VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE ❧ ❧ ❖ ❧ ❧ A STUDY ON EFL STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF LEARNER AUTONO[.]
INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
In recent years, the language learning and teaching field has increasingly shifted from traditional methods to a learner-centered approach, emphasizing collaboration between teachers and learners This approach encourages learners to participate in decision-making regarding curriculum content and teaching methods It has been widely researched and implemented globally, particularly in Asian countries, to combat student passiveness in learning The learner-centered approach also promotes the study of learner autonomy, a key concept in English Language Teaching (ELT) discourse since the 20th century, as it shifts responsibility from teachers to learners to achieve effective learning outcomes.
Learner autonomy plays a crucial role in language teaching and learning, emphasizing the importance of fostering this skill for lifelong learning that extends beyond formal education (Elsen & St John, 2007) It is essential for learners to be supported in actively directing and regulating their own learning (Elsen & St John, 2007) The significance of learner autonomy is evident as it enhances learners' awareness of their learning strategies and options (Council of Europe, 2001) According to Benson (2011), autonomy is a prerequisite for effective learning, leading to improved language skills and fostering responsible, critical members of society.
Learner autonomy is crucial in the educational process, as it involves students engaging in independent work outside the classroom and integrating this with their in-class learning (Benson, 2011, p 7) Its significance cannot be overstated.
Many educators strive to enhance student autonomy both in and out of the classroom (Benson, 2007; Sharma & Barrett, 2007; Benson & Reinders, 2011; Blidi, 2017) However, effectively promoting learner autonomy requires teachers to have a clear understanding of their students' learning needs.
In Vietnam's education system, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has implemented a credit-based curriculum that emphasizes autonomous learning in educational settings (MoET, 2012).
Developing learner autonomy in educational settings is challenging, particularly for students accustomed to a long-term passive learning style (Pham, N T., 2010, as cited in Dang, T T., 2012a) Nguyen, T V (2011) highlights a common issue in universities: students often rely on teachers for knowledge acquisition instead of engaging in self-directed learning Additionally, many learners struggle to manage their out-of-class study time (Nguyen, T S C., 2016) Consequently, when teachers introduce extracurricular activities, students may experience frustration (Dang, T T., 2010, p 5) Therefore, identifying effective strategies to promote learner autonomy is essential for many universities and colleges.
To foster greater independence in student learning, course design should emphasize learner autonomy (Harmer, 2007) The People’s Security University (PSU) in Vietnam has implemented a credit-based curriculum that encourages self-study, aiming for increased student autonomy in program construction (Betts & Smith, 1998) For the past five years, PSU has adhered to the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) requirements, necessitating that students prepare lessons and complete additional exercises at home to reinforce their knowledge While the curriculum mandates covering the same learning content, it allows for reduced in-class time However, many students find the concept of learner autonomy unfamiliar due to their previous experiences with passive learning styles, highlighting the need for teachers to actively engage students in this transition.
Becoming autonomous in learning plays a crucial role in students' educational development Despite receiving a self-study guide from their English teachers, many students struggle to effectively engage in self-study due to a lack of understanding of learner autonomy and its significance This confusion leads to difficulties in practicing autonomy and a noticeable lack of motivation to enhance their independent learning skills Therefore, increasing students' awareness of the importance of learner autonomy is essential for encouraging them to actively practice and develop these skills in the classroom.
In order to find an appropriate way to raise the awareness of students, it is initially necessary to explore their perceptions of learner autonomy.
Aims of the study
This study aimed to enhance awareness of learner autonomy among PSU's non-English major students to align with the university's curriculum requirements Specifically, it investigated the students' readiness for learner autonomy by examining their perceptions of (i) taking responsibility for their own learning and (ii) collaborating with teachers and peers.
Based on the above-mentioned objectives, the study attempts to answer the following question:
1 How do the PSU’s EFL students perceive learner autonomy in terms of taking responsibility for their own learning?
2 How do the students perceive learner autonomy in collaboration with their teachers and peers?
Significance of the study
The current study is significant owing to the following reasons
This research offers a comprehensive review of theories surrounding learner autonomy, aiming to strengthen the understanding of this concept The findings will contribute to the development of a theoretical framework for learner autonomy.
This study's findings are crucial for both teachers and students at PSU, as they highlight the significance of learner autonomy within the credit-based curriculum It is anticipated that students will gain a deeper understanding of learner autonomy and learn effective ways to practice it Additionally, teachers will gain insights into their students' needs, enabling them to implement effective strategies to foster autonomous learning.
Scope of the study
The study focuses on 162 out of 208 second-year university students enrolled in their first English module during the 2019-2020 academic year These non-English major students, assumed to have a pre-intermediate level of English proficiency, were required to begin this module in their second year The primary concern of the thesis is to explore their perceptions of learner autonomy, while the influence of learner autonomy on academic achievement is not addressed in this research.
Organization of thesis chapters
This current report includes 5 chapters
Chapter 1 offers the introduction of the study The chapter begins with the study background Then, the aims of the study and research questions are stated The chapter ends with the scope and outline of the thesis
Chapter 2 reviews theories relevant to the study focus This chapter starts with the definition of learner autonomy, concept of control over the learning process and interdependence in learner autonomy, interpretations of learner autonomy are presented in this chapter, some factors that influence learner autonomy development, and processes of developing learner autonomy are introduced Then, learner autonomy beyond the classroom is discussed in this chapter Some previous studies related to learner autonomy are also presented in this part of the thesis The chapter ends with a conceptual framework developed for this study
Chapter 3 describes precisely the research design of a mixed methods research, research site, research participants, research instruments, data collection precedure, and data analysis procedure
Chapter 4 depicts the results of the questionnaires and interviews Discussion of the results and major findings were demonstrated in this chapter
Chapter 5 concludes the major points in the thesis, suggest some pedagogical implications, present some limitations and then suggest useful recommendations further studies related to learner autonomy
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition of learner autonomy
Learner autonomy is a complex concept that has been defined in various ways over time Initially introduced by Holec (1981) as “the ability to take charge of one’s own learning,” this definition is widely referenced in studies on the topic (Benson, 2011) Holec emphasized that learner autonomy involves taking responsibility for all aspects of the learning experience, including setting objectives, choosing content, selecting methods, and evaluating progress He argued that learners can gain control over their learning through the process of self-directed learning, which allows them to develop this essential skill.
