A Survey Study Of Students'' Attitudes Towards Grammar Instruction At Nguyen Tat Thanh Institute Of International Education M.a. .Pdf

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE A SURVEY STUDY OF STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS GRAMMAR INSTRUCTION[.]

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY

UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE

A SURVEY STUDY OF STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS GRAMMAR INSTRUCTION AT NGUYEN TAT THANH INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL

NGUYEN THU HUONG, Ph.D

HO CHI MINH CITY, MAY 2022

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

I certify that this thesis entitled “A SURVEY STUDY OF STUDENTS’

INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION” is my own work

This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other institutions

Ho Chi Minh, May 10th, 2022

Dang Que Nhu

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, Dang Que Nhu, being the candidate for the degree of Master in TESOL, accept the requirements of The University relating to the retention and use

of Master’s Thesis deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for the purpose of study and research in accordance the normal conditions established by the Library for the care, loan or reproduction of the theses

Ho Chi Minh, May 10th, 2022

Dang Que Nhu

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis could not have been completed without the generous help of

many people to whom I would like to express my sincere appreciation and

gratitude

First and foremost, I wish to send my gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Dr

Nguyen Thu Huong for his invaluable assistance in completing this thesis

successfully He has provided me with numerous suggestions and constructive

feedback I am highly appreciative of his patience and dedication

Second, I am greatly indebted to all of my lecturers in the TESOL graduate

program at the University of Social Science and Humanities for their gratitude

and helpful instruction during the course, which laid the foundation for this thesis

I am also grateful to the students from Nguyen Tat Thanh Institute of

International Education, who participated in this research and were willing to

provide me with authentic data

My heartfelt thanks and love will send to my friend student Ms Dinh Phan

Phi Phuong, my fellow Ms Pham Quynh Mai, and my colleague Ms Nguyen

Thi Hoang Trinh for their warm encouragement, advice, and support

Last but wholeheartedly, this thesis is dedicated to my cherished parents

for their diligence in bringing me up and providing me with the necessary

education

Many sincere thanks to them all, the great contributors to this thesis

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY i

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vii

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

ABSTRACT x

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background to the study 1

1.2 Aims of the study 3

1.3 Research questions 3

1.4 Significance of the study 4

1.5 Scope of the study 5

1.6 Outline of the thesis 6

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Grammar 7

2.1.1 Definitions of grammar 7

2.1.2 Place of grammar in teaching and learning 9

2.2 Grammar instruction overview 10

2.2.1 Grammar-Based Approaches 11

2.2.2 Grammar Translation and Audio-Lingual Methods 12

2.2.3 Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) Models 13

2.2.4 Inadequacies of Grammar-Based Approaches 15

2.2.5 Communication-Based Approaches 17

2.3 Implicit and explicit instruction 20

2.4 Inadequacies of Communication-Based Approaches 20

2.5 Explicit Direct and Indirect Instruction 22

2.5.1 Explicit Direct Instruction 22

2.6 Task-based approach 24

2.7 Text-based approach 25

2.8 Previous studies 27

2.9 Conceptual framework 29

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 30

3.1 Research design 30

3.2 Research site 31

3.3 Research participants 31

3.4 Research instruments 32

3.4.1 Questionnaire 32

3.4.2 Interviews 36

3.5 Data collection procedure 38

3.6 Data analysis procedure 40

3.6.1 Close-ended item analysis (Quantitative) 40

3.6.2 Open-ended item analysis (qualitative) 40

3.7 Validity and Reliability of the Quantitative and Qualitative Data 42

3.7.1 Validity 42

3.7.2 Reliability 43

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 45

4.1 Results from the close-ended items of the questionnaire 45

4.1.1 Students’ preference to English grammar learning in the classroom 45

4.1.2 Students’ preference to the method(s) of grammar teaching introduced in the classroom 47

4.1.3 Students’ awareness of the kind(s) of method of grammar teaching taught in the classroom 48

4.1.4 Students’ perceptions of difficulties encountered when learning grammar in the classroom 57

4.2 Results from the open-ended items of the questionnaire and the interview 59

4.2.1 The underlying reasons for students’ favorable attitudes towards grammar learning in the classroom 59

4.2.2 The underlying reasons for students’ unfavorable attitudes towards grammar learning in the classroom 63

4.3 Discussion of results 65

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 69

5.1 Summary of the study 69

5.2 Pedagogical implications 71

5.3 Limitation of the study 72

5.4 Recommendation for further study 72

REFERENCES 73

APPENDICES 80

Appendix 1: Questionnaire (English version) 80

Appendix 2: Questionnaire (Vietnamese version) 84

Appendix 3: Interview questions (English version) 88

Appendix 4: Interview questions (Vietnamese version) 88

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Summary of participants’ background information 32Table 3.2: Distribution of the questionnaire items 35Table 3.3: Reliability of the statements in the questionnaire 44Table 4.1: Descriptive statistics of students’ preference to English grammar learning in the classroom 45Table 4.2: Descriptive statistics of students’ preference to the method(s) of grammar teaching introduced in the classroom 47Table 4.3: Descriptive statistics of Concept check method 49Table 4.4: Descriptive statistics of text-based, task-based and context-build methods 52Table 4.5: Descriptive statistics of the use of concept check after the text-based, task-based and context-build practice 55Table 4.6: Descriptive statistics of the controlled practiced in the text-based, task-based and context-build methods 56Table 4.7: Descriptive statistics of students’ perceptions of difficulties encountered in the grammar classroom 57

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: The conceptual framework of the study 29Figure 4.1: Students’ preference to English grammar learning in the classroom 46Figure 4.2: Students’ preference to the method(s) of grammar teaching introduced in the classroom 47

ABSTRACT

The opinions of students regarding how they learn a language most effectively play a crucial role in the instructional process, and the role of grammar instruction has been a contentious topic in EFL research and practice This study investigates students' attitudes towards grammar instruction, focusing on four constructs: concept-check, text-based, task-based, and context-build A questionnaire was administered to 234 non-majors at Nguyen Tat Thanh Institute of International Education, and eight of them were interviewed to collect data for the study Students demonstrated a preference for learning grammar via text-based and context-build methods, which were the two most prevalent approaches utilized in their classroom The study also determined the underlying reasons for their positive and negative attitudes toward their grammar learning Finally, the findings also revealed certain difficulties that students encountered when studying grammar as well as their perceptions of those difficulties

