Effects Of Storytelling On Efl Elementary Adult Learners'' Vocabulary Knowledge At An English Center In Ho Chi Minh City Ma .Pdf

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE EFFECTS OF STORYTELLING ON EFL ELEMENTARY ADULT LEARNERS’ VOCABU[.]

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY- HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE

EFFECTS OF STORYTELLING ON EFL ELEMENTARY ADULT LEARNERS’

VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE

AT AN ENGLISH CENTER IN HO CHI MINH CITY

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of English Linguistics and Literature

in partial fulfillment of the Master’s degree in TESOL

By

HO NHU VY

Supervised by

NGUYEN THI NHU NGOC, Ph.D

HO CHI MINH CITY, SEPTEMBER 2021

Besides, I am much obliged to my manager, Ms Thien Kim for giving me the permission to carry out the study in the center She also offered me substantial help during my data collection

Furthermore, I would like to send my heartfelt thanks to Ms.Vong Kiu, Ms Thao Ly and other colleagues for giving their contributions to my word lists and stories and for scoring my written tests I want to show my profound gratitude to Ms Angelica and Ms Emma for proofreading the stories and the research instruments I also express my appreciation to Mr Ngoc Viet for guiding me about SPSS

Last but not least, I am deeply indebted to my family for their affection, encouragement and hope during my learning process My grandmother and my parents have fervently supported and motivated me since the beginning of the program Without their love and belief, I would not have this achievement

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby certify my authorship of the thesis entitled Effects of storytelling on EFL

elementary adult learners’ vocabulary knowledge at an English center in Ho Chi Minh City in terms of one of the requirements for the Master program in

TESOL The thesis has not been previously submitted for any degrees or diplomas

in other educational institutes

Ho Chi Minh City, September 2021

Ho Nhu Vy

RETENTION OF USE

I hereby state that I, Ho Nhu Vy, being a candidate for the Master degree in TESOL accept the requirements of the University concerning the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in the Library

Following these conditions, I concur that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for the purposes of learning and researching, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for the care, loan, and reproduction of the thesis