Learner autonomy encompasses both cognitive and psychological aspects, as highlighted by Holec's definition Little (1991) emphasizes the psychological dimension, describing autonomy as the ability for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action This indicates that learner autonomy involves effective and metacognitive dimensions, reinforcing its multifaceted nature (Little, 1995).
An autonomous person is defined as someone with the independent ability to make and implement choices that govern their actions, reflecting a positive approach to planning, monitoring, and evaluating their decisions.
7 learning” (Little, 2010) on the one hand and well-developed metacognitive skills on the other
Some researchers interpret learner autonomy from sociocultural perspectives, emphasizing that while learners assume greater responsibility and make more choices regarding their education, teachers play a crucial role in facilitating the development of this autonomy (Oxford, 2003; Oxford, 2015; Gao, 2018, p 30).
Benson (2011b) redefined learner autonomy, based on Holec’s definition, as the “capacity to control one’s own learning” (p 61), substituting 'capacity' and 'control' for 'ability' and 'take charge of.' While terms like 'control,' 'take charge,' and 'take responsibility' are similar in meaning (Dang T T., 2010; Benson, 2011b), Benson favored "control" for its greater potential for empirical investigation (p 58) This study adopts Benson's definition as its foundation, emphasizing the importance of students taking responsibility for their own learning.
Dimensions of learning control
Before discussing how students can take charge of their learning, it's essential to define what control entails and its various dimensions Control refers to the "power to make choices and decisions and act on them" (Teng).
To become an autonomous learner, students must develop the ability to make informed choices and decisions regarding their learning processes According to Benson (2011b), this involves managing their learning, selecting content, and engaging in cognitive processing Learning management encompasses behaviors related to planning, organization, and evaluation of learning Schwienhorst (2003) defines an autonomous learner as one who can plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning outcomes while taking responsibility for their decisions This includes setting objectives, determining content and progress, choosing learning methods, tracking acquisition processes, particularly in speaking, and assessing what they have learned.
Control of learning content is a crucial aspect of learning management, emphasizing the significance of what and why individuals learn a language rather than the methods of learning According to Holec (1981), this focus on content over methodology is essential for fostering authentic self-directed learning Benson (2011b) supports this view, stating that if learners concentrate solely on the methods of learning—such as when, where, or how—they may not engage in truly self-directed learning.
When students are encouraged to take responsibility for their learning, they often prioritize methodological aspects over content, influenced by the social and political factors that govern educational settings This desire for control over learning content can lead to inevitable conflicts between students and teachers or institutions.
Control over cognitive processes is essential for managing learning and content, encompassing attention, reflection, and metacognitive knowledge Attention is crucial for language acquisition, while reflection is identified as a vital psychological element of autonomy (Little, 1997).
Wenden (1995, as cited in Benson, 2011b) identifies three types of metacognitive knowledge: person, strategic, and task knowledge, with a particular emphasis on task knowledge due to its relevance to controlling the learning process Task knowledge refers to metacognitive awareness specific to the current task, influencing decisions about aspects such as content, progression, pace, place, and time of learning, as well as the selection and application of cognitive strategies and evaluative criteria (Benson, 2011b).
Cooker (2015) identified learner control as a key category in her comprehensive model of learner autonomy, as illustrated in Table 2.1 She emphasized that, in addition to aligning with Holec and Benson's elements—such as defining needs, setting objectives, managing time, and selecting suitable materials—learners must also take responsibility for their own learning beyond the classroom This highlights the importance of students actively engaging in their educational journey.
9 continuing organizationally regulated learning activities outside the scheduled, supervised class hours (Palfreyman, p 84)
Table 2.1 Categories and Elements of Learner Autonomy (adopted from Cooker, 2015)
Learner control Ability to analyze/ define needs
Ability to set achievable objectives Ability to manage time
Ability to choose appropriate materials Ability to negotiate learning
Ability to select partners for pair/group work Ability to work on one own
Ability to make choices how work will be assessed Ability to assess discrete aspects of one’s own work Ability to assess the work of peers
Ability to take responsibility for one’s own learning outside the classroom
Ability to monitor one’s own learning progress over time Critical reflection Critical understanding of the roles of teacher and students
Critical awareness of different teaching and learning approaches Critical awareness of the variations in quality of different teaching and learning inputs
This study emphasizes the importance of student control in learning management, content, and cognitive processing It specifically highlights how students can take charge of their planning, organization, evaluation, and overall responsibility for their learning, extending beyond the classroom environment.
Interdependence and learner autonomy
Over the past thirty years, there has been a growing focus on learner autonomy in foreign language education, emerging shortly after the communicative revolution This concept of autonomy is fundamentally centered around the learner, emphasizing their active role in the language learning process.
2008, p 16) The turn of the 20th century was marked by a considerably growing interest in autonomy (Benson, 2006, p 21) Learner autonomy has become an
10 influential concept in language education in a variety of contexts in recent years, and
‘culture’ has often been mentioned as a significant variable in connection with its appropriateness and/or practicality (Blidi, 2017, p.10)
Learner autonomy in language learning is defined as the ability of learners to take control of their own education (Holec, 1981; Little, 1990; Benson, 2001, 2011b) This capacity develops through social interactions with peers and teachers (Little, 2000, as cited in O’Leary, 2013) Murray (2014) emphasizes that learner autonomy evolves through interdependence and collaboration within the language classroom Therefore, fostering collaboration is essential for developing learner autonomy (Benson, 2011b) This is particularly significant in certain regions, such as Asia (Palfreyman, 2018) Interdependence is crucial for autonomy, as it involves learners working together for mutual benefit and sharing responsibility for their learning (Voller, 1997; Palfreyman, 2003) It represents a more advanced stage of autonomy compared to mere independence (Boud, 1981, as cited in Palfreyman, 2003), as it allows learners to control their learning with the support of teachers, contrasting with the negative aspect of complete freedom without guidance (Carter, 2003, as cited in Murase, 2015).
Everhard (2015) introduced a new category of autonomy that unfolds in three distinct stages The initial stage, termed heteronomy, occurs when learning relies entirely on external support The second stage, known as interdependence, involves learners benefiting from both collaborative self-support and external assistance Finally, the third stage represents autonomy, where learners take charge of their own learning process.