Keywords: concept-check, text-based, task-based, context-build

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter gives the introduction to the study, including (1) background to the study, (2) aims of the study, (3) research questions, (4) significance of the study, (5) scope of the study, and (6) outline of the thesis

1.1 Background to the study

The place of grammar instruction in foreign language pedagogy has been a contentious topic since the beginning of second language acquisition research Although it is widely acknowledged that mastery of a foreign language's grammatical structure is required, there is no consensus on how to achieve this goal Despite years

of research (e.g., Ellis 2001a, 2008a; Nassaji and Fotos 2004, 2007, 2011; Spada 2011), the debate over whether grammar instruction should be included in pedagogical practice continues The following are two opposing viewpoints on grammar instruction: On the one hand, proponents of explicit rule-based instruction believe that providing information about how the system works, as well as plenty of opportunities for practice, aids language development On the other hand, supporters of the zero option believe that time spent teaching grammar is time wasted because unchanging acquisition and developmental patterns render any pedagogical intervention ineffective

Having proven that L2 acquisition is somewhat equivalent to L1 acquisition (Long 1983; Krashen 1985; Swain 1985; Pica 1992), several SLA scholars called for the entire elimination of grammar instruction and error correction in the classroom setting However, it has also been recognized that exposure to the target language alone does not ensure high levels of grammatical and discourse competence As a result, form-focused instruction has been reestablished in the classroom context, and it is commonly acknowledged that grammar training should become an essential component

of classroom practices (e.g., White 1987; Ellis 1993, 2006b; VanPatten 2004; Freeman 2010)

Larsen-Nonetheless, a number of important considerations remain, including the type of intervention, its intensity and frequency, the selection of targeted forms, and whether grammar should be taught implicitly or explicitly, deductively or inductively, etc (cf Ellis 2006b; Nassaji and Fotos, 2011) Despite the fact that various theoretical positions have provided a range of practical recommendations over the years, the typical language classroom still emerges to be very traditional in nature, with language teachers attaching to frequently outmoded perspectives of language and language learning Moreover, in this discipline, students' preferences and differences are rarely considered when developing the curriculum or defining its implementation methods Consequently, the researcher believes that there is an essential need to investigate the efficacy of the various instructional approaches that could be applied to the grammar teaching that have been offered in recent years

In Vietnam, the National Foreign Languages 2021 Project, which has been in effect since 2008, has elevated English's importance and made it mandatory at all educational levels Students who even do not major in English are expected to achieve level 3 of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CERF) upon graduation Under the influence of this project, the curriculum and methods for teaching English to university students have reformed, and grammar instruction is among the foci Previously, the role of teaching grammar at universities used to be diminished in the communicative approach, in which EFL students are encouraged to communicate with little regard for grammatical mistakes However, given the fact that information cannot be conveyed properly without grammar, teachers have recently refocused on the form (as cited in Le Van Canh & Barnard, 2009) The issue is not at all straightforward There are still questions regarding how to effectively teach grammar at the university level In a number of studies (Khuong, 2015; Le Van Canh & Barnard, 2009), it is reported that English is taught in a traditional way, and EFL students appear to have a great deal of difficulty with grammatical knowledge Not all teachers are equipped with the appropriate methods and materials to instruct their students in grammar Moreover,

teachers' and students' perceptions of the techniques used to teach grammar may be different In addition, while the majority of grammar-related research has focused on teachers' grammar instruction, teachers' beliefs and attitudes, few studies have examined students' attitudes toward such grammar classrooms The challenges combined with the lack of research in the Vietnamese context provided the starting point for this research It was conducted in an effort to examine non-majored students' attitudes regarding grammar learning at NTT Institute of International Education in Vietnam (henceforth called NIIE in short) The primary reasons for this decision will

be discussed further in the context of study in Chapter 3

1.2 Aims of the study

In an effort to contribute to the exploration of students' attitudes toward grammar learning and the identification of difficulties in their learning process in order to advance their grammar competencies at a university in general and at NIIE in particular, the current study aimed to investigate (1) non-majored students' preferences regarding grammar learning at NIIE, (2) their perceptions of difficulties in the grammar classroom and (3) the reasons behind the students' preferences and perceptions Based on these findings, the study provided recommendations for EFL teachers and researchers interested in this topic

1.3 Research questions

In light of what has been discussed thus far and so as to achieve the previously stated goals, this study attempted to answer the following research questions

1 How do English non-majors like learning grammar at NIIE?

a To what extent do the students like the method(s) of grammar teaching introduced

3 What are the underlying reasons for their favorable or unfavorable attitudes towards grammar learning at NIIE and the difficulties they encountered in the grammar classroom?

1.4 Significance of the study

Unquestionably, the present study is of great significance due to its efforts to improve the quality of English grammar teaching and learning in Vietnam in general, and at NIIE in particular, in terms of consciousness-raising, text-based, task-based, and context-build methods This topic warrants further study for the following reasons:

First, this study will, from a theoretical standpoint, fill in gaps in the relevant research literature Although there are numerous reports on teachers' attitudes toward grammar instruction, university students' attitudes have been the subject of few articles and studies Particularly in Vietnam, research on students' attitudes has focused primarily on high school students; attitudes of university students toward grammar instruction methods have received little attention This study was conducted as a result

to collect the practical perspectives of university students on this topic It aims to provide up-to-date, applicable, meaningful, and credible findings based on an investigation of participants' preferences regarding grammar learning and their perceptions of difficulties encountered during grammar sessions at NIIE

In addition to its theoretical and practical implications, the current study may also have practical significance for English teachers in Vietnam This application may provide assistance in grammar class in addressing these issues, which teachers can consider and apply in their own contexts Upon entering university, for instance, students frequently lack the motivation to study grammar, are unwilling to complete grammar tasks, rely on Google Translate when confronted with complex structures, and lack the confidence to communicate effectively in English, etc Undoubtedly, teachers must be well-equipped with the perceptive insights gained from this study in order to assist their students in overcoming obstacles and develop effective solutions to improve