Ho Chi Minh City, September 2021

Ho Nhu Vy

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background to the study 1

1.2 Aims of the study 4

1.3 Research questions 4

1.4 Significance of the study 4

1.5 Scope of the study 5

1.6 Organization of thesis chapters 6

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Vocabulary 7

2.1.1 Definition of vocabulary 7

2.1.2 Vocabulary knowledge 8

2.1.3 Improving learners’ vocabulary knowledge 11

2.1.3.1 Methods for improving aspects of vocabulary knowledge 11

2.1.3.2 Repetition of vocabulary 12

2.2 Adult learners 13

2.3 Storytelling 14

2.3.1 Definition of storytelling 14

2.3.2 Criteria for stories in EFL classrooms 15

2.3.3 Some factors of storytelling 16

2.3.3.1 Storytelling and story reading 16

2.3.3.2 Traditional storytelling and digital storytelling 17

2.3.3.3 Storyteller 18

2.4 Roles of storytelling in teaching vocabulary 18

2.4.1 Roles of storytelling in teaching English 18

2.4.2 Previous studies of storytelling in teaching vocabulary 19

2.4.2.1 Previous studies in foreign countries 19

2.4.2.2 Previous studies in Vietnam……… 21

2.4.2.3 A research gap 21

2.5 Conceptual framework 22

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 25

3.1 Research design 25

3.2 Context of the study 25

3.3 Participants 26

3.4 Implementation of storytelling 27

3.4.1 Vocabulary selection 27

3.4.2 Design of stories 27

3.4.3 Experimental teaching 29

3.4.3.1 Teaching schedule 29

3.4.3.2 Teaching vocabulary via storytelling in class 31

3.5 Research tools 33

3.5.1 Tests 33

3.5.1.1 Recognition tests (Part A) 33

3.5.1.2 Writing tests (Part B) 34

3.5.2 Questionnaire 36

3.5.3 Interview 38

3.6 Research procedure 38

3.6.1 Pilot stage 38

3.6.1.1 Storytelling 39

3.6.1.2 Tests 39

3.6.1.3 Questionnaire and Interview 40

3.6.2 Data collection procedure 40

3.7 Data analysis 41

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 42

4.1 Effects of the storytelling on learners’ vocabulary knowledge 42

4.1.1 Vocabulary knowledge 42

4.1.2 Aspects of vocabulary knowledge 46

4.1.2.1 Receptive knowledge- Spoken form 46

4.1.2.2 Receptive knowledge- Connection of form and meaning 48

4.1.2.3 Receptive knowledge- Collocations 50

4.1.2.4 Productive knowledge- Grammatical functions 52

4.1.2.5 Productive knowledge - Connection of form and meaning 54

4.1.2.6 Productive knowledge - Vocabulary use 55

4.2 Learners’ attitudes towards learning vocabulary using the storytelling 58

4.2.1 Questionnaire 58

4.2.1.1 Cognition 60

4.2.1.2 Affection 61

4.2.1.3 Behavior 63

4.2.2 Interview 66

4.2.2.1 Effects of the storytelling on aspects of vocabulary knowledge 66

4.2.2.2 The storytelling procedure 69

4.2.3 Learners’ difficulties in learning vocabulary with the storytelling based on questionnaire and interview 72

4.3 Summary of major findings 75

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 77

5.1 Conclusions 77

5.2 Suggestions 78

5.3 Limitations of the study 80

5.4 Recommendations for further research 81

REFERENCES 82

APPENDICES 91

APPENDIX A: VOCABULARY INDEX 91

APPENDIX B: A SAMPLE LESSON 93

APPENDIX B1: AN ADAPTED TEXTBOOK LESSON 93

APPENDIX B2: A SAMPLE STORY 95

APPENDIX C: NINE STORIES 96

APPENDIX D: A SAMPLE LESSON PLAN 106

APPENDIX D1: A LESSON PLAN 106

APPENDIX D2: POWERPOINT OF A LESSON 111

APPENDIX E: TESTS 113

APPENDIX E1: TEST SPECIFICATIONS 113

APPENDIX E2: PRETEST, POSTTEST 1 AND POSTTEST 2 114

APPENDIX E3: CRONBACH ALPHA OF THREE RECOGNITION TESTS 121 APPENDIX E4: ANSWERS OF TESTS 122

APPENDIX E5: ASSESSMENT OF A SHORT PARAGRAPH 125

APPENDIX E6: CHANGES IN SCORES OF EACH VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE ASPECT 126

APPENDIX F: QUESTIONNAIRE 128

APPENDIX F1: QUESTIONNAIRE IN ENGLISH- VIETNAMESE 128

APPENDIX F2: CRONBACH ALPHA OF QUESTIONNAIRE 131

APPENDIX F3: RESULTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE 132

APPENDIX G: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW 133

APPENDIX G1: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS IN ENGLISH 133

APPENDIX G2: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS IN VIETNAMESE 134

APPENDIX G3: A SAMPLE INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT 135

M Mean score Mean score equals to the sum of all the values

in a set of statistics divided by the total number

Min Minimum The lowest value in a set of statistics

p

(Sig (2-tailed))

Probability value

p<0.05: there is a statistically significant difference between the means

p>=0.05: there is no statistically significant difference between the means

Std Deviation Standard

Deviation

A standard deviation shows an estimate of dispersion of values in a set of statistics

t t-value The t-value measures the size of the difference

relative to the variation in the sample data The greater the magnitude of t, the greater the evidence against the null hypothesis, meaning that there is probably a significant difference The closer t is to 0, the more likely that there is

no significant difference

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 What is involved in knowing a word (Nation, 2001, p.27)……… … 8

Table 2.2 Aspects of vocabulary knowledge of the word “independent”………… 9

Table 3.1 Description of participants (N=53)……… …………25

Table 3.2 Criteria for designing stories in this research………… ……….27

Table 3.3 Teaching schedule……… ……….29

Table 3.4 Summary of a lesson plan……… ……… 30

Table 3.5 Aspects of vocabulary knowledge for testing in the Recognition tests 32

Table 3.6 Aspects of vocabulary knowledge for testing in the Writing tests…… 33

Table 3.7 Summary of questionnaire……… ……… 35

Table 4.1 Scores of pretest, posttest 1 and posttest 2 and their comparison (N=53) 41

Table 4.2 The increase in the scores between the tests (N=53)………… …….42

Table 4.3 The decrease in the scores between the tests (N=53)……… … 44

Table 4.4 Results of the five learners with decreasing scores………….….………44

Table 4.5 Scores of Spoken form in pretest, posttest 1 and posttest 2 and their comparison……….……… 45

Table 4.6 Scores of Receptive knowledge-Connection of form and meaning in pretest, posttest 1 and posttest 2 and their comparison……….…….48

Table 4.7 Scores of Collocations in pretest, posttest 1 and posttest 2 and their comparison……….……… 49

Table 4.8 Scores of Grammatical functions in pretest, posttest 1 and posttest 2 and their comparison………51

Table 4.9 Scores of Productive knowledge- Connection of form and meaning in pretest, posttest 1 and posttest 2 and their comparison……….…….53

Table 4.10 Scores of Vocabulary use in pretest, posttest 1 and posttest 2 and their comparison……….…………55 Table 4.11 Leaners’ cognition in learning vocabulary with the storytelling …….59

Table 4.12 Leaners’ affection in learning vocabulary with the storytelling……….61

Table 4.13 Percentage of options in the 14th item ………62 Table 4.14 Leaners’ behavior in learning vocabulary with the storytelling … 63

Table 4.15 Percentage of options in the 16th item, the 19th item and the 20th item 64

Key words: EFL, storytelling, adult learners, vocabulary knowledge, vocabulary

acquisition

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The study investigates the effects of storytelling on EFL elementary adult learners’ vocabulary knowledge at an English center in Ho Chi Minh City The initial chapter provides the introduction of the research

1.1 Background to the study

In the context of globalization, the demand for gaining high levels of English competency has been significantly growing in Vietnam Learners, regardless of their academic backgrounds, occupations and ages, desire to develop their language proficiency not only in four main skills but also in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation Among these language domains, vocabulary emerges as the most pivotal aspect since human beings need lexis to exchange information of multiple daily and specialized topics (Sprenger, 2013) When making conversation, communicators comprehend a message through main words rather than grammar (Thornbury, 2002) This is probably derived from the fact that vocabulary is analogous to a skeleton which carries meaning of a sentence; therefore, interlocutors who have grammar incompetence can still base on words and phrases to proceed their talks

Nevertheless, numerous Vietnamese learners, especially adults still encounter predicaments in remembering, understanding and using English vocabulary, and teachers struggle for suitable teaching methods According to Lau (2012) in a research in a foreign language center, the majority of adult learners can recognize lexical units, but their knowledge remains insufficient They understand meaning of vocabulary items but fail to use these items properly in communicative settings In other words, they have limited comprehension of word meaning since lexical items are taught separately rather than being embedded in context Also, a large proportion

of students lack motivation for studying vocabulary In respect of teachers, many respondents face dilemmas whilst seeking for an intriguing, effective teaching method and experience time constraint for vocabulary revision in class