Everhard's study revealed that varying degrees of autonomy are reflected in differences in power and control dynamics, as well as in aspects such as learners and their learning processes, teacher involvement, the nature of knowledge, motivation, and assessment methods.
11 current study, of these dimensions, the first former elements are discussed, as displayed in Table 2.2 below
Table 2.2 Approaches to Teaching and Learning and their Impact on Autonomy (based on Brody & Hill, 1991; Kohonen, 1992; Berry & Shalberg, 1996; Nunan, 1997, 2000;
Everhard, 2013, as cited in Everhard, 2015, p 19)
Institution or teacher determine syllabus as well as pace, mode and style of instruction
Student-centered; shared control; cooperation among peers; scaffolding
Community of learners; emphasis on learners who establish own goals and targets and choose own materials and pace of learning
Passive recipient of information; transfer of knowledge from teacher to learners; focus on the content and product
Negotiation with teacher and other learners; shared ownership, responsibility and development of learning plan
Active participation in co-operative groups; emphasis on process: learning skills, self- inquiry, strategic learning social and communication skills; meaning-making
Emphasis on teacher’s authority; providing mainly fontal instruction; professionalism as individual autonomy
Shared ownership and responsibility; scaffolding provided when needed; collaborative development and construction of meaning
Teacher as facilitator and learner among learners; facilitator of learning; collaborative professionalism
The table outlines three approaches to learning and teaching that influence learner autonomy, highlighting various dimensions such as control, learners, and teaching methods In the case of heteronomy, teachers or institutions exert control over classroom activities, dictating the syllabus, pace, and instructional style Consequently, students engage in passive learning, with an emphasis on content delivery rather than active participation.
The interdependence stage emphasizes a student-centered approach, where learners share responsibility with their teacher and collaborate with peers Ultimately, the autonomy stage is achieved when students can set their own goals, select learning materials, and determine their pace In this process, the teacher acts as a facilitator, guiding students in their educational journey.
Interpretations of learner autonomy in language learning
Learner autonomy is a complex, multidimensional concept that varies among individuals and across different contexts and times (Benson, 2011b) Its interpretation is influenced by various factors, including political, social, and contemporary situations (Dang, T T., 2010; Smith, 2003b).
Littlewood (1996) categorized learner autonomy into three key domains: autonomy as a communicator, autonomy as a learner, and autonomy as a person This classification is based on individuals' abilities and willingness to make choices in specific tasks and in life overall.
Smith (2003c) distinguishes between 'weak' and 'strong' versions of pedagogy for learner autonomy The 'weak version' posits that autonomy is a capacity that students currently lack, requiring development through the learning process (Holec, 1981) In this perspective, autonomy is viewed as a "deferred goal and as a product of instruction" (Smith, p 130) Conversely, the 'strong version' suggests that students are inherently autonomous and capable of exercising this capacity, though the degree of autonomy varies among learners This degree can be enhanced by fostering optimal environments that encourage students to practice their autonomy.
Meanwhile, Oxford (2003) developed a model of learner autonomy with four main perspectives, namely technical perspective, psychological perspective, sociocultural perspective, and political-critical perspective (pp 78-91)
Among them, the technical perspective “focuses on situational conditions” (p
81) where learner autonomy may be fostered These conditions are initially generated
13 by the others, not the students themselves, maybe the physical, literal surroundings where students can be given “full responsibility for their learning” (p 82)
Not all students can fully take responsibility for their learning due to individual characteristics, highlighting the need to consider both external and internal factors in developing learner autonomy The psychological perspective emphasizes the mental and emotional traits of learners, as outlined by Oxford (2015), which include being self-regulated, emotionally intelligent, resilient, psychologically engaged, self-determined, existentially free, and effective An autonomous learner must be self-regulated, managing their beliefs, emotions, and strategies effectively Confidence in their ability to learn a relevant language, along with positive emotions, is crucial for engagement Additionally, effective management of learning strategies is vital for autonomy Emotional intelligence helps learners navigate their emotions and relationships, reducing negative feelings like anxiety and shame Resilience and intrinsic motivation are essential for enjoying the language learning process, while habits of mind are necessary for managing emotions, strategies, and social interactions.
The current study emphasizes the importance of the existentially free learner, highlighting that autonomy in language learning can be achieved by exercising freedom and responsibility to make learning personally meaningful According to Oxford, learners can enhance their autonomy by developing effective learning strategies, improving intrinsic motivation, and cultivating a positive mindset, enabling them to thrive despite challenges.
14 relationships She underlined that “autonomy in language learning can influence autonomy in personal affairs and vice versa”
Table 2.3 Descriptors and Key Points in the Psychological Perspective on the
Psychologically self-regulation involves management of beliefs, emotions and strategies
Emotionally intelligence requires knowing/ managing emotions, motivating oneself, understanding other’s emotions, and managing relationships
3 Resilient learner Resilience is springing back from adversity with the help of personal and/or social factors
Engagement occurs with meaningful tasks and materials flow and inspired consciousness are advanced examples of engagement
Intrinsic motivation involves autonomy, competence, and relatedness
Existentially free learners show autonomy and have responsibility to create meaning
7 Effective learner Habits of mind lead to effectiveness can be viewed as strategies
The sociocultural perspective emphasizes the importance of socially mediated learning, where interactions with parents, teachers, and peers enhance learners' self-regulatory skills (Oxford, 2003) This approach identifies six key descriptors of the mediated learner: cognitively apprentice learner, socio-culturally strategic learner, invested learner, sociopolitical free learner, and self-efficacious learner, as detailed in Table 2.4.
A learner can enhance their self-regulation skills with the guidance of a more knowledgeable individual, such as a teacher, parent, or peer By engaging in activities like observing and internalizing the expert's performance, the learner acts as an apprentice within a community This process allows the learner to gradually take on a central role in the community of practice To strategically develop self-regulation, learners should employ sociocultural-interactive strategies, including collaborating with others, seeking assistance, maintaining conversations despite knowledge gaps, and fostering connections.
15 and maintaining relationships, etc” The ways students invest in learning a language also indicate their level of learner autonomy The degree of investment is affected by
Individuals' desires and self-beliefs, influenced by sociocultural power dynamics, play a crucial role in their learning environments When they perceive these dynamics as supportive, they are more likely to make positive choices, such as investing in language learning Additionally, the extent of their investment is closely linked to their confidence in successfully completing tasks and reaching goals, which reflects their autonomy as learners.