Thirdly, the findings of this study may provide future researchers who are genuinely interested in this topic with a new perspective Therefore, this study may shed light on future research into grammar instruction techniques

In addition, it is particularly important to NIIE for future applications Due to the participants' favorable attitudes toward the grammar teaching approaches, the researcher has decided to implement them more frequently in grammar class In fact, the difficulties identified by the participants in learning grammar in the classroom have become a valuable resource for the researcher and English teachers developing a long-term plan for teaching grammar They can adapt to the grammar practice with the least amount of difficulty possible

1.5 Scope of the study

The researcher has previously stated that learning grammar has been viewed as

a dull endeavor by university students for a variety of reasons Therefore, it is essential that teachers employ a variety of instructional strategies to improve the grammar skills

of their students, particularly in the university setting In response to the urgent need, universities have selected a variety of grammar instruction methods NIIE's non-major students are the subjects of this study, as its scope is limited to the research concerns of the grammar teaching methods that are receiving a lot of attention these days, including consciousness-raising, text-based, task-based, and context-build methods

In addition, as stated previously, the primary purpose of this study is to examine the attitudes of the participants toward grammar learning The term "attitude" in nature can be subdivided into subcomponents (Gardner, 1985); however, in this study, they may be limited to two out of three features, including their preferences or feelings toward grammar instruction methods, as well as the perceptions of benefits and drawbacks they encounter when these pedagogical approaches are implemented With

a focus on gaining insights into these two aspects of attitude, the study may therefore provide relevant and useful information for other researchers and English teachers who wish to expand their understanding of this topic

1.6 Outline of the thesis

This thesis contains five principal chapters: Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Findings and Discussion, and Conclusion and Recommendations, as well

as Acknowledgments, Abstract, References, and Appendices

The first chapter (Introduction) provides a summary of the study's context and research aims Also included in this chapter are the research questions, significance, and scope of the study

The second chapter (Literature Review) consists of three sections The first section defines and summarizes the evolving perspective of grammar instruction over time The second section reviews prior research on EFL learners' attitudes toward grammar instruction In the concluding section, a conceptual framework is constructed from the previously described theoretical background

The third chapter (Methodology) describes the procedure used to conduct the research In addition, this chapter describes in detail the research design and data collection and analysis procedures

The fourth chapter (Findings and Discussion) focuses on the analysis and discussion of the collected data, as well as the key findings of this study In particular, this chapter not only addresses the research questions, but also provides the basis for the recommendations in chapter five

The final chapter (Conclusion) is devoted to a summary of this research, suggestions for future research, and implications for EFL teachers who encounter difficulties when teaching university students grammar

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter provides a thorough review of the theoretical foundation for the study, including a detailed description of theories and concepts related to grammar instruction and its various aspects It also includes previous studies on students' attitudes toward grammar teaching methods Based on these, a conceptual framework

is developed to guide the study's methodology

Grammar, as defined by Richards et al (1992: 161), is "a description of the structure of a language and the way linguistic units such as words and phrases are combined to produce sentences in the language." It usually considers the meanings and functions of these sentences in the context of the language's overall system It may or may not include a description of a language's sounds."

Grammarians today, at least, are more careful than in Cobbett's day to focus on describing language as it is used rather than describing how it should be used According to Ur (1988: 5), grammar is "the way a language manipulates and combines words (or bits of words) in order to form longer units of meaning." He confirms the existence of "a set of rules that govern how units of meaning may be constructed in any language: it may be said that a learner who knows grammar is one who has mastered and can apply these rules to express himself in what would be considered acceptable language forms."

Larsen-Freeman (1995, 103), in particular, develops a new perspective on grammar teaching in which grammar is viewed as "a higher-order concept within linguistics, arguing that it has three interrelated dimensions: form, meaning, and use." Her model thus attempts to integrate "three traditionally separate aspects of linguistics: syntax (study of form), semantics (study of meaning), and pragmatics (study of use)."

As a result, it has a lot in common with Halliday's (1985) model of systemic-functional linguistics: grammar is "the study of syntax (form), semantics (meaning), and pragmatics (use) working together to enable individuals to communicate through language."

In summary, different linguists have defined grammar in various ways: it is a set

of components that includes morphology (the study of forms, or how elements are combined to create words), syntax (how words are strung together into sentences), and semantics or meaning Language does not exist without grammar because all languages are defined by these components

That is why, over the last 40 years, EFL material has varied in the emphasis grammar has placed on form accuracy rather than form meanings (Williams, 2000) With these changes comes an obvious need for teachers to take a communicative approach to grammar Clearly, the goal of communicative language learning is for learners to acquire the grammar of the foreign language in its broadest sense, allowing them to understand and make meaning; that is, to become proficient users of the language The main focus of this thesis is feature-focused grammar in conjunction with communication-based grammar teaching Language structures must be taught alongside the four basic language skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing

2.1.2 Place of grammar in teaching and learning

Numerous researchers on second language acquisition have acknowledged that the L2 learning process appears to be distinct from L1 learning The low success rate

of adult L2 learners suggests that the capacity for language acquisition is time-sensitive and diminishes as students reach adulthood In other words, L2 learners attain varying levels of proficiency Numerous studies concur that the role of grammar instruction in foreign language learning is beneficial and necessary Typically, L2 learners attain what

is known as stabilized L2 grammar (Long, 2003) Many teachers believe that the purpose of grammar instruction in high school is to refresh students' prior knowledge

In addition, grammar is an excellent method for teaching language skills to students Master (1994), Cadierno (1995), and Doughty (1991) have demonstrated that grammar instruction can effectively improve the accuracy of English learners' use of various grammatical categories Moreover, proficiency endures over time Moreover, Celce-Murcia (1991) demonstrated that grammar instruction is not independent of meaning, function, and discourse in the process of language instruction Specifically, grammatical rules combine words into meaningful sentences, allowing learners to improve their writing abilities Teachers can assist students in selecting suitable words

to improve and adapt their sentences to a particular context Simultaneously, grammar instruction can contribute to communication, a lofty objective when teaching and learning a language

