading Teachers can introduce new language in these tasks Output-prompting tasks are tasks in which students are stimulated to write or speak meaningfully

In summary, there are several ways of classifying tasks To direct learners

to desired goals, task designers must comprehend the nature and outcome of the activities they have chosen in any classification

2.2.2 Development of the task-based approach

The last few decades have seen a growing interest in research in based approaches, which is evidenced by a great number of publications (Bygate, 2016; Ellis, 2003, 2018) However, it has been a long history for the task-based approach to be developed and gain popularity

task-EFL pedagogical methodology has been greatly concerned for hundreds of years Based on Howatt and Smith‟s (2014) overview, it can be seen that communicative language teaching (CLT) and task-based language teaching (TBLT) are the two favorite methods for a modern EFL teaching trend which focuses on learners‟ authentic communication CLT users are encouraged

to use processes where students solve problems using accessible linguistic resources in pairs or groups (Richards, 2006; Richards & Rodgers, 2001) Because of the social needs of English for many contexts (General English, English for Specific Purposes, and English for Academic Purposes), new kinds of

communicative activity or tasks appeared to form the TBLT Richards (2006) states that there is not any discontinuity between CLT and TBLT In his awareness, although TBLT may be seen as a continuation of the CLT movement, it follows a different path to achieving its objectives, which center on helping students utilize language for communication Both make learners communicate; however, learners move from form to meaning in CLT whereas the process is opposite in TBLT

In the modern age, TBLT has been considered a fine product of the modern EFL teaching methodology after a long historical development and

a good tool for enhancing learners authentic communication and autonomy

in the learning process Being instructed to focus on meaning right from the beginning, learners have to communicate to exchange information for gaps designed in given tasks; thus they develop their ability of language use It is important that users of TBLT understand what TBLT is Among ways of figuring TBLT, the viewpoints made by Nunan (2004), Larsen-Freeman and Anderson (2011), and Ellis (2013) are chosen for references in this study Nunan (2004, p.10) argues that TBLT realizes the philosophy of CLT, a technique and approach to the language education at the levels of syllabus design In classrooms taught with this method, learners are involved in experiential learning or “learn by doing‟ When engaging themselves in meaningful tasks for thought reflection using spoken or written language, learners will be able to get the intellectual growth and become more self-directed and responsible in learning (ibid., pp.12-13) Moreover, TBLT enables language productive skills (ibid., p 19) Larsen-Freeman and Anderson (2011) describe TBLT as an example of the “strong version” of the communicative approach, where language is acquired through use (p 193) In other words, children learn the language they require when they utilize it to do the task that has been put before them TBLT can be called interchangeably task-based approach (TBA), task-based learning (TBL) or task-based instruction (TBI) (Ellis, 2003; Littlewood, 2007; Richards, 2006) Ellis (2013, p.1) considers TBLT as an approach to teaching a second/foreign language that gets the language

learning facilitated by making learners interact with each other using world language based on performing a series of tasks TBLT can be considered

real-a type of communicreal-ative lreal-angureal-age tereal-aching (CLT) which constructs language learning to be a tool for accomplishing a communicative purpose TBLT focuses on language use for communication, while CLT concentrates on communicative competence itself In a more specific figuration, learners taught with TBLT are required to use the language before they get the form instructed, whereas those taught with CLT are provided with the form before they use the language Moreover, unlike CLT, TBLT can be used alongside with more traditional teaching methods to facilitate language learning the best (ibid., p 4) Shortly, TBLT can be understood to be a teaching method that is derived from CLT in the communicative period Following this method, meaningful tasks are designed to make learners communicate for accomplishing assignments, thus acquiring the language through use TBLT allows the parallel use of more traditional methods and enforces the direction from use to form Moreover, TBLT enhances learners‟ autonomy in learning Some aspects of TBLT, such as the ones mentioned above, may resemble those of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT); in fact, TBLT may be seen as a development and refinement of CLT, according to Willis (1996) and Ellis (2003) Real communication, meaningful activities, and meaningful language are some of the ideas that logically follow from CLT and give rise to TBLT

Inheriting the advantages of CLT, the task-based approach brings multiple benefits to learners as it emphasizes communication through interaction and authenticity; focuses on both language and learning process; enhances learners‟ personal learning experience; links classroom language with the real-life use of language outside the classroom (Nunan, 2004)