Table 2.4 Descriptors and Key Points in the Sociocultural Perspective on the
1 Mediated learner Learner moves from social speech to inner speech with mediation by the more capable other and thus develops self- regulation
The learner is apprenticed to an expert and moves from peripheral participation to more central participation in a community of practice
Use of sociocultural-interactive (social) strategies helps to develop strategic self-regulation in sociocultural settings
Investment signifies autonomy under certain sociocultural situations, but in other situations resistance signifies autonomy
The learner actively pursues freedom and uses it responsibly in relationships
Self-efficacy is the socially learned belief that one can successfully do a specific task or attain a particular goal
From a psychological standpoint, the term "socio-politically free learner" is selected for deeper exploration in this study Autonomous language learners seek freedom and utilize it responsibly, engaging in meaningful interactions where they are regarded as emerging critical thinkers, equal to their teachers.
The political-critical perspective emphasizes the significance of power, access, and ideology in education Autonomous learners possess the ability to govern their own learning processes, make informed decisions regarding their educational activities, and operate independently of oppressive influences (Oxford, 2003) Nonetheless, the aspiration to engage with power structures remains a complex issue.
16 the same for all individuals or groups” (Dang, T T., 2012b, p 35) due to differences in
“locations, spaces, situations, communities and by individual characteristics such as age, gender, belief, religion, and culture” (Pennycook, 1997, as cited in Dang, T T., 2012b, p 36).
Factors influencing learner autonomy development
Blidi (2017) has pointed out five factors that may affect the development of learner autonomy, which are named voluntariness, learner choice, flexibility, teacher’s role, and peer support
Voluntariness significantly influences learners' perceptions and attitudes toward autonomy in language learning When students are eager and prepared to learn, their autonomy flourishes compared to situations where they feel compelled However, initial compulsion can be essential to help overcome cultural and psychological barriers, such as shyness, hesitation, and lack of self-confidence (Blidi, 2017, p 13).
Learners can enhance their ability to manage their own education when they are both motivated and empowered by the social and psychological factors influencing them (Teng, 2019) Therefore, it is essential to grant learners the freedom to choose their objectives, define the content and progression of their studies, select appropriate methods, monitor their learning process, and evaluate the outcomes (Holec).
1981), which is considered as “central in directing students towards embracing learner autonomy” (Blidi, 2017, p 13)
Freedom, along with ability and desire, are essential components of learner autonomy (Huang & Benson, 2013; Teng, 2019) Huang and Benson (2013) define freedom as the degree to which learners can control their own learning, highlighting the importance of situational freedom in the learning process (Benson, 2008) To achieve autonomy, learners must be liberated from external direction and control, whether from specific agents or the learning environments they encounter (Benson, 2011a).
Autonomy in language learning can be improved by shifting the dynamics of power and control in the classroom (Benson, p 15) Ability encompasses the necessary skills and knowledge for language acquisition, which includes both study techniques and language proficiency (Huang and Benson, 2013; Teng, 2019) Additionally, desire is the learner's intention to engage in language learning with a specific purpose Ultimately, a learner can cultivate autonomy when they possess the desire, the acceptance to pursue it, and the requisite skills and knowledge.
Creating a supportive learning environment is essential for fostering student independence (Lee, 1998) Flexibility is a key criterion in establishing this environment, as it is one of the 100 competencies linked to autonomy (Candy, 1991, as cited in Benson, 2011b) This flexibility allows students to adjust their learning objectives, content, progression, and methods based on their individual needs and interests As students engage in the learning process, they may need to modify their choices to align with their demands and realities, emphasizing the importance of providing them with options that best suit their learning preferences.
As sociocultural perspectives evolve, teachers are recognized as essential agents in fostering learner autonomy (Lamb & Reinders, 2008; Oxford, 2015; Gao, 2018) Their support is crucial in encouraging students to develop the willingness and readiness to become autonomous learners (Blidi, p.13) Consequently, teachers are expected to adopt multiple roles, including learning facilitator, learner developer, and counselor, in addition to their traditional responsibilities in delivering English lessons (Gao).
In the educational context, teachers serve as facilitators or counselors, guiding students in clarifying their goals, providing feedback, and offering encouragement throughout the learning process (Voller, 1997; Blidi, 2017) It is important to note that while a counselor can perform all the functions of a facilitator, this role typically involves one-on-one interactions (Voller, p 104).
Benson (2011b) highlights the teacher's pivotal role in fostering learner autonomy, describing them as a multifaceted resource who guides students in effectively utilizing learning materials The teacher acts not only as a facilitator and counselor but also as a consultant, helper, coordinator, adviser, and knowledgeable guide, mediating essential ideas about language learning to enhance student engagement and independence.
Little (2004) identified three key principles of learner autonomy: learner empowerment, learner reflection, and appropriate target language use Learner empowerment emphasizes the importance of students taking responsibility for their own learning and controlling their learning processes, with teachers acting as facilitators Learner reflection involves students evaluating their own learning, helping them recognize their strengths, weaknesses, and achievements Lastly, appropriate target language use requires teachers to create an environment where students can engage in meaningful communication using the target language from the outset These principles are interconnected and support one another in fostering learner autonomy.
To foster learner autonomy, it is essential for students to engage in autonomous learning collaboratively with both their teachers and peers Peer support significantly contributes to the development of learner autonomy through Peer Scaffolding within a collaborative learning environment, aligning with Vygotsky’s concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
2007, as cited in Malcolm, 2011) The ZPD represents the difference between the learner’s performance without and with the assistance of more capable other people (Oxford, 2003, p 86).
The development process of learner autonomy
Nunan (1997, p 195) pointed out the process of five levels to develop learner autonomy, consisting of awareness, involvement, intervention, creation, and
At the initial level of learning, students are guided to understand the goals, content, and strategies through the materials they use Progressing to the next stage, they transition from mere awareness to active participation, making choices from various content and procedural options The subsequent step encourages learners to modify and adapt their goals, content, and tasks As they advance, learners gain the ability to set their own objectives, select content, and create personalized learning tasks Ultimately, fully autonomous learners transcend formal educational settings, such as classrooms or tutorials, and independently develop their own learning materials using community resources.