Some individuals claim that they can communicate effectively without a strong grasp of grammar Communication Approach theorists, on the other hand, assert that grammatical knowledge is one of the essential components of communicative competence CLT gives primary importance to the use of language and secondary importance to its structure or form (Larsen-Freeman, 1986; Johnson, 1982) They believed that the best course of action is not to teach more grammar rules, but rather to let students apply the rules themselves Also, grammar instruction should be tailored to the needs of the students To speak more clearly and obtain accurate information,

however, language learners must master the grammar and vocabulary of the language Since then, the communicative objectives can be socially achieved Hinkel and Fotos (2002) argued that grammar instruction fosters proficiency and precision in learners

To achieve high levels of grammatical accuracy, it is necessary to study grammar, according to numerous studies Indeed, students frequently encounter difficulties when independently analyzing these points However, time constraints and course requirements prevent teachers and students from covering all grammar topics The lack

of guidance in the curriculum and the mismatch between the national testing system and the national curriculum render grammar instruction ineffective in the eyes of the public With the assistance of other aspects of the educational system, grammar instruction is fundamental

2.2 Grammar instruction overview

Grammar teaching methods have evolved significantly over time These changes, which have resulted from a number of theoretical and empirical developments

in the field, have not been consistent and have been marked by numerous pendulum swings They can be categorized into three general instructional approaches: those that conceptualized teaching in terms of methods with an exclusive focus on grammar, those that continued later as types of exposure to meaningful communication, and those that emerged more recently as a set of instructional options with a focus on both grammar and meaning These changes will be discussed briefly in the sections that follow The traditional approaches to grammar instruction will be discussed first, followed by various types of communication-based approaches, as well as their limitations and criticisms

2.2.1 Grammar-Based Approaches

Grammar was the epicenter of language pedagogy for thousands of years Grammar was used as both content and organizing principles for developing curriculum and language teaching materials, and language teaching was equated with grammar teaching (Celce-Murcia, 2001a) Language was thought to be primarily composed of grammar rules, and that knowing those rules was sufficient for learners to understand the language

Grammar's importance in language pedagogy stems from a variety of historical factors One reason, according to Rutherford (1987), was the importance placed on grammar knowledge in philosophy and science during the Middle Ages There was also

a close relationship between the study of grammar and other medieval disciplines (such

as law, theology, and medicine) during this period, as well as the idea that knowledge

of grammar was necessary for the development of rhetorical skills It was also thought that studying first language (L1) grammar was the best way to learn an L2 This belief gave rise to the notion that Latin grammar, which was based on the eight Greek grammatical categories (nouns, verbs, pronouns, prepositions, adverbs, participles, articles, and conjunctions), was the best model for learning other languages (Fotos, 2005) As a result, formal Latin grammar study became an important component of the school system Even after other foreign languages began to be taught in schools, Latin grammar was still used as a model for language learning Latin grammar was also regarded as a means of mental development Other foreign languages were introduced

to educational settings in the 18th and 19th centuries (H D Brown, 2000) However, it was still thought that studying the grammar of Latin would be the best way to learn the grammar of another language because it was considered "the model for studying the grammar of any language" (Rutherford 1987, p 29)

The Grammar Translation Method, the Audio-Lingual Method, and other structure-based methods reflected this emphasis on grammar Although they differ, these methods are based on the assumption that the most difficult aspect of learning a second or foreign language is learning its structure, and that this aspect of language must be given special attention

2.2.2 Grammar Translation and Audio-Lingual Methods

The Grammar Translation Method was developed near the end of the 18th century and quickly spread throughout the world in the 19th century This method, in various forms, is still widely used in many places, particularly in foreign language contexts This method, based on approaches used in the teaching of classical languages such as Latin and Greek, concentrated solely on the study of grammatical rules and structures The target language was divided into different parts of speech (e.g., nouns, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, articles, participles, conjunctions, and prepositions) and taught deductively through an explicit explanation of rules, with memorization and translations of texts from the L2 to the L1 This method's other goals included exploring the literature of the target language, preparing learners to develop an understanding of the first language, and training learners' academic capacities

With the rise of structural linguistics at the end of the nineteenth and beginning

of the twentieth centuries, the emphasis shifted from studying grammar in terms of parts

of speech to a description of its structural and phonological characteristics With the outbreak of World War II, there was an increased demand for oral communication skills and the ability to speak foreign languages fluently These changes, combined with advances in behavioral psychology, resulted in the development of the Audio-Lingual and Direct Methods The Grammar Translation Method presented grammatical rules in the same way that the Audio-Lingual Method did However, the emphasis remained on learning grammatical structures rather than developing real-life communication skills Theoretically, this method was heavily influenced by behaviorist psychology, which saw learning as a process of habit formation and conditioning; thus, it considered structural pattern memorization to be essential for L2 learning Such memorization was thought to form and reinforce language habits The American school of descriptive and structural linguistics, which shifted the emphasis from studying grammar in terms of parts of speech to a description of its structural and phonological components, also influenced the Audio-Lingual Method As a result, lessons in Audio-Lingual teaching

were primarily composed of grammatical structures sequenced in a linear fashion, usually beginning with an easy structure and ending with more complex forms, with little regard for meaning or context Rules, on the other hand, were taught inductively via examples and repetition of sentence-level patterns The emphasis was primarily on improving oral skills rather than written skills The majority of instructional units began with a conversational dialogue, followed by some pattern drills

Following the Grammar Translation and Audio-Lingual methods, many other methods emerged, including the Reading Approach, the Oral and Situational Method, the Silent Way, and Total Physical Response Although their underlying assumptions about how language is learned differed slightly, they were all grammar-based in terms

of curriculum That is, classroom materials were primarily organized around analyses

of language forms, with little emphasis on language functions or real-life communication As a result, they all reflected what Batstone (1994) defined as teaching grammar as product, or what Wilkins (1976, p 2) defined as a synthetic approach, in which language is segmented into different parts that are taught one at a time in isolation

In many current L2 classrooms, many teachers regard the PPP as a basic lesson structure (Crookes & Chaudron, 2001)