Concurring with these ideas, Nguyen (2015) maintains that slow lexical retrieval, mispronunciation and lack of confidence in word use are common problems of vocabulary learning among Vietnamese students of all ages While some could not manage time for lexical revision at home, others only learn by writing words several times on paper In similarity, Nguyen (2020) reveals that a high percentage of students in a language center are short of rudimentary English knowledge and perceive that learning lexis is thorny and tedious In short, many Vietnamese adult learners demonstrate incomplete vocabulary knowledge and take unfavorable attitude towards this linguistic aspect; as a result, teaching and learning vocabulary pose enormous challenges to Vietnamese teachers and students

Concerning teaching lexis, Thornbury (2002) proposes diverse techniques and activities, ranging from translation, illustration and verbal means to games and task-based activities First, referring to translation, teachers may directly provide equivalents of target words in mother tongue Second, realia, visual aids and mime may be implemented to teach simple words These illustrations are tremendously stimulating and comprehensible but may not be used to teach abstract items, which drives teachers to resort to verbal means with examples, synonyms and even brief context Another prevalent teaching tool is games which entail numerous categories like board games, guessing games, movement games and role-play (Gruss, 2016) Regarding task-based instruction, teachers organize activities in which students may collaborate with their peers to solve real-life problems (Halici Page & Mede, 2018)

Nevertheless, in fact, most teachers in Vietnam connect a new word with its meaning in the first language or simply show its definition (Lau, 2012) Following this traditional approach, they present a vocabulary list and drill it so that learners

absorb words by rote memorization It does not include a specific context which is considered the most necessary element for effective vocabulary teaching and learning (Weatherford, 1990), not to mention other indispensable factors for word acquisition Meanwhile, many learners fail to manage time and lack motivation to review words at home Hence, there is a need to seek for a stimulating teaching method which, at least, entails contextual lexis and repeated vocabulary items

Storytelling is regarded as an intriguing way to instill a tale to listeners by using body language and different voice pitch (Taylor, 2000) By utilizing visual and auditory channels, teachers deliver various lexical facets to students whose minds are being significantly activated The storytelling has been applied popularly in teaching different language skills Concerning lexis, items in stories are conveyed to listeners through sounds and are grounded in a context (Ellis & Brewster, 2014) During a session, teachers also ask the class several questions of story content and vocabulary as a way to involve them in the process If stories are well-designed in accordance with learners’ needs, they can personalize word learning by relating lexis

to their own experiences (Catapano, 2019) Finally, words in narratives are recycled several times, thus strengthening a learning route To sum up, the storytelling strategy entails context, negotiation, personalized lexical learning and repetition and some captivating elements like body language and visual aids; hence, it probably broadens students’ vocabulary knowledge

From the afore-mentioned justifications, Vietnamese learners still have limited vocabulary knowledge due to several reasons, while the storytelling includes context, negotiation, personalized lexical learning, revision and interest The question raised

is whether there is a causal relationship between two variables If any, teachers can adopt this method to help students extend their lexical knowledge

1.2 Aims of the study

The research is conducted to identify possible effects of the storytelling on vocabulary knowledge of EFL elementary adult learners in an English center in Ho Chi Minh City In details, the study aims at revealing probable effects of the storytelling on lexical knowledge among adult learners most of whom are university students and workers from 18 years old and exploring their attitudes towards learning vocabulary with this method If there are positive results of the learners’ lexical knowledge aspects and their attitudes, the researcher may prove that the employment of the storytelling in teaching vocabulary to EFL elementary adult learners is quite applicable

1.3 Research questions

Two research questions are formulated to navigate the study:

1 How effective is the storytelling in improving EFL elementary adult learners’ vocabulary knowledge in the classroom?

2 What are EFL elementary adult learners’ attitudes towards learning vocabulary using the storytelling in the classroom?

The first question is the main one, whereas the second question of attitudes is raised

to give additional clarification to the effects

1.4 Significance of the study

The study is supposed to be significant as follows

Theoretically, it fills the research gap of using the storytelling in teaching vocabulary Lexical knowledge is of paramount importance for the acquisition of a target language and the communicative ability (Schmitt, 2000) However, a large proportion of Vietnamese students still have restricted lexical knowledge and lack motivation to improve this linguistic domain Meanwhile, it has been proved that the

storytelling is an entertaining method which provides context, negotiation, personalized lexical learning and multiple word encounters In fact, some researches were carried out to examine the storytelling in teaching different language skills to children, but there are no studies on the effects of the storytelling, particularly self-designed narratives, on EFL elementary adult learners’ aspects of vocabulary knowledge in Vietnam Hence, this research is conducted to investigate the potential causal relationship of the storytelling on EFL elementary adult learners’ vocabulary knowledge via a pretest and posttests Additionally, findings of questionnaire and interview reveal participants’ attitudes towards the employment of the storytelling in teaching vocabulary Based on this data, English teachers can obtain profound insight into learners’ perspectives to this method, so they may invest in positive aspects of storytelling and minimize negative ones

Practically, the research provides storytelling lessons converted from textbook lessons These stories can serve as a useful resource to improve adult learners’ lexical knowledge Teachers can, therefore, refer to these samples to transform their normal lessons into storytelling counterparts, which possibly helps them diversify their vocabulary instruction Storytelling might become not only a productive strategy in boosting learners’ lexical knowledge but also a stimulating, suitable method to EFL classrooms

1.5 Scope of the study

The study investigates the effects of the storytelling on EFL elementary adult learners’ vocabulary knowledge The context of the study is at an English center in