Scharle & Szabó (2000) identified three key phases for educators to help learners become autonomous The first phase emphasizes the importance of raising learners' awareness about autonomy and its significance in their development By understanding the value of autonomy, learners are likely to shift their attitudes and subsequently alter their roles in the learning process.
Dang (2012b) outlined a three-step process for developing learner autonomy, which includes initiating, monitoring, and evaluating The initial step focuses on the learner's characteristics that are pertinent to this development.
Understanding personal learning preferences is essential for determining goals, designing effective study plans, and seizing opportunities throughout the learning journey Monitoring the learning process helps anticipate engagement and maintenance attributes, while evaluating learning outcomes is crucial for assessing overall success These three processes—understanding, monitoring, and evaluating—can operate either sequentially or simultaneously, often overlapping during the learning experience.
Table 2.5 Index of Learner Autonomy Attributes in Three Processes (Dang,T T., 2012b)
To enhance learning, it is essential to establish clear goals and strategies, create actionable plans, and seek relevant resources Maintaining organized agendas and tracking progress are crucial for effective learning Employing suitable strategies and selecting appropriate materials allows for a tailored and personalized learning experience Additionally, being flexible and regulating one's learning process, while actively engaging with peers through collaboration and negotiation, fosters a supportive learning environment Critical reflection on one's learning journey further enriches the educational experience.
Evaluating evaluating learning outcomes correcting mistakes
The three processes share the same idea, the initial and crucial stage in developing learner autonomy is to raise the students’ awareness of learner autonomy.
Learner autonomy beyond the classroom
Students learn a language most effectively when they integrate out-of-class learning with classroom instruction, giving equal attention to both methods (Reinders, 2011; Benson, 2011b) Teachers should emphasize two types of beyond-the-class activities: out-of-class learning, where students independently engage in non-prescribed activities to enhance their subject knowledge, and extracurricular learning, which supplements classroom instruction (Benson, p 9) Out-of-class learning is successful when it meets three essential conditions: motivation, learning resources, and learning skills; the absence of any of these elements can disrupt the learning process (Baily, 2011, p 129) However, not all students are equipped to find or develop these necessary components.
21 elements in their learning environment As a result, the teacher should be the one who guides their learners to develop these conditions themselves.
Perceptions of learner autonomy
Perceptions, as defined by Pomerantz (2006), refer to the process of organizing and interpreting information gathered by our sensory receptors This process enables us to meaningfully experience our surroundings, allowing us to recognize objects and events with specific locations in both space and time.
Perception is influenced by various factors such as motivation, beliefs, expectations, and life experiences (Lumen Learning, 2019) According to the Cambridge Dictionary, perception is defined as “a belief or opinion, often held by many people and based on how things seem,” as well as “the quality of being aware of things through the physical senses.” Understanding how individuals perceive things, places, or events is essential, as it is shaped by their beliefs, expectations, and experiences Blidi (2017, p 26) emphasizes this point in his studies.
Learners' perceptions of control regarding learning activities and tasks significantly impact their readiness to embrace learner autonomy Understanding how students view this concept allows educators to implement strategies that enhance awareness of the importance of learner autonomy This awareness is a crucial first step in fostering autonomy among students.
This research investigates students' perceptions of interdependence in learner autonomy, emphasizing their responsibility in planning, organizing, evaluating, and selecting learning content in collaboration with teachers and peers.
Previous studies
Research on learner autonomy in the Vietnamese EFL context highlights its significance, yet existing studies mainly concentrate on specific strategies like diaries, alternative assessments, learning contracts, and speaking e-portfolios aimed at fostering this autonomy.
Research has explored students' perceptions of learner autonomy, particularly regarding their responsibilities and abilities (Nguyen, T V., 2011; Huynh, T T D., 2019) However, most studies have relied on quantitative methods, leaving a gap in understanding students' expectations and readiness to take responsibility for their own learning These factors are crucial for enhancing students' awareness of learner autonomy, which is essential for fostering independent learning.
A study by Chan, Spratt, and Gillian (2002) explored the perceptions of learner autonomy among Hong Kong tertiary students, focusing on their attitudes and behaviors in autonomous language learning The research assessed students' views on their responsibilities, decision-making abilities, motivation levels, and the language learning activities they engaged in both inside and outside the classroom to evaluate their readiness for autonomous learning Data was collected through a questionnaire administered to 508 undergraduate students at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, along with interviews from a selected group The findings revealed that students generally viewed the teacher as primarily responsible for course planning and classroom management, attributing this perception to the belief that it was the teacher's role and their own lack of experience Consequently, students expressed a desire for more support from their teachers.
V (2011) carried out a research on perceptions of language learners and teachers relating to learner autonomy The author adopted Chan, Spratt, and Gillian’s questionnaire in her study which was conducted on 631 non-English majored students of 24 universities and colleges in Vietnam and 47 English teachers in these educational settings The results show that students desired to decide aims, content, and assessment themselves But they do not know the method to do so they “end up surrendering the responsibility to the teacher right away” with the intention to wait for the teacher to stir up study motivation as well as select learning materials and activities (p 45) Furthermore, students tend to use only things that are readily available to them in their
A study on students' daily lives reveals that while they express a desire to change their English learning methods, their motivation to take responsibility for their own learning is lacking Consequently, they do not actively pursue changes to improve their situation Additionally, teachers have not prioritized fostering student autonomy in learning, highlighting the need to integrate autonomous learning into the curriculum.
Sakai, Takagi, and Chu (2010) explored the perceptions of learner autonomy among Japanese and Taiwanese university students in English language learning through a two-phase study The first phase involved a quantitative survey of 902 students using a revised questionnaire to assess their sense of responsibility in learning English and to identify gender differences in attitudes towards English learning The second phase included qualitative research with a survey of 73 students to gain deeper insights into their experiences and perceptions.
A questionnaire involving 902 students in Phase One aimed to gain deeper insights into classroom management and identify strategies for enhancing student involvement The findings revealed that students possess a strong desire to learn English and engage actively in classroom management Phase Two results indicate that East Asian students can progress towards becoming autonomous learners if teachers support their autonomy through diverse methods.