Grammar instruction follows a three-stage structure in the PPP model: a presentation stage, a practice stage, and a production stage The new grammar rule or structure is introduced in the presentation stage, usually through a text, a dialogue, or a

story that includes the structure Students listen to or read aloud the text The primary goal of this stage is to assist students in becoming acquainted with the new grammatical structure and retaining it in their short-term memory (Ur, 1988) Following the presentation stage, students are given a variety of written and spoken exercises to repeat, manipulate, or reproduce the new forms Typically, the practice stage begins with controlled practices that focus learners' attention on specific structures and then progresses to less controlled practices with more open-ended activities The goal of the practice stage is to assist students in gaining control of the knowledge introduced in the presentation stage, absorbing it, and moving it from short-term memory to long-term memory (Ur, 1988) Finally, learners are encouraged to use the rules they learned in the presentation and practice stages more freely and in more communicative activities during the production stage The goal of this final stage is for learners to fully master the new form by internalizing the rules and applying them automatically and spontaneously In some ways, the goal here is to improve fluency

The PPP model is theoretically informed by information processing and skill acquisition learning models, claiming that language learning is a cognitive skill similar

to other types of learning Language is learned, according to this viewpoint, by processing information available through input and then accessing it for subsequent comprehension and production According to skill acquisition theories (e.g., Anderson,

1982, 1983), learning is a transition from declarative knowledge (explicit knowledge

of rules and systems) to procedural knowledge (i.e., knowledge of how to use the system) Students first develop conscious knowledge of the new target rules and structures, and then practice them to gain control of them Presentation and practice, in this view, are critical in language acquisition It is believed that "the material is most thoroughly and permanently learned through practice" (Ur, 1988, p 10)

2.2.4 Inadequacies of Grammar-Based Approaches

Grammar instruction approaches that focus on teaching grammar as a set of rules and structures have been found to be insufficient in meeting the communicative needs

of L2 learners One of the central assumptions underlying traditional grammar-based approaches is that language is made up of a series of grammatical forms and structures that can be learned in a sequential manner Grammar instruction is thought to be a deductive and linear presentation of these rules It is believed that by presenting grammar forms in this manner, learners can develop the knowledge required for spontaneous language use

However, in recent years, many researchers have questioned the above assumptions Long and Robinson (1998) argued in a review of previous research on form-focused instruction that none of the many studies on L2 learning over the last 30 years shows that presenting grammar rules in a discrete fashion matches the manner in which learners develop language rules According to R Ellis, Basturkmen, and Loewen (2002, p 421), while there is substantial evidence that grammar instruction results in learning as measured by discrete-point language tests (for example, the grammar test in the TOEFL), there is much less evidence that it results in learning that enables learners

to perform the targeted form in free oral production (e.g., in a communicative task)

While not denying the importance of explicit instruction, N Ellis (2002, p 175) observed that "the real stuff of language acquisition is the slow acquisition of form-function mappings and the regularities therein." This skill, like others, requires tens of thousands of hours of practice, which cannot be replaced by the provision of a few declarative rules

Researchers also believe that L2 acquisition is a developmental process that, while there may be individual differences, follows regular and systematic developmental patterns These sequences, however, are not always compatible with the teaching agendas of teachers As a result, learners rarely learn grammatical structures

in the order presented by the teacher According to Long and Crookes (1992, p 31),

research has shown that learners rarely, if ever, move from zero to targetlike mastery

of new items in one step Both naturalistic and classroom learners go through fixed developmental sequences in word order, negation, questions, relative clauses, and so on—sequences that must often include quite lengthy stages of nontargetlike form use

as well as nontargetlike form use

The underlying assumptions of the more common PPP models have also been called into question for the same reasons According to Ellis (2003), the PPP models are suspect because they are based on the belief that "practice makes perfect." This notion, he pointed out, is incorrect because language acquisition processes appear to be governed by a number of psychological constraints (Pienemann, 1998) Skehan (1996b) argued that the PPP models are not only incompatible with the premises of current SLA theory, but they are also unsupported by research findings He stated that "the evidence

in support of such an approach [PPP] is unimpressive," and that "levels of attainment

in traditional language learning are poor, and students frequently leave school with very little in the way of usable language" (p 18) Skehan (1996b) argued that the popularity

of this method stems from its ease of use, organization, and evaluation, as well as the teacher's complete control over the structures to be covered Other L2 scholars have criticized PPP models, claiming that they are based on the false assumption that what

is taught is what is learned (e.g., Scrivener, 1996; D Willis, 1996a, 1996b) According

to Scrivener (1996), the reason for its popularity is that teachers are trained in this method and thus are accustomed to it

Of course, the PPP model has advantages However, as R Ellis (2006) pointed out, presenting and practicing grammatical forms is only one method of teaching grammar Grammar can also be taught solely through the presentation of rules with no practice, or solely through practice with no presentation It can also be taught by introducing learners to grammatical rules, exposing them to input containing occurrences of the target form, or providing corrective feedback on learner errors during communicative tasks

2.2.5 Communication-Based Approaches

Recognizing the shortcomings of approaches that focused solely on the presentation and manipulation of grammatical forms, as well as the realization that knowing a language is more than knowing its grammar, resulted in a shift away from

an exclusive focus on language forms and toward a focus on meaning and language use

in communicative contexts The communicative approach was born from this

The communicative approach defined language learning as the acquisition of communicative ability, that is, the ability to use and interpret meaning in real-life communication (Widdowson, 1978), rather than simply learning formal grammatical rules and structures Theoretically, this approach was motivated by various developments in linguistics and sociolinguistics in Europe and North America (Savignon, 2001) Hymes' theory of "communicative competence" (Hymes, 1972) was

a highly influential theory developed in response to Chomsky's (1965) characterization

of language competence primarily as linguistic competence Hymes distinguished between linguistic competence (knowledge of grammar rules) and communicative competence (knowledge of language use and ability to use language), arguing that knowing a language entails more than just knowing how to produce grammatical sentences correctly