Ho Chi Minh City which specializes in communication The majority of the learners are undergraduates, workers and retirees Accordingly, the findings and suggestions

of the research are merely applicable to language centers whose specialization and students’ traits are similar Moreover, since the researcher focuses on the learners at elementary level, she chose appropriate vocabulary for this learning stage In other words, high frequency words are selected in this study, whereas specialized

vocabulary and low frequency words are excluded Finally, the scope of the research

is limited with the term “vocabulary knowledge”, which refers that the researcher merely examines the effects of storytelling on aspects of knowing a word, including

form, meaning and use based on Nation (2001) Other issues of lexis such as

vocabulary size and technical vocabulary are beyond the scope of this study

1.6 Organization of thesis chapters

The thesis consists of five main chapters: (1) Introduction, (2) Literature Review, (3) Methodology, (4) Results and Discussion and (5) Conclusion

The initial chapter introduces the study with detailed background information, particular aims and corresponding research questions The significance and the scope of the study are also entailed in this part

The second chapter review related theories and previous studies to provide a solid base for the thesis In particular, concepts of vocabulary are first presented, followed

by those of adult learners, storytelling and storytelling in teaching lexis These help

to build a firm foundation for a conceptual framework which guides research design

in the upcoming chapter

The third chapter indicates the methodology with research design, setting, participants, storytelling implementation, instruments and data collection and analysis

The fourth chapter offers results of collected data and enlightens them via thorough discussion, comparison and contrast with previous findings

The last chapter provides a summary of the study, implications for teachers, limitations as well as recommendations for research in the future

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the researcher explains vocabulary, vocabulary knowledge, ways to improve students’ vocabulary knowledge, adult learners, storytelling definition, criteria for stories in EFL classrooms, some factors of the storytelling, roles of the storytelling in teaching English and that in teaching vocabulary and conceptual framework of the study

2.1 Vocabulary

2.1.1 Definition of vocabulary

Concerning a structure of vocabulary, though people often define vocabulary as words, Schmitt (2000) states that this concept is inadequate, especially concerning vocabulary with multiple lexical units This matter leads him to refer to vocabulary

as “an item that functions as a single meaning unit, regardless of the number of words it contains” (Schmitt, 2000, p.2) To illustrate, while having different quantity

of words, both “happy” and “full of the joys of spring” refer to “feeling of pleasure”

As regards the importance, vocabulary is an indispensable component of any languages, contributing to the formation of a language system (Harmer, 2007) This idea demonstrates that without lexis, no messages could be conveyed, which undoubtedly causes communication disruption According to Sprenger (2013), information of topics, even in school, at work and in daily life, is acquired via a means of vocabulary This definition emphasizes the essential role of vocabulary in interactions in any environments

These concepts pose a question of a quantity and a category of lexical items that individuals need to acquire Indeed, vocabulary source of a language is tremendously bountiful even to natives; nevertheless, Nation (as cited in Laufer & Nation, 1999) indicates that all learners need to know about 2,000 to 3,000 word levels to use English effectively in basic contexts Hence, teachers had better convey

these fundamental lexical items to students, especially to those at elementary level

In addition, Thornbury (2002) reveals distinctions between content words and grammatical words Content words, consisting of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, carry substantial meaning of sentences Meanwhile, grammatical words, including prepositions, conjunctions, determiners and pronouns, connect content words in a grammatically related and logical way Humans base mostly on content words to understand messages, and new words belonging to this category have been coined according to citizens’ demands As a result, when it comes to teaching vocabulary, teachers tend to focus on content words

In summary, vocabulary is meaningful items which facilitate information exchange

in life, and it is pivotal for learners to know at least basic word levels and content words

2.1.2 Vocabulary knowledge

Nation (2001) identifies three principal aspects of knowing a word, entailing form,

meaning and use

Table 2.1 What is involved in knowing a word (Nation, 2001, p.27)

Form

Spoken R What does the word sound like?

P How is the word pronounced?

Written R What does the word look like?

P How is the word written and spelled?

Word parts R What parts are recognizable in this word?

P What word parts are needed to express the meaning?

Meaning

Form and

meaning

R What meaning does this word form signal?

P What word form can be used to express this

meaning?

Concepts and

referents

R What is included in the concepts?

P What items can the concept refer to?

Associations R What other words does this make us think of?

P What other words could we use instead of this one?

Use

Grammatical

functions

R In what patterns does the word occur?

P In what patterns must we use this word?

Collocations R What words or types of word occur with this one?

P What words or types of words must we use with this

R Where, when, and how often would we expect to

meet this word?

P Where, when, and how often can we use this word?

R: Receptive knowledge, P: Productive knowledge

First, regarding form, spoken form encompasses recognizing a lexical unit in listening and applying the word in conversation with correct pronunciation and stress Likewise, written form includes identifying a word in reading and writing it with accurate spelling With respect to word parts, learning vocabulary is less onerous when recognizing familiar stems and affixes of a word Also, vocabulary knowledge involves word family of an item, which is expected to expand with inflections and derivatives according to proficiency level Second, concerning meaning, form and meaning refers to the recognition of spoken form, written form

of a word and the application of that word form as expressing ideas In addition, one needs to know concepts and use them properly Another noticeable factor is association which is semantic connections among a considerable quantity of words Third, the identification and production of grammatical functions, collocations and some constraints are constituents of the use

Given below is an example of lexical knowledge components of the word

“independent” to clarify the theories

Table 2.2 Aspects of vocabulary knowledge of the word “independent”

Form

Spoken

R Recognizing the word “independent” in listening

P Producing the word “independent” with correct

pronunciation and stress

Written R Recognizing the word “independent” in reading

P Writing the word “independent” with correct

spelling

Word parts

R Recognizing that the word includes a prefix in-, a

root -depend and a suffix –ent

P Expressing the meaning of the word “independent”

using in-, -depend and –ent

Meaning

Form and meaning

R Knowing that the word signals the meaning of

“countries having their own government”