Conceptual framework
The current study develops a conceptual framework, illustrated in Figure 2.1, to explore learners' perceptions of autonomy at PSU The research emphasizes the interdependence in learner autonomy, highlighting that students must take responsibility for their own learning (Holec, 1981; Benson, 2011b) Additionally, effective collaboration with teachers and peers is essential for fostering autonomy (Oxford, 2003; Benson, 2011b; Dang, T T., 2012b; Oxford, 2015; Everhard, 2015) Ultimately, learners are encouraged to embrace this responsibility to enhance their educational experience.
The study examines how learners engage in planning, organizing, and evaluating their learning both in and outside the classroom It emphasizes the importance of collaborative efforts between students, teachers, and peers, focusing on learners' perceptions of shared responsibility for their education and their interactions within the classroom environment.
METHODOLOGY
Research questions
This study attempts to answer the two following questions mentioned in Chapter 1:
1 How do the PSU’s EFL students perceive learner autonomy in terms of taking responsibility for their own learning?
2 How do the students perceive learner autonomy in collaboration with their teachers and peers?
Research design
This study utilized a mixed methods research approach, integrating both qualitative and quantitative techniques This combination enhances the understanding of the research problem and questions, offering a more comprehensive perspective than either method alone (Creswell, 2011) It allows for an in-depth exploration of context, processes, and interactions, while also providing precise measurements of attitudes and outcomes (Lodico et al., 2006).
The research made full use of the explanatory sequential mixed methods designed to have quantitative data received “the greatest emphasis in the study” and
The research design incorporates a qualitative phase that aids in interpreting the initial quantitative findings (Podesva & Sharma, 2013) As illustrated in Figure 3.1, Creswell (2011) emphasized that the quantitative data takes precedence, while the qualitative data serves to enhance and clarify the results derived from the quantitative analysis.
Figure 3.1 Explanatory Sequential Design (adopted from Creswell, 2011, p 541)
Research site
This research focuses on the learner autonomy of sophomore students at People’s Security University in Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City The university offers a credit-based curriculum consisting of five English modules, including four General English classes and one English for Specific Purposes class, each lasting approximately three months The General English courses utilize the American English File 2B and 3 textbooks, and an eclectic teaching method is employed, emphasizing the importance of adapting to specific teaching contexts (Hummel, 2014, p 117) According to the syllabus, students are expected to complete 51 face-to-face class hours and 90 hours of self-study each semester.
Participants
The study focused on non-English major sophomore students at People’s Security University, who began their first English semester in their second year Two groups participated in full-time English classes: second-year students and third-year students, with the latter set to complete their courses next semester The second-year students were specifically chosen for the study as they had just completed their initial English course, allowing the teacher to effectively influence their learner autonomy from the outset of their English education.
Students at the university undergo two years of compulsory English language education, completing five semesters in total The initial four semesters focus on general English skills, while the final semester is dedicated to vocational English Placement results are used to assess students' proficiency levels.
In a study involving 27 tests, students were organized into 10 classes based on three proficiency levels: level 1, level 2, and level 3 Prior to attending class, all students received the course syllabus, materials, and a self-study guide; however, the self-study requirements caused confusion among them To address this issue, the researcher distributed a questionnaire to 162 out of 208 second-year students, with the lower participation rate attributed to a pilot study conducted on 25 students and administrative constraints affecting others The demographic details of the participating students were summarized in a table.
Table 3.1 Demographic Characteristics of Student Respondents
Total number of student respondents
The statistics reveal a significant gender disparity among students, with a higher number of male students compared to females Most students fall within the age range of 21 to 25 years, which aligns with typical university demographics Regarding English learning experience, 71.6% of the 162 students have studied English for over 5 years but less than 10 years Additionally, 25.9% have dedicated 11 to 15 years to learning English, while only 1.9% have studied for 5 years and 0.6% for more than 16 years Notably, over 97% of the students began their English education in higher education settings.
The research involved conducting official questionnaires and interviews with students, ensuring that all responses remain confidential and are used solely for educational purposes.
This report analyzes a sample of 162 second-year students from PSU, out of a total of 208 The remaining 46 students were excluded from the thesis for the piloted study due to administrative constraints.
Research instruments
There are two sets of instruments employed in this study, consisting of one questionnaire with close-ended questions and semi-structured interview questions
The questionnaire ( Appendix A ) was adapted from Chan, Spatt and Humphreys
The study by Sakai, Takagi, and Chu (2010) aimed to gather data on students' perceptions of learner autonomy, focusing on their sense of responsibility for their own learning and their collaboration with teachers and peers Utilizing a questionnaire with five sections, the researcher sought to identify trends in student responses and generalize their perceptions of learner autonomy, as noted by Creswell.
Section A required participants to give their personal information
Section B focused on learners' perceptions of taking responsibility for their own learning, divided into two parts with 10 dichotomous questions each, offering Yes or No options The first part (B1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17) assessed students' past learning experiences, while the second part (B2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18) evaluated their expectations for future English classes Some items were removed compared to the version by Sakai, Takagi, and Chu, as university students are required to use specific textbooks, adhere to designated topics and activities, and follow a structured assessment process.
Section C required participants to rank the frequency of doing some autonomous activities outside classes Of these items, there were 13 items of extra activities (C19-
31) listed as Likert-scale questions to ask how often the students participated in these activities Due to circumstances that there is an English - Informatics club at the PSU, the researcher added two items (C31 and 44) to this part of the questionnaire selected
29 from the third part of the version of Chan, Spatt and Humphreys (2002) Additionally, the students’ favor in doing these activities in the future was measured through items C32-44
Section D focuses on students' perceptions of shared responsibility with their teachers, featuring eight groups of Likert-scale items (D45-52) These items assess students' views on their own responsibilities (Part a) and those of their teachers (Part b) in university English classes This section of the questionnaire is adapted from the initial part of the version developed by Chan, Spatt, and Humphreys (2002).
Section E of the study requires participants to rank the frequency of their collaborative activities with teachers and peers, utilizing four Likert-scale questions (E53-56) Given the presence of an English-Informatics club at PSU, the researcher incorporated two additional items (E56 and 60) from Chan, Spatt, and Humphreys' 2002 version Furthermore, students' preferences for engaging in these activities in the future were assessed through items F57-60.