To put it another way, task-based language teaching (TBLT) is a method

of structuring activities in language classes Instead of answering straightforward questions about grammar or vocabulary, students in TBLT sessions do meaningful tasks that require authentic language use

2.2.3 Frameworks for the use of the task-based approach

As noted by Richards and Rogers (2001), sequencing is one of the major issues in the task-based syllabus A number of frameworks for applying the task-based approach have been proposed and continuously developed (Willis, 1996; Ellis, 2003; Nunan, 2004) in order to help teachers who favor this approach sequence their lessons

The first advocated framework for the task-based approach in literature was proposed by Willis (1996); she suggests that the task-based teaching approach includes three phases: pre-task, task cycle, and language focus (see Fig 1)

Figure 2.1 Willis’s framework for the task-based approach

In the pre-task, teachers may underline keywords as they introduce the topic and activity In the whilst-task (or task cycle), learners work in a pair or a group to solve given problems in three stages: task (interaction), planning (negotiation for meaning), and report (presentation of product) In the post-task or language focus phase, teachers give comments based on the report analysis and provide learners with consciousness-raising and practice activities related to linguistic features in the task-input

The other framework proposed by Ellis (2003) and supported by Nunan (2004) suggests that a task-based lesson includes three stages: pre-task, while-task, and post-task (see Table 2)

Table 2.2 Ellis’s framework for task-based lessons

Pre-task

Framing activities Preparing time allotment Doing initial tasks

While-task

Time pressure Natural and authentic tasks Think of the number of students

Post-task

Report the learning tasks Improving students‟ awareness of learning Reflection

Develop and repeat the tasks

The teacher will outline what the students are required to do in the task phase Additionally, the teacher may introduce essential vocabulary or grammatical concepts to the class before the activity begins in the "weak" form

pre-of TBLT However, this can make the activity more likely to be the more conventional present-practice-produce (PPP) paradigm In "strong" task-based learning classes, students are in charge of deciding which language to use in each setting The teachers may also demonstrate the task in an image, audio recording, video, or by performing it themselves The students complete the assignment within the specified time during the while-task phase, usually in small groups; however, it can vary depending on the activity It is a more student-centered style since, unless the teacher takes on a specific role in the work, the teacher's position is often restricted to that of an observer or counselor Finally, during the post-task phase, if students have produced concrete linguistic products such as a text, montage, presentation, audio recording, or video, they can critique one another's work and provide constructive feedback Learners then reflect on their tasks and have opportunities to develop and repeat the tasks

The framework employed in this study is the one by Ellis (2003); the reasons underlying this choice will be discussed in the next chapter

In summary, frameworks help language teachers sequence their task-based lessons Most frameworks for the task-based approach consist of three main stages, and teachers should employ a framework that best suits their instructional contexts

2.2.4 Principles and guidelines for the implementation of the based approach

task-For effective implementation of the task-based approach, it is strongly recommended that teachers should follow a set of principles and guidelines Nunan (2004) proposed seven key principles for a task-based approach lesson:

1 Scaffolding: The supporting frameworks within which learning

occurs should be provided by the lessons and materials Learners should not be asked to create language that has not been presented either directly or implicitly

at the beginning of the learning process

2 Task dependency: One task within a lesson should be developed upon

and built upon the ones that have been taught before

3 Recycling: Reusing language increases learning chances and

promotes the idea of "organic" learning Through this recycling, learners can come into contact with vocabulary from the target language in a variety of linguistic and experiential contexts

4 Active learning: It is best for learners to actively use the language

they are learning This means that the majority of class time in language instruction should be devoted to opportunities for students to practice the language

5 Integration: The links between language form, communicative

function, and semantic meaning should be made explicit to learners throughout instruction

6 Reproduction to creation: Encourage students to switch from using

language for reproduction to using it for expression

7 Reflection: Opportunities for reflection on what they have learned and

how well they are doing should be given to students

Some language-teaching researchers have proposed several guidelines for the successful use of the task-based approach:

First, Breen (1987) notifies that teachers need to pay attention to three essential aspects of classroom work when making decisions for a teaching plan The first is participation: "Who works with whom?": individual, pair, group,

or whole class work and the teacher's role The second is the procedure:

"Which particular activity or task will be undertaken?", "How will it be worked upon and for how long?", "What resources should be used?", "How shall

we share and evaluate the outcomes of the activity?", etc The last one is subject matter "What shall be the focus of the work?" and "For what learning purposes?"