P Producing the correct form of “independent” to

express this meaning

Concepts and

referents

R Knowing that “independent” refers to some

concepts like “countries having their own government” and “confident people who can do many things by

themselves”

P Retrieving “independent countries” or “independent

people” in different situations

Associations

R Knowing that “independent” is relevant to some

words like “self-governing” and “dependent”

P Producing “self-governing” as a synonym and

“dependent” as an antonym

Use

Grammatical

functions

R Recognizing that the word is an adjective which

comes before a noun or after a linking verb

P Producing the word in a correct grammatical pattern,

e.g “independent countries” (correct) “countries independent” (incorrect)

Collocations

R Recognizing that “fully independent” and

“independent from” are commonly used

P Producing commonly combined words

“This country become independent from America”

R Recognizing that “independent” is a high frequency

word which is used in many situations

P Using the word “independent” in many situations

R: Receptive knowledge, P: Productive knowledge

The well-rounded interpretation above unfolds various lexical dimensions of the

word “independent” To master a word, learners need to experience a complex

cognitive process from perceiving its sound, retaining its form to producing it properly in context This specification also proves that teaching and learning a word requires a major concern about these facets Meanwhile, storytelling is a method which centers on multiple lexical aspects, thus potentially elevating learners’ vocabulary knowledge

To sum up, lexical knowledge is comprised of myriad components pertaining to

form, meaning and use in recognition and production

2.1.3 Improving learners’ vocabulary knowledge

A large number of Vietnamese lack vocabulary and find learning lexis demotivating, which undermines their communication competency and confidence (Nguyen, 2015) For this reason, there is a desperate need to broaden learners’ vocabulary knowledge

2.1.3.1 Methods for improving aspects of vocabulary knowledge

There are several techniques and activities to elevate students’ knowledge of lexical form, meaning and use

In terms of form, according to Thornbury (2002), teachers can maximize the retention of spoken form of lexis with clear pronunciation, stress, listening drilling and oral drilling These techniques enable students to memorize sounds and to pronounce vocabulary correctly Pigada and Schmitt (2006) prove that extensive reading where words often recur enhances the learners’ recognition and spelling of written form

As regards meaning delivery, a proper employment of Grammar-Translation method

is beneficial Lin (as cited in Wu, 2010) indicates that Chinese teachers integrate some Cantonese, or the first language, into English lessons, which concurrently increases learners’ exposure to the target language and provides them with

comprehensible input This finding is massively reinforced by Boustani (2019) who demonstrates that using mother tongue is a common strategy of learning vocabulary, especially for beginners Students are less apprehensive as ambiguities of words are clarified via their mother tongue However, the overuse of mother tongue merely offers learners with some receptive aspects of words and renders lessons uninteresting in a long term In the current research, since the adults are at elementary level, the teacher will sometimes use mother tongue to elaborate on complex items Next, while meaning of concrete objects are clarified to learners through visual aids, more abstract vocabulary items should be presented in a particular situation where their definitions are deduced from words learners know before (Thornbury, 2002) In other word, a context such as a reading passage or a story simultaneously helps students consolidate previously learned vocabulary and develops their insight into new words

Concerning the facet of vocabulary use, a situation or exemplary sentences familiarize students with appropriate use of words in suitable context and grammatical patterns (Thornbury, 2002) Finally, there is a variety of games which are mesmerizing and useful for vocabulary acquisition (Gruss, 2006) Nevertheless, games might be time-consuming and highly dependent on students’ abilities while only provide simple lexical meaning

In short, teachers employ diverse aids and strategies revolving around form, meaning and use to increase vocabulary knowledge for learners

2.1.3.2 Repetition of vocabulary

Various aspects of knowing a word cannot be acquired after merely one time of exposure, which underscores the necessity of vocabulary repetition entailing noticing, retrieval and generation (Nation, 2001) In order to facilitate repeated exposure, teachers may provide learners with reading texts containing highlighted words, allow students to listen to different input including the same words for

several times and give them topics so that they can use input to generate conversations Webb (2007) confirms this theory in a research where sophomores of

a university view context-embedded words for different numbers of time in vocabulary tasks The experimenter finds more substantial gains in at least one aspect of lexical knowledge as the quantity of encounters grows

It can be concluded that students can gain an insight into form, meaning and use of lexis if teachers consider the combination of manifold techniques regarding these aspects and employ multiple vocabulary repetitions

2.2 Adult learners

Adult learners are people aged from 18 and over who intentionally continue their education (Brook, 2017) In this study, elementary adult learners refer to the students from 18 years old They are from A1 to A2, having a basic repertoire of vocabulary items, simple grammar and being able to ask and answer simple questions

Harmer (2007) believes that goals play a vital role in motivating adult learners If they attend a class to improve their English communication, they will be encouraged

to engage in activities helping them achieve that target Additionally, Brundage and MacKeracher (as cited in Nunan, 2013) formulate principles of adult learning which reveal that these mature students gain knowledge efficiently when “content is personally relevant” and “information is presented with sufficient repetitions” (p.56) Indeed, adult learners subconsciously connect language items with their experiences and objectives, which facilitates their information retention In Vietnam, most adult learners often make an effort to meet their expectations though they seem passive and reserved in class (Nguyen & Khuat, 2003) and sometimes fail to manage time to revise lessons at home