The research questionnaire items for each research question were summarized in the following table
Table 3.2 The brief summary of main research questionnaire items for research questions
B1 to B18 Students’ perceptions of taking responsibility for their learning C19 to C44 Students’ perceptions of taking responsibility for learning beyond class Research question 2
D45 to D52 Students’ perceptions of taking shared responsibility with their teachers E53 to E60 Students’ perceptions of collaboration with teachers and peers
Interview questions for students were designed to find out the answers for students’ perceptions of learner autonomy through (i) their perceptions of taking
30 responsibility for their own learning (ii) their perceptions of collaborating with their teacher and peers
After analyzing the questionnaire data, 10 students were initially intended for interviews to provide specific information for comparison (Dawson, p 28) Participants were selected from each class; however, due to administrative constraints, only 5 were chosen for a focus group interview The focus group method was preferred for its advantages, as it allows the researcher to quickly gather common impressions and a wide range of information through participant interaction (Mertens, 2010, p 352; Creswell).
Data collection procedure
The questionnaire was translated into Vietnamese and distributed to 162 second-year university students Initially, it was piloted with 25 students to ensure its effectiveness Afterward, the researcher provided instructions to participants to clarify any confusing items or questions before collecting the completed questionnaires immediately after they were filled out.
Interviews with students were conducted in Vietnamese and took place in the department staff room, with participants' consent for voice recording on a smartphone The recordings were subsequently transcribed into text The transcribed interviews were coded into a thematic network, and the coded data were translated into English for further analysis.
Data analysis scheme
IBM SPSS Statistics 20 program was used to analyze the quantitative data acquired from the questionnaire with the description of Number of participants (N),
The study utilized the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient to assess the reliability of responses to Likert-scale questions To evaluate the internal consistency of dichotomous questions, the Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR-20) test was employed Additionally, the Cronbach’s alpha if item deleted test was conducted to improve the internal consistency of the scales.
Researchers analyzed qualitative data from interviews by transcribing, translating, and organizing it into a thematic network using NVivo software, which provided in-depth insights into the research problem Additionally, selected quotations from the interviews were utilized to support the data gathered from the questionnaire.
Reliability and validity
The study utilized Cronbach’s alpha coefficient to assess the reliability of responses to Likert-scale questions and employed the Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR-20) test for dichotomous questions To enhance the internal consistency of each scale, the analysis included a Cronbach's alpha if item deleted test Detailed descriptions of this process can be found in Chapter 4, which presents the study's results.
This section outlines the methods used to establish validity in the current study, focusing on three key types: content validity, face validity, and semantic validity.
Content validity is a primary concern, ensuring that all items in the questionnaire accurately reflect the literature on learner autonomy The questionnaire was adapted from the works of Chan, Spatt, and Humphreys (2002) as well as Sakai, Takagi, and Chu.
The second concern addresses face validity A pilot study involving 25 students was conducted prior to data collection from the questionnaire to identify any confusing information The interview questions were then administered to the participants.
5 of these students to confirm if they understood clearly the content of the questions given
The last one is the semantic validity The translation quality of the questionnaire and interview questions are cross-checked by two experts in translation.
Chapter summary
This chapter outlines the research design of the thesis, employing a mixed methods approach to gather both quantitative and qualitative data It details the use of convenient sampling and explains the instruments and procedures for data collection and analysis Additionally, the chapter addresses the reliability and validity checks of the data The findings from the data analysis will be presented and discussed in the subsequent chapter.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analysis of data
This section outlines the analysis of data gathered from questionnaires and interviews, presenting reliability statistics for each scale in Chapter 4 The findings reveal significant insights into students' perceptions of learner autonomy.
In Chapter 3, the reliability of the questionnaire data was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR-20) tests Cortina (1993, as cited in Taber, 2017) states that an alpha value of 0.70 is necessary for an instrument to demonstrate an acceptable level of self-consistency.
Table 4.1 Reliability Statistics of 9 Items Regarding Students’ Taking
Responsibility for Their English Learning
Cronbach’s Alpha: 728 Items Corrected Item-Total Correlation Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted
Despite the Corrected Item-Total Correlation value of B5 being below 0.3, it was retained for further analysis because the Cronbach’s alpha if Item Deleted remained below the acceptable threshold of 0.728 Consequently, all nine items were preserved for subsequent analysis.
Table 4.2 Reliability Statistics of 9 Items Regarding Students’ Expectations for
Taking Responsibility for Their English Learning
Cronbach’s Alpha: 782 Items Corrected Item-Total Correlation Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted
Table 4.2 indicates that the Cronbach’s alpha value of 782 reflects a strong internal consistency, with all Corrected Item-Total Correlation values exceeding 0.3 Therefore, the data gathered from the 9 items is deemed reliable for subsequent analysis.
Table 4.3 Reliability Statistics of other Groups of Data
Groups of data Items Cronbach’s Alpha
13 items regarding students’ frequency of doing activities outside class
13 items regarding students’ expectations for doing activities outside class
8 items regarding students’ perceptions of taking their own responsibilities for their english learning
8 items regarding students’ perceptions of their teacher’s responsibilities for their english learning
4 items regarding students’ frequency of interacting with teachers and peers
4 items regarding students’ expectations for interacting with teachers and peers
The analysis in Table 4.3 reveals that Cronbach's alpha values for all groups range from 746 to 960, indicating a high level of internal consistency Notably, the Cronbach’s alpha for group C32-44 exceeds 90, suggesting excessive inter-relations and data redundancy, which implies that the scale should be shortened.
The value of 0.906 presented in Table 4.3 is slightly above the acceptable threshold, and all values in the Corrected Item-Total Correlation column exceed 0.3 (refer to Appendix G) Therefore, the data gathered from all groups is deemed reliable for the subsequent analysis.
In sum, after conducting a reliability check for the questionnaire, all of the questions in the questionnaire were kept for the next analysis step
This section of the chapter presents an analysis of data collected from both the questionnaire and interviews to address the research questions outlined in Chapters 1 and 3 The analysis is organized into thematic groups corresponding to each question, with both quantitative and qualitative data examined concurrently Specifically, quantitative data is presented first, followed by qualitative insights, which are highlighted in italicized quotation marks The questionnaire items include an analysis of central tendency measures, such as means (M), and variability measures, like standard deviations.