The communicative approach was also influenced by the work of other British applied linguists such as Halliday, Firth, Austin, and Searle (e.g., Austin, 1962; Firth, 1957; Halliday, 1978, 1984; Searle, 1969), as well as American sociolinguists such as Gumperz and Labov (e.g., Gumperz & Hymes, 1972; Labov, 1972) These researchers emphasized the significance of researching language use and functions in social contexts

Developments in SLA theories, particularly Krashen's model of L2 learning and the distinction he made between acquisition and learning, were also influential (Krashen, 1981, 1985) Krashen distinguished between acquisition and learning as

unconscious and implicit processes He argued, and continues to argue (Krashen, 2008), that learners should "acquire" language unconsciously and implicitly through exposure

to understandable input rather than "learn" it consciously through explicit teaching of grammatical rules (Krashen, 1981; Krashen & Terrell, 1983) Although not directly related to communicative language teaching, this perspective on L2 learning provided ample theoretical support for its principles, particularly the role of grammar in language classrooms (Richards & Rodgers, 2001)

Although the communicative approach is widely recognized as an approach in language teaching that emphasizes meaning-focused language use, there are no established instructional procedures associated with it, as there are with traditional grammar teaching approaches such as Grammar Translation and Audio-Lingual Methods So, according to Savignon (2001, p 27), it is "a theory of communicative competence to be used in developing materials and methods appropriate to a given context." Others have interpreted it to refer to a family of teaching methodologies and curricula that place a primary emphasis on developing teaching activities that promote learner abilities in communicating meaning (Nunan, 2004)

However, a number of frameworks for implementing the communicative approach in the classroom have been proposed, which differ in terms of how much emphasis is placed on grammatical forms A distinction has frequently been made, for example, between a weak and a strong version of communicative language teaching (Howatt, 1984) According to the strong version, language is learned through communication; thus, the best way to teach a language is through activities that are solely meaning-focused In other words, communication is both the goal and the means

by which language instruction is carried out The end goal is still communication in the weak version, but learners can learn a language in a more controlled manner by using and practicing it in communicative contexts

Much of the earlier meaning-focused methods are based on a strong version of the communicative approach This includes notional-functional cur cur cur curriculums (e.g., Brumfit, 1984; DiPietro, 1987; Finocchiaro & Brumfit 1983), which emphasized language functions as key organizing principles of language pedagogy, such as greetings, requests, apologies, and so on, as well as procedural (Prabhu, 1987), and process-based syllabuses (Breen, 1984; Breen & Candlin, 1980) It also underpins more recent content-based and immersion L2 learning models, which emphasize integrating language and content or learning language through subject matter teaching (see Snow, 2001; Snow, Met, & Genesee, 1992) Much of the more recent task-based language instruction has been motivated by a strong version of the communicative a roach Task-based instruction assumes that engagement in meaning-focused activities that are similar to real-life activities is central to language learning These activities are referred

to as "tasks." There are many definitions of tasks (see Chapter 6), but they all have one thing in common: they all emphasize participation in activities that encourage communicative language use and place emphasis on meaning rather than grammatical forms (Nunan, 2006) As a result, they all reflect what Batstone (1994, p 5) referred to

as "teaching as process," in which the emphasis is on "the process of language use" rather than on product, or what Wilkins (1976, p 13) referred to as an analytic approach,

in which instruction is organized in terms of the purposes for which language is used rather than its constituent forms

Although earlier approaches to task-based instruction advocated for a focus solely on meaning (Prabhu, 1984, 1987), subsequent conceptualizations did not rule out

a focus on linguistic forms Indeed, the majority of recent proposals have emphasized the importance of attention to form in L2 task-based teaching (R Ellis, 2003; Long, 2000; Skehan, 1996a, 1996b, 1998b)

2.3 Implicit and explicit instruction

Implicit instruction refers to "learning that occurs without either intent or awareness" (R Ellis, 2008, p 965) The foundation of implicit teaching is exposure (input) and communication with more advanced speakers, a paradigm based on the acquisition of the first language The exemplar-based model proposed by N Ellis (2002) is an example of implicit instruction; it is essentially a connectionist and probabilistic paradigm that asserts that learners acquire (semi-)formulaic morphosyntactic structures by encountering them

Explicit instruction refers to "some sort of rule that is considered during the learning process" (DeKeyser, 1995, p 380), which can be accomplished deductively or inductively Explicit instruction focuses students' attention on the target form, is predetermined and planned, and is intrusive because it shifts the emphasis from communication and meaning to form In addition, it is characterized by its use of metalinguistic terminology and frequently includes a controlled practice component of the target form (Housen & Pierrard, 2005)

2.4 Inadequacies of Communication-Based Approaches

As previously stated, earlier approaches to communicative language teaching advocated sole attention to meaning; however, later conceptualizations did not rule out the possibility of a focus on linguistic forms, with more recent proposals emphasizing the importance of attention to form in L2 task-based teaching However, the introduction of communicative approaches not only weakened the status of grammar teaching but also resulted in negative reactions to grammar teaching among many L2 classroom teachers and educators who began to believe that their students' failure was primarily due to the fact that they had been taught using explicit grammar instruction

However, in recent years, language-teaching professionals have become increasingly aware that teaching approaches that place the primary emphasis on meaning while ignoring grammatical forms are insufficient There is also plenty of

French immersion programs, for example, has revealed that despite ample opportunities for exposure to meaningful content, students do not fully acquire many aspects of the target language available in the input (e.g., Harley & Swain, 1984; Lapkin et al., 1991; Swain, 1985) This study suggests that a focus on grammatical forms is required for learners to develop high levels of accuracy in the L2

Furthermore, there is strong empirical evidence for the positive effects of instruction aimed at drawing learners' attention to linguistic forms This evidence comes from a large number of laboratory and classroom-based studies, as well as extensive reviews of studies conducted over the last 30 years on the effects of form-focused instruction (e.g., R Ellis, 1994, 2001b; Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991; Long, 1983, 1991) Long (1983) concluded in an early review of the literature that form-focused instruction contributes significantly to language learning Later reviews by R Ellis (1994, 2001a, 2001b), N Ellis (1995), and Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) discovered that, while instructed language learning does not have a significant effect

on the sequence of acquisition, it does have a significant effect on the rate of acquisition and accuracy attainment Norris and Ortega (2001) concluded in a more recent meta-analysis of a large number of studies (49) on the effectiveness of second language instruction that L2 instruction that focuses on form results in a significant gain in the target structures and that the gains are sustained over time