Another to consider when implementing TBLT is that “attention to grammar (or phonology, lexis, collocations, pragmatics, etc.) is not carried out as

a separate activity, as an end in itself (focus on forms), but during (and if necessary after, but not before) task work, as part of the methodology of TBLT” (Long, 2016, p.17) It has been misunderstood that grammar or any other linguistic subsystem is not taught when applying TBLT Actually, unfocused tasks in TBLT are not designed to teach grammatical structures; however, it does not mean that these are not mentioned or explained in a TBLT classroom

In conclusion, in order to use the task-based approach effectively, language teachers should bear in mind the main principles and follow the guideline when using this approach in language teaching

2.3.5 Rationale for using the task-based approach in teaching EFL writing

The task-based approach has been widely used in language teaching for decades for many reasons Long (2016) proposes a set of the rationale for the use

of the task-based approach:

 Consistency with second language acquisition (SLA) theory and

research findings: Students of all ages can use a symbiotic combination

of implicit and explicit learning, which the task-based approach encourages, according to theory and research findings in numerous domains including SLA The fundamental ideas of TBLT are also supported by and essentially congruent with the results of the past 40 years of SLA research as well as with the emerging cognitive-interactionist theory of directed second language acquisition

 Basis in the philosophy of education: whole-person education, learning

by doing, rationalism, free association, and learner-centeredness are the rich educational traditions that form the philosophical foundation of TBLT

 Relevance: It takes resources, effort, and time to acquire a new

language, not only from the people and organizations involved in the education but also from the students themselves Such appalling time and money wastes can be prevented with the aid of a task-based needs analysis

 Avoidance of known problems with existing approaches: a new

approach to language teaching needs to avoid its predecessors‟ known problems The task-based approach can be seen as a refinement of communicative language teaching (CLT) and the response to the Presentation – Practice – Produce (PPP) approaches

 Learner-centeredness: The literature on language education has long

championed the virtues of centeredness In TBLT, real centeredness is addressed first and foremost in the cognitive domain

learner- Functionality: Like any approach, TBLT must be viewed favorably by

students as pleasant, intellectually engaging (even at low competence levels), and as language instruction that meets their needs

In teaching and learning EFL writing, both teachers and young learners face formidable challenges mentioned in 2.1.4 Using the task-based approach is

a promising strategy for EFL teachers to help themselves and their learners

overcome the difficulties to enhance their teaching practice, and improve young learners‟ writing skills

First, the task-based instruction is typically believed to be inspiring, stimulating, empowering, and challenging for learners (Nunan, 2004) These qualities support language learners' development of autonomy Additionally, task-based language instruction may result in a higher rate of language acquisition and portray language learning in the classroom in a more natural way

In addition, the tasks used in a task-based lesson are engaging and directly relate

to learners‟ real lives, which may motivate learners to write and complete their writing Next, language learners benefit from task-based learning because it is more learner-centered than other methods In addition, the use of the task-based approach helps language teachers to integrate other skills and learners acquire multiple skills in a lesson (Nunan, 2011) Moreover, in the pre-task phase, students are equipped with needed resources to communicate or write in the while-task phase; this is especially essential for learners at early ages Finally, at the final phase, learners are provided with opportunities to give and receive comments for their products and others, which does not only help them to reflect and improve themselves, but also allows them to learn from others

In brief, the task-based approach is a delicate product among EFL teaching approaches and methods As a shift from CLT in the communicative period, it plays an essential role in language teaching since it makes learners learn by doing in an autonomous position It focuses on learners‟ authentic language use for communication and facilitates them in developing their autonomy in learning, as well as motivates learners What is mentioned shows some of the reasons why TBLT is widely used nowadays and why studies on the use of this approach are gaining more and more attention from a great number of educational researchers

2.3 Previous studies on the use of the task-based approach in young

learners’ EFL writing skills teaching and learning

Various studies have shown that the task-based approach, through meaningful language tasks, enables EFL teachers to foster learner autonomy and