The arithmetical average of a set of scores represents the mean, while the standard deviation (S.D.) measures the average distance of each score from the mean According to Mackey and Grass (2005), a smaller S.D indicates a more homogeneous group regarding a specific behavior, whereas a larger S.D suggests greater variability within the group.
4.1.2 Students’ perceptions of learner autonomy in terms of taking responsibility for their learning
4.1.2.1 Students’ perceptions of taking responsibility for their own learning
Dichotomous questions were employed to assess students' engagement in activities that promote their autonomy and their future interest in these activities Participants responded with a simple scale of 1 (Yes) or 0 (No) A higher percentage of "Yes" responses indicates greater participation in these activities and a stronger expectation to continue them in the future.
Table 4.4 Students’ Perceptions of Taking Responsibility for Their Learning English
B1 Decide your goal of study in one semester
B3 Decide your class’s goal of study in one semester
B5 Check how much progress you make
B7 Keep record of your studies such as assignments and test scores
B9 Decide the pace of the lesson in one lesson
B11 Decide the type of classroom activities, such as individual, pair and group work
B13 Decide the amount, type and frequency of homework
According to Table 4.4, over two-thirds of students have established their study goals each semester and monitored their progress, with percentages of 80.2% and 75.3%, respectively Furthermore, nearly 90% of students anticipate continuing these practices moving forward.
Students unanimously expressed that setting goals for each English module has been the most beneficial activity for their learning They emphasized that having specific targets allows them to monitor their achievements and identify areas for improvement This goal-oriented approach motivates them to put in greater effort in subsequent modules Additionally, they highlighted the significance of regularly assessing their progress to ensure they are on track.
37 any progress during your learning By keeping track of myself, I know whether or not I am on the right track As a result, I can adjust my direction.”
A significant majority of respondents, 65.4% and 59.9%, reported that they regularly maintained records of their studies each semester and had opportunities to work individually, in pairs, or in groups during class Additionally, four-fifths of the participants expressed optimism about being motivated to continue these practices in their future studies.
In the interviews, the reasons were given as follows:
I can enhance my learning at home by reviewing tests and homework that my teacher has corrected, which helps me grasp the lessons more clearly Additionally, I can borrow notes from high-achieving classmates to compare their approaches to assignments, allowing me to learn valuable insights from their work.
When a teacher returns a test and permits the student to save it, the student gains a valuable opportunity to recognize and learn from their mistakes, ultimately fostering personal growth and improvement.
Participating in the selection of classroom activities enhances my enthusiasm for lessons, fostering an engaging environment This involvement not only energizes our class but also promotes the development of essential soft skills, including presentation, teamwork, and communication.
Meanwhile, only a substantial minority of students (percentages of 38.3% and 43.2%) confirmed that they had a chance to decide the pace of the lesson; the amount, type, and frequency of homework
Discussion
In general, the results of this study are argumentatively valuable because the respondents of the survey were authentic students who were experiencing the credit- based curriculum requiring learner autonomy
4.2.1 Students’ perceptions of learner autonomy in terms of taking responsibility for their learning
The study reveals that students exhibit greater learner autonomy in English than previously thought, challenging the notion of them being passive learners (Pham & Ngo, 2008, as cited in Dang, T T., 2012a, p 167) Specifically, students set their study goals each semester, monitor their progress, maintain study records, and choose to work individually, in pairs, or in groups They take responsibility for their English learning by ensuring improvement through lessons, working diligently, and determining their learning objectives both in and outside the classroom Furthermore, students express a strong desire to continue these practices in their future studies, viewing them as essential for reflecting on their academic progress.
Students often lack the opportunity to influence key aspects of their education, such as lesson pace, homework type and frequency, course evaluation, and study goals This limitation aligns with previous research on assessment, suggesting that students may feel unprepared for evaluations because they have not been involved in the assessment process.
Recent studies align with current research on students' perceptions of their responsibilities in course planning and classroom management, particularly in selecting additional materials, fostering interest in learning English, and assessing their progress (Chan, Spratt, and Humphreys, pp 5-6) Researchers suggest that students view learner autonomy passively because they trust teachers to handle these tasks competently Similarly, Nguyen (2011) found that while students wish to influence content and assessment, they often lack the knowledge to do so and rely on teachers to fulfill these roles (p 45).
Students express a desire to take more responsibility for their out-of-class learning and wish to engage in outside class activities more frequently in the future, although their expected frequency remains low This aligns with Nguyen's (2011) findings, which indicate that while students want to change their English learning methods, their motivation is insufficient Preferred activities include listening to English songs, noting new vocabulary, completing non-compulsory assignments, and reviewing lessons independently In contrast, less frequently practiced activities involve writing to pen pals, reading English newspapers and books, practicing English with peers, participating in group self-study, consulting teachers about their learning, and joining the university's English club.
4.2.2 Students’ perceptions of learner autonomy in collaboration with teachers and peers
Students are increasingly focused on developing their learner autonomy through collaboration with teachers and peers, emphasizing a shared responsibility in the learning process In this model, students take on primary roles while teachers act as facilitators or helpers This approach contrasts with earlier studies, which indicated that students often relinquish responsibility to teachers immediately (Nguyen, 2011, p 45).
Students exhibit a more positive attitude towards collaborating with their teachers and peers, showing a greater willingness to engage in discussions with friends due to increased comfort levels They frequently seek clarification from teachers on topics they find confusing However, consistent with previous research, students invest minimal time in providing suggestions to teachers, likely influenced by their traditional classroom roles (Chan, Spratt, and Humphreys, p.11) While students express a desire for more opportunities to practice their speaking skills in class, they often feel intimidated when speaking in English.
Summary of major findings
The study reveals that students demonstrated greater learner autonomy than anticipated, particularly in course planning and classroom management However, their engagement in the evaluation process and content selection was less pronounced Additionally, while students expressed a desire to alter their English learning methods outside the classroom, this wish was not strongly felt.
Students recognize the importance of developing their learner autonomy through collaboration with teachers and classmates, sharing responsibility in the learning process They take on primary roles while teachers act as facilitators or helpers Additionally, students show a greater willingness to engage with their peers than with their teachers, reflecting a positive attitude towards collaborative learning.
Chapter summary
This chapter presents a comprehensive analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data The findings and answers derived from the research are discussed in detail Consequently, the conclusion, pedagogical implications, limitations of the current study, and recommendations for future research will be addressed in the following chapter.