Of course, one issue with the studies on the role of form-focused instruction is that the measures used to test learning favored grammar teaching in the sense that they measured explicit knowledge using traditional tests such as fill-in-the-blank and sentence transformation exercises (R Ellis, 2006) As a result, the evidence has not been conclusive However, the evidence has been compelling enough to prompt a reconsideration of the role of grammar in second language classrooms, as well as a strong conviction that grammatical forms are important and should not be overlooked

in language teaching

Furthermore, while the nature of the link between explicit and implicit language knowledge has been debated, a number of SLA researchers have argued that explicit knowledge contributes to, if not drives, acquisition Some researchers believe that if learners are developmentally ready, explicit knowledge can even become implicit knowledge (R Ellis, 1993b; Pienemann, 1984) It has also been proposed that explicit knowledge can aid acquisition in other ways, such as producing output that can serve

as auto-input to the implicit knowledge system (R Ellis, 2005), assisting learners in monitoring their output, and facilitating the production of unanalyzed language that may contribute to a type of knowledge that learners may later incorporate into their interlanguage system (Spada & Lightbown, 2008) Lightbown and Spada also argued that if learners can produce correct language using unanalyzed language, they will be able to maintain conversations, which will provide them with more understandable input According to current research, learners require ample opportunities to practice and produce structures that have been taught either explicitly, through a grammar lesson, or implicitly, through frequent exposure

2.5 Explicit Direct and Indirect Instruction

2.5.1 Explicit Direct Instruction

Direct instruction can be used to teach grammar deductively Deductively refers

to the oral or written form of explicit explanations of grammatical structures provided

to learners (Ellis, 1997) It saves time for the teacher, but the repeated rule presentations

of grammar structures can cause students to lose their sense of discovery, which can quickly lead to tedium In this method, "students are given a rule (or, perhaps, a portion

of a rule) that they must then apply, complete, or modify in a task requiring them to analyze data illustrating its use" (Ellis, 1997, p 86) Students may be given a rule about the simple past tense along with several sentences and instructed to use the rule to determine which sentences are grammatical and which are not Therefore, students rely heavily on the teacher's explanations and provision of grammar rules

2.5.2 Explicit Indirect Instruction

While direct explicit grammar instruction emphasizes deduction, indirect explicit grammar instruction emphasizes induction, or learners discovering grammatical rules through tasks, and thus does not require grammatical explanations (Ellis, 2008, p 159) It refers to a problem-solving strategy in which "students are given data that demonstrates the use of a specific grammatical structure, which they analyze

to arrive at some generalization that accounts for the data's regularities" (Ellis, 1997, p 86) Students may be given a reading passage with examples of the use of the simple present and present continuous tenses, and they must 'identify' the verbs in both tenses and then construct a 'rule' to explain their various functions In a nutshell, learners must construct grammar rules for themselves based on the given input and tasks

Indirect consciousness-raising tasks are commonly used in this approach, with the goal of "helping learners construct their own explicit grammar of the target language and encouraging communication in the L2 between learners" (Ellis, 1997, p 87) They are referred to as pedagogic activities (Ellis, 1997, p 160), structured input tasks (Thornbury, 2005, p 40), or discovery tasks (Ellis, 2008, p 165) These tasks are distinct from direct consciousness-raising tasks, which aim to increase explicit knowledge of grammar rules while also incorporating some "meta-lingual knowledge" guided by "direct explanation–of the type used in the grammar translation method" (Ellis, 1997, p 160) The objectives of direct and indirect consciousness-raising tasks have been identified Here are some ideas for how to design and implement these tasks

It's worth thinking about how indirect consciousness-raising tasks are designed, used, and limited (1) identification, (2) judgment, (3) completion, (4) modification, (5) sorting, and (6) matching are some of the operations that can be performed on the data, according to Ellis (1997) There are also some other things to consider Individuals, pairs, and small groups can complete this task Both oral and written forms are recommended for completing the tasks, and learners can use their first or second language (L2) (pp 161-162) Simultaneously, according to Hinkle (2008, p 185), these

tasks allow students to examine how grammatical structures are used in real-life situations and to improve their implicit and explicit grammar knowledge through the use of authentic language They, on the other hand, have their own limitations; they may not be suitable for beginners or young students (Ellis, 1991 and Sheen, 1992, as cited in Ellis, 2003, p 166)

2.6 Task-based approach

Task-based approaches have traditionally represented a strong version of communicative language teaching that does not place a focus on grammar forms Current arguments, on the other hand, argue that task-based instruction should include

a grammar component (Skehan, 1996b; D Willis, 1996a, 1996b) In his description of task-based instruction, Skehan (1996b, p 18) suggested that when organizing task-based instruction, both a focus on language forms and a focus on communication should

be considered "Learners do not simply acquire the language to which they are exposed," he argued, "no matter how carefully the teacher orchestrates that exposure."

He claimed that when creating task-based instruction, a balance between a focus on grammar forms and a focus on communication must be struck To that end, he outlined three objectives for task-based pedagogy in second languages: accuracy, complexity, and fluency Accuracy was defined as the ability to produce language "without undue pausing or hesitation," while complexity was defined as "the elaboration or ambition of the language that is produced." Fluency was defined as the ability to produce language

"without undue pausing or hesitation." Skehan (1996b) proposed that effective L2 instruction strike a balance between these goals because such a balance would lead to

"longer-term linguistic development" as well as effective communicative ability (p 18)

Of course, finding this balance is the most difficult task for teachers

D Willis (1996a) proposes a task-based model that places a strong emphasis on the form component Fluency, accuracy, analysis, and conformity are the four components of his model When language is used for communicative purposes,

teach students about language patterns and regularities Conformity refers to directed activities that promote consciousness-raising, such as controlled repetitions of fixed phrases, various types of form-focused activities, and providing form-focused summaries of what learners have learned at the end of each lesson Finally, J Willis (1996) proposed a task-based framework that is very similar to the grammar-based PPP model, with the exception that the meaning-based and form-based activities are performed in reverse order Pre-task, task, and language focus cycles are the three cycles in her model The pre-task phase's goal is to introduce students to the task or prepare them to complete it through activities such as brainstorming, using pictures, emphasizing new vocabulary, and so on The goal of the task cycle is to give them opportunities to communicate spontaneously using the language The goal of the language focus phase is to help them develop an understanding of how language works through various language-based activities and exercises such as repetition, sentence completion, matching exercises, dictionary work, and so on.