Regarding the storytelling, some may argue that this method is more suitable for children than adults since it has been implemented prevalently among young

learners Nevertheless, in this research, the teacher continuously interacts with the learners to boost their communication Self-designed stories which are related to students’ experiences entail vocabulary reviews through sessions Hence, this

method is predicted to be suitable for adult learners

2.3 Storytelling

2.3.1 Definition of storytelling

Taylor (2000) states storytelling is a technique of imparting a tale to listeners by using various voice pitches and body language cues This definition unfolds how vividly storytelling is conducted, through non-verbal communication features Though illustrating the way to deliver tales in a community, this interpretation has yet to clarify narrators and listeners, not to mention its association with English linguistic pedagogy This predicament is resolved by Dujmović (2006) who shows that storytelling is a teaching technique adopted by a teacher to convey language, culture and feelings to students in a complete unity The definition demonstrates the fact that language items can be inherently retained via story contents and emotion aroused in listeners

A causal link between the storytelling and language acquisition is even remarkably forged by Levine et al (2013) As defined by the researchers, storytelling is a mean which enables the brain to secrete some chemistry, making human-beings emotionally bonded and transferring them into an alternate world Specifically, listening to stories, people “quickly start recognizing patterns, picking up on phrases and pronunciation” (p.3) Similar to Taylor’s explanation (2000), this revelation fails

to elaborate on storytellers and story receivers However, on the scientific evidence

of listeners’ brain alteration, the definition supplements concepts of the storytelling provided in social sphere, thereby persuasively proving that this is an effective technique in teaching foreign languages

Moreover, the storytelling, through interaction, unfolds events in the past, at present and in the future in the presence of characters at different eras or in faraway locations (Hayes, Edlmann & Brown, 2019) From this understanding, it is evident that content of narratives is diverse, transcending history and culture More importantly, whereas Taylor (2000) and Dujmović (2006) advocate that narrative method is a one-way delivery from a teller to listeners, Hayes et al (2019) emphasize on a two-way interaction between both subjects In other words, prolific

as stories may seem, only when learners pay attention, process ideas and language and predict upcoming situations do they efficiently obtain information and linguistic knowledge

All in all, syntheses of the concepts above engender a definition of the storytelling in the current study Storytelling is a teaching technique integrated with non-verbal language cues which delivers manifold events, languages and emotions to learners who focus on and process information via the interaction

2.3.2 Criteria for stories in EFL classrooms

It is indispensable to decide on stories suitable for the class The criteria for stories

in English language teaching are provided as follows

Initially, materials have to meet learners’ needs and goal setting (Tomlinson, 2011)

It is important for teachers to reflect on language items, activities and instructions that gradually enable students to reach their learning target Stories in this research are a case in point Because the participants are enrolling a communication course, stories chosen need to fulfill course objectives The narratives include lexis grounded in context (Ellis & Brewster, 2014) and details relevant to the adult learners (Catapano, 2019), thus simultaneously boosting their communicative competence and enhancing their vocabulary knowledge

Besides, Pardede (2011) highlights that it is necessary for narratives to match students’ language level Whereas beginners can effectively acquire stories with

simple lexical items, advanced learners had better expose themselves to tales written with elaborate words If stories in textbooks are complicated for learners, teachers can make adaptations They may substitute uncommon words and idioms with familiar equivalents and simplify complex grammatical structures to smooth the story flow

Finally, when narrative content awakens students’ interest, they tend to acquire the language effectively (Pardede, 2011; Spaulding, 2011) In terms of age, legends and folktales possibly appeal to children, but stories instilling valuable messages of life are more likely to engage adults Also, teachers can opt for hilarious stories to concurrently amuse learners and increase their concentration

One noticeable feature is that according to Dolzhykova (2014), stories created by teachers are more stimulating and suitable for learners compared to those from available sources Given the current study, since stories on the market hardly meet these targets, the researcher, who is also the teacher, decided to write stories based

on topics, lexical items and sentence structures in the course book

In summary, stories for EFL classrooms need to meet some standards, comprising learners’ needs, level and interest which are solid foundation for the researcher-teacher to design her narratives in this research

2.3.3 Some factors of storytelling

This section helps to explain the reasons why the researcher-teacher chooses storytelling based on memory, the combination of digital and traditional storytelling and a suitable teller

2.3.3.1 Storytelling and story reading

Ellis and Brewster (2014) demonstrate that storytelling means recounting stories from memory or reading aloud stories available in books Nevertheless, there exist

several distinctions between effects of telling a story in recollection of content and those of narration based on a text

Firstly, Gallets (2005) conducts an experimental research which compares effects of storytelling and those of story reading on learners’ retention and comprehension of tales As a result, although both groups enhance their memory and insight of story contents in tests, an interview shows that the recall ability of storytelling group outweighed that of learners who experienced story reading Secondly, as provided

by Hemmati, Gholamrezapour and Hessamy (2015), adult learners engage in a study which compares impacts of storytelling and reading story aloud on listening comprehension After the treatment, participants in storytelling group outperformed counterparts in story reading group The result is probably attributed to some features of storytelling such as a teller’s tone of voice, hand gestures and listeners’ attention which resemble communication in real life

In summary, storytelling offers more advantages than reading narratives aloud Also,

in this study, subjects are adults in communication class who need to hone their retention and listening skill Thus, this research regards storytelling as narrating tales from memory

2.3.3.2 Traditional storytelling and digital storytelling

The advent of technology in recent years has given rise to digital storytelling Choo, Tina and Abdullah(2020) explains that traditional storytelling directly conveys tales

to listeners as opposed to computer-based telling which delivers content with the aid

of diverse innovative modes like audios, videos and animations From this statement,

it is possible to deduce some merits and demerits of two storytelling forms Oral storytelling emphasizes on teller-listener interaction, encouraging teachers to modify details and languages to tailor narratives for students and motivating them to pay attention to narrators Nevertheless, following this conventional delivery, teachers can neither retell stories to the class many times nor make use of vivid illustrations

to entertain them These problems are addressed by digital storytelling which allows listeners to play tales on computers several times and watch visuals to gain more profound understanding Even so, Choo et al (2020) also mentions fixed content, time-consuming preparation and requirement of cutting edge devices as shortcomings of modern storytelling