teacher-2.7 Text-based approach

The concept of text is used as the starting point for developing tasks and activities, as well as for assessing learning, in a text-based approach It's about how language learners use language and what they need to know about how language works

in context

Discourse analysis, a field of language analysis that has many origins, including sociology, sociolinguistics, philosophy, linguistics, and artificial intelligence, arose from developments in the latter half of the twentieth century (see McCarthy 1991; McCarthy, Matthiessen, and Slade 2010)

The analysis of spoken and written language as it is used in social contexts is what unites various discourse analysis approaches Discourse analysts are interested in the meaning of a flow of language, whether spoken or written, in its context The following are examples of important questions for discourse analysts: Who are the participants in this exchange? What are the speakers' and writers' roles and

relationships? What are they trying to say? What are their communication goals, social

or personal? What effect does the context have on what is communicated? What effect does the context have on the type of communication language used? What are the participants attempting to communicate? What percentage of the time do they succeed

in exchanging these meanings?

Traditionally, language teaching knowledge and skills were based on traditional

or structural grammars that emerged from the analysis of written language at the individual sentence level More recently, grammars of both spoken and written language (e.g., Biber et al 1999; Carter and McCarthy 2006) have been developed, which have been useful in informing language teaching from a text-based approach (e.g., Biber et al 1999; Carter and McCarthy 2006) with the advancement of technology for collecting and analyzing large bodies of spoken and written language (a corpus is a collection of texts stored on a computer; see O'Keeffe, McCarthy, and Carter, 2007)

As a result of these developments, authentic language as it is used by speakers and writers in various contexts of everyday life is a key aspect of text-based teaching

A text-based approach, in contrast to a task-based approach, uses texts as the primary starting point for developing the syllabus The teacher can incorporate elements

of many other types of syllabi (e.g., situational, topic based, notional-functional, task based) into activities to help learners succeed in using various texts, depending on learner needs and the contexts outside the classroom where they wish to communicate

In a text-based syllabus, the teacher's role is to assess how well students understand the language features and patterns of various texts and to help them gain more independence in their ability to participate successfully in these texts (Hammond et al 1992; Feez, 1998) As a result, when creating content for a text-based approach, teachers should aim to use their entire repertoire of teaching skills and knowledge, including their understanding of textual language patterns

2.8 Previous studies

Recent educational research on students' perceptions and attitudes toward grammar instruction has revealed that teachers can improve their teaching strategies and implementation by understanding these perceptions and attitudes (Lightbown & Spade, 2006) Prior research has focused primarily on the beliefs and perceptions of second and foreign language learners regarding grammatical instruction and corrective feedback In general, these studies have confirmed that L2 learners' and their teachers' perspectives on grammar instruction strategies differ Numerous studies on learners' perceptions of grammar instruction center on the differences between students' and teachers' views on grammar teaching strategies According to Borg (2005), the beliefs

of students can influence the thinking and behavior of teachers Beliefs about the language-learning process have been one of the areas of focus for researchers in the field of second-language acquisition in recent years These preexisting beliefs have a substantial effect on the teaching behaviors and practices of teachers and researchers (cited in Incecay & Dollar, 2011)

To date, research on grammar instruction has focused on a variety of topics Some researchers, for instance, have investigated the effect of various types of grammar instruction on the acquisition of language skills by students Another group of studies examined the relationship between grammar instruction and students' test-taking abilities Rao (2005) examined the preferences of thirty Chinese students for modern and traditional grammar instruction methods For information gathering, he used a questionnaire He found that half of the participants favored traditional grammar teaching strategies, while the other half favored new ones Therefore, he concluded that

a combination of communicative and non-communicative or traditional teaching methods was necessary Savignon and Wang (2007) employed a questionnaire to determine the attitudes of Taiwanese students toward grammar instruction Students favored communicative teaching methods over non-communicative teaching methods such as presentation-practice-production, according to the findings In a separate study,

Male (2011) examined the perspectives of EFL students on the instruction of English grammar For data collection, he used a questionnaire The findings of the study indicated that the majority of students consider grammar to be an important aspect of English learning According to them, grammar is important in writing but not so much

in speech In addition, students appeared to prefer explicit instruction over implicit instruction when learning English grammar

Generally, there are numerous studies on grammatical approaches to theoretic aspects However, few studies, particularly in the context of Vietnam, have examined the attitudes of students toward the specific grammar teaching methods used in the classroom, particularly consciousness-raising (concept check), text-based, task-based, and context-build methods, which are currently receiving the most attention This study therefore focuses on filling this gap

2.9 Conceptual framework

Some reflections in the conceptual framework can be drawn from the aforementioned theoretical perspectives and the studies mentioned above First, while there have been numerous studies on students' attitudes toward grammar instruction methods, there have been relatively few studies on students' attitudes toward consciousness-raising (concept check), text-based, task-based, and context-build methods

Second, Gardner (1985) defines 'attitude' as affection or preferences, cognition

or perceptions, and conation or behaviors The majority of the studies looked into EFL students' perceptions of the effectiveness and challenges of grammar learning EFL students' affection (feeling) for grammar learning was rarely investigated in these studies

Finally, there have been few studies in Vietnam on students' attitudes toward the aforementioned constructs These gaps prompted the researcher to conduct the current study, which looks into the students' feelings about grammar learning in relation to those constructs, their perceptions of difficulties in the grammar classroom and the reasons for their positive or negative attitudes towards those types of grammar instruction as well as difficulties encountered in the classroom

Attitude Gardner (1985)

Preferences

Perceptions

Grammar teaching methods:

Consciousness-raising Text-based

Task-based Context-build Difficulties in grammar learning

Students themselves Teachers

Coursebooks