For these reasons, the researcher-teacher is going to combine traditional and digital storytelling, directly telling narratives to learners with the assistance of images on PowerPoint while still providing written stories and audio files recorded by foreign teachers for the learners’ revision after class

2.3.3.3 Storyteller

In terms of a narrator, it is undeniable that the person can be either a teacher or a student as long as the teller’s language and communication skills are proficient enough In this study, since the learners are merely at elementary level, the researcher-teacher is going to take responsibility of the storyteller To avoid talking too long, the researcher-teacher involves the learners in the telling process by constantly asking them questions of story contents, their experiences and vocabulary meaning

2.4 Roles of storytelling in teaching vocabulary

2.4.1 Roles of storytelling in teaching English

Storytelling has been implemented widely, yielding impressive language development and positive perception among teachers and learners

Regarding oral performance, Zare-Behtash, Saed and Sajjadi (2016) conducted a quasi-experimental study where 40 Iranian students were selected for a control group and an experimental group The former learned speaking with Direct Method, whereas the latter studied with the storytelling via movie subtitles The result gave the evidence that the storytelling brought enormous enhancement in oral production

Nevertheless, the research remained inadequate since experimenters used merely one instrument, and they neither depicted the telling process nor learners’ reactions

in class This problem is resolved in studies of the storytelling in teaching English speaking to high school students in Vietnam (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2018) and in Indonesia (Asniatih, Ahmed, Iqbal, Dool & Ahmad, 2020) Besides students’ score increase in oral tests, class observation, questionnaire and interview reveal that the teacher used mimes, gestures, intonation and pictures vividly, which stimulated the class Participants also actively partook in retelling and story recreation activities

Concerning grammar, Kamaludin, Soo and Bai Rajendran (2015) invented stories to teach grammatical structures to 40 Malaysian diploma learners, leading to

considerable improvement in this language domain Moreover, Rezende Lucarevschi

(2018) investigated effects of the storytelling on 86 Brazilian students’ pronunciation, indicating marked improvement in the participants’ performance in sound perception and production This is mainly because the participants concentrated more on sounds when they already comprehended narrative content with the help of language items grounded in context (Ellis & Brewster, 2014) and because they practiced recording their voice after listening to stories

2.4.2 Previous studies of storytelling in teaching vocabulary

Some researches into roles of storytelling in teaching English lexis have been done

in the world and in Vietnam

2.4.2.1 Previous studies in foreign countries

Firstly, Srihasar and Wuttipornpong (2013) compared effects of the storytelling and those of rote memorization on English vocabulary retention among 79 Thai

teenagers Analyses of tests unfold that the storytelling group outperformed the rote memorization group in word retention This acquisition is attributed to lexical items embedded in context (Ellis & Brewster, 2014), negotiation for word meaning (Long, 1996) and retelling activities The study employed three tests which deliniated a

trend of lexical improvement, but the students’ perception of storytelling was not thoroughly examined To address this problem, Ge (2015) investigated the role of Chinese stories integrated with English target words for lexical memorization via tests and a questionnaire As a result, the teaching technique benefited the participants’ short-term and long-term retention more remarkably than rote memorization despite some minimal declines over the period Also, the adult learners acknowledged the importance of the storytelling for their vocabulary memorization and found this method appealing For some lexical knowledge aspects, Ismawati, Sutarsyah and Nurweni (2018) told stories to teenagers, exploring that they improved spelling, pronunciation, meaning and use of vocabulary Among these facets, meaning and spelling witnessed the most enormous growth over the tests

Secondly, Sanaeifar (2018) compared effects of listening to stories and reading stories on collocations among 52 intermediate students in two groups Data demonstrates that both methods helped to yield significant increase in collocation and that the reading group outperformed the listening group The research provided useful evidence to the influences of the storytelling on collocations Even so, since the researcher implemented the same test for both the pretest and the posttest, the results might be intervened by the test-takers’ content memorization

Finally, Wright and Dunsmuir (2019) explored impacts of telling stories from memory and those of reading aloud stories on 194 young learners’ lexical use in speaking and writing over 40 sessions in one month along with three months of follow-up Statistics indicate that the storytelling group produced longer sentences with a wider range of words than the story reading counterpart and that the learners’ words in oral tests outweighed those in written tests This study featured a good sample size and duration, making the results more reliable Nonetheless, since the number of lexical items in the speaking test and that in the writing test were assessed differently, they were not highly comparable

2.4.2.2 Previous studies in Vietnam

In Vietnam, the investigation into the effects of the storytelling on oral performance

by Nguyen and Nguyen (2018) results in valuable information of vocabulary knowledge 36 eleventh graders were divided into two groups, each of whom learned with a textbook and with narratives adapted from the book respectively Data collected show that word resources of the experimental group grew considerably, and their lexical spoken form and vocabulary used with correct grammar climbed minimally The students adopted favorable perception of the method but still reported difficulties of content comprehension, vocabulary shortage and complex grammar

In another research which explored effects of self-designed stories to EFL adult learners’ comprehension and production of idioms, Nguyen (2018) found that the method tremendously boosted their understanding and retrieval of meaning and use

of idioms However, the storytelling did not significantly benefit their oral production of idioms Even so, the participants acknowledged the role of the storytelling for their language enhancement and considered the method genuinely enjoyable Besides, Le (2020) investigated the storytelling in teaching young learners among 21 teachers and a group of students in 18 primary schools Tests, interviews and class observations unfold that the storytelling group outperformed the control group regarding vocabulary use in speaking and that the method bolstered interaction and exciting atmosphere in class

In conclusion, the storytelling could engender the growth in many facets of learners’ vocabulary knowledge

2.4.2.3 A research gap

From the prior studies above, normally, stories delivered to children and teenagers either stemmed from available sources or experienced some adaptations, whereas those conveyed to adults were created by teachers (Ge, 2015; Nguyen & Nguyen,

2018) In fact, adult learners, especially those in English centers have specific learning purposes but confront time constraint, so teachers base on learners’ needs and their time availability to design stories for them Teachers’ reflection of learners’ outcomes before deciding on materials and activities is analogous to backward curriculum design given by Richard (2013) which helps students achieve their goals effectively Indeed, there is no study on impacts of self-designed stories on many aspects of lexical knowledge among adult learners in Vietnam Hence, the researcher-teacher are motivated to fill this gap, investigating effects of telling narratives created by herself on EFL elementary adult learners’ diverse vocabulary knowledge aspects

2.5 Conceptual framework

In this study, the storytelling is probably suggested as a way to improve EFL

elementary adult learners’ vocabulary knowledge components provided by Nation (2001) as illustrated in the conceptual framework below

Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework: Effects of storytelling on EFL elementary adult

learners’ vocabulary knowledge

Regarding narrative content, the teacher creates stories encompassing language items which meet her learners’ needs Ellis and Brewster (2014) reveal that particular contexts and intriguing situations make meaning of lexical items more understandable and absorptive to students Catapano (2019) states students can relate details in stories to their personal lives In order word, they connect contextualized words with their similar experiences so that they can actively apply vocabulary in written and oral production Besides, language is simple (Pardede; 2011), and content is hilarious and meaningful (Pardede, 2011; Spaulding, 2011)

During a telling process, the teacher asks the learners about upcoming story details and elicits meaning of new lexis from them With regards Comprehensible Output Hypothesis, Swan (1985) maintains that a need to communicate can motivate

learners to concentrate, which steadily increases their language competence Also, in negotiation for meaning, Long (1996) states students and teachers interact and vary their language to acquire thorough insight, which enables learners to enhance vocabulary understanding Additionally, teachers can tell stories in a lively style with the aid of body language and pronunciation to bolster students’ interest and word acquisition (Taylor, 2000) After presenting a new word from a tale to the learners, the teacher asks them to repeat the word or a whole sentence Harmer (2007) indicates that either individual or choral drilling is an appropriate technique

to teach beginners, helping them to say words in an invigorating way and to use vocabulary in their own sentences

After recounting stories to the adult learners, the teacher could organize activities related to the storytelling to facilitate the class’ language refinement Another remarkable highlight of stories is vocabulary repetition including noticing, retrieval and generation (Nation, 2001) Language items are often reiterated in both narratives and a telling procedure over sessions, hereby helping students learn vocabulary incidentally through repeated exposure

In summary, features of the storytelling prove that this technique is likely to be employed to broaden the adult learners’ vocabulary knowledge

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the method employed to conduct the study, consisting of research design, setting, participants, storytelling implementation, instruments, a research procedure and data analysis

3.1 Research design

The current research is a quasi- experimental research which adopted the quantitative and qualitative approaches with a time series experimental design for the purpose of investigating whether the storytelling had a positive impact on EFL elementary adult learners’ vocabulary knowledge As unfolded by Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007), this design enables the experimenter to observe a trend over a period of time with growing reliability since participants are not dependent on a single pretest and posttest In addition, the time series design does not require a considerable quantity of subjects and merely need one group The investigator selects subjects and administers a pretest to them prior to giving them the treatment with some alternate posttest measures and comparing test results to obtain a pattern

of statistics (Creswell, 2012) In this study, the number of the learners was moderate, and the researcher’s goals were to closely examine effects of the storytelling on diverse aspects of lexical knowledge and to compare these influences among the

participants over time; therefore, it was optimal to employ the time series design

3.2 Context of the study

The study was conducted in Saigon American English Center, known as SAS Center with 27 campuses in Ho Chi Minh City The campus chosen was located in a central district where the researcher has been teaching for two years In this English center, Communication classes are categorized into Foundation Step (A0-A1), Step 1 (A1-A2), Step 2 (A2-B1) and Step 3 (B1-B2), each of which lasts around 14 weeks While Vietnamese teachers take charge of classes of Foundation and Step 1, foreign

teachers are assigned the remaining levels Through courses, learners study common communication topics which are repeated with deeper knowledge The researcher, who was also the teacher, obtained the permission to conduct the study from the campus manager

3.3 Participants

In this research, the participants were selected by convenience sampling from July

2020 to January 2021 They were 53 EFL elementary adults in five Step 1 classes taught by the researcher for some reasons First, most participants had studied Foundation Step in the center and had taken a final test of Speak Now 1 and gained

at least 5 points before being allowed to learn Step 1, but some were directly enrolled in Step 1 when passing a placement test of Speak Now 2 Since two tests aimed at assessing students at level A1 who were ready for Step 1 class at level A2, all of the participants were homogeneous Second, a communication class often features a moderate number of learners from 10 to 15, so only by combining some classes could the researcher gather sufficient subjects Indeed, 66 students attended five classes at the beginning, but 13 of them changed class or were absent in a few sessions, which led to the elimination of their data

All of the participants were adults, aged from 18 to 60, who were avid and attentive, but they often forgot lexical items Their learning purposes varied, from studying and working to travelling and maintaining their memory Their demographic information is given below

Table 3.1 Description of participants (N=53)

Factors Groups Number Percentage