VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE AN INVESTIGATION INTO INTERMEDIATE EFL LEARNERS’ USE OF ANNOTATING[.]
INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
In today's interconnected world, reading is an essential skill utilized in education and daily life, enabling individuals to access valuable information from various sources It facilitates the understanding of current events and extensive knowledge, fostering a reciprocal relationship between the writer and reader (Ulmer, 2000) Yukselir (2014) emphasizes that reading is crucial for learners to acquire new information, develop interpretation skills, and engage in critical evaluation Comprehension in reading requires students to fully understand texts across all subjects (Townend, 2003) Additionally, Do and Vo (2015) highlight that reading enhances vocabulary, fluency, and language mastery, serving both educational and communicative functions In academia, reading is a fundamental activity for students at all levels, and a lack of reading skills can negatively impact academic performance (Mundhe, 2015) Therefore, it is vital for students to actively engage in reading practice to improve their comprehension abilities.
As mentioned above, the most important point of a reading text is comprehension Students are supposed to utilize necessary skills they have learnt to understand the
Reading comprehension skills are crucial for students to become effective readers, as highlighted by Grabe and Stoller (2002), who emphasize that these skills enhance proficiency and learning effectiveness Ahmadi (2013) underscores the significance of reading comprehension in learning a foreign or second language To achieve optimal comprehension, students must enrich their vocabulary, build prior knowledge (schemata), and employ effective reading strategies to interpret texts and uncover hidden messages Research by Nozen et al (2017) and Vacca (2002) supports the importance of utilizing schemata to predict content in reading materials Additionally, Nor and Rashid (2018) point out the numerous benefits of a robust vocabulary and effective reading strategies in improving students' reading comprehension abilities.
EFL students face numerous challenges in reading comprehension, including text complexity, environmental distractions, anxiety, and lack of interest and motivation According to Dennis (2008), factors such as language proficiency and fluency significantly impact reading progress Unsafe environments, filled with distractions like noise from televisions or radios, hinder learners' concentration Additionally, anxiety stemming from pressure related to learning activities and exams further complicates comprehension Interest and motivation play vital roles; monotonous materials can lead to decreased focus and effectiveness in reading Snow (2013) highlights that lengthy texts can disrupt meaning construction due to difficulties in word recognition, while Scott (2009) notes that complex sentences with multiple clauses pose additional challenges for EFL learners.
Difficulties in reading comprehension among EFL learners are significantly impacted by factors such as coordinating conjunctions, prepositional phrases, participial phrases, and nominalizations, which complicate the understanding of printed texts According to Gilakjani and Sabouri (2016), the ability to decode or recognize words plays a crucial role in reading comprehension; learners who struggle with word recognition find it harder to grasp the meaning of passages In contrast, those with a rich vocabulary can interpret texts more swiftly than those who rely on context clues for unfamiliar terms Additionally, Samad, Jannah, and Fitriani (2017) identify various challenges faced by EFL learners, including limited vocabulary knowledge, inadequate schemata, grammatical issues, and ineffective reading strategies, all of which are essential to address in order to improve reading comprehension.
In summary, EFL learners encounter various reading challenges that hinder their ability to fully grasp the messages in texts To enhance their reading comprehension skills, it is essential for these learners to adopt effective strategies to address these difficulties.
Needs for the study
Reading comprehension is a critical area of study for researchers and educators due to its significant impact on the learning process of EFL (English as a Foreign Language) students These students often encounter various challenges in understanding texts, prompting teachers to seek effective strategies to address these issues and improve their reading skills.
Students at Van Lang University (VLU) are required to develop their reading skills as part of the English learning curriculum Throughout this process, they receive essential reading strategies, detailed guidance from instructors, and access to standardized materials Weekly reading lessons are combined with other skills to enhance their learning experience.
Teachers at Van Lang University emphasize the importance of activating students' background knowledge before reading tasks, enabling them to utilize their schemata for better comprehension Despite their efforts to implement practical reading strategies, teachers often resort to translation methods to address students' reading difficulties This approach, while aimed at enhancing understanding, can negatively impact the development of students' reading comprehension skills As a result, students tend to rely on translations, leading to a passive learning experience.
Students at VLU face significant challenges in achieving high scores in the reading section of placement tests, as revealed by language institute records and workshops at the start of the academic year Key issues include a lack of vocabulary and background knowledge, inadequate grammatical understanding, and ineffective reading strategies, as highlighted in previous studies (Samad, Jannah & Fitriani, 2017; Phan, 2014; Hoang, 2014) Additionally, students experience anxiety and pressure when tackling complex and lengthy reading materials during lessons and assessments (Snow, 2013; Dennis).
2008, Scott, 2009; Abeeleh, 2021) Many students, thus, feel demotivated when reading long difficult texts, which has a negative influence on their learning results
English teachers are acutely aware of the challenges their students face in reading comprehension and are committed to addressing these issues To enhance students' reading skills, an official meeting was convened to explore effective strategies for overcoming these obstacles Various reading strategies were discussed, highlighting their respective advantages and disadvantages Notably, the annotating strategy emerged as the most effective and practical approach for EFL classes, prompting the researcher to undertake this study.
Aims of the study
This study investigates the implementation of an annotating strategy in reading lessons for intermediate EFL learners and evaluates its effectiveness By analyzing test data, the research aims to determine the impact of this strategy on students' reading comprehension.
Research questions
In order to achieve the purposes mentioned above, the present study makes an attempt to answer the two following research questions:
(1) How is annotating strategy applied in reading lessons by intermediate EFL learners in a selected EFL class at Van Lang University?
(2) To what extent does annotating strategy affect intermediate EFL learners’ reading comprehension in a selected EFL class at Van Lang University?
Significance of the study
This study highlights the necessity for language learners to master various text lengths and appropriate reading strategies, beyond mere sentence-level knowledge (Sattar & Salehi, 2014) The findings emphasize the crucial role of annotating in significantly improving learners' reading comprehension By identifying common challenges faced by intermediate EFL learners, the research equips teachers to develop effective teaching methods that address these issues Implementing annotating strategies can enhance students' academic performance and improve their reading competence, particularly in understanding complex texts.
Scope of the study
Reading comprehension is a skill that requires time and effective strategies for successful outcomes This research focuses on the annotating strategy to assist EFL learners in navigating complex reading materials and understanding specialized content Utilizing a case study approach with both quantitative and qualitative methods, the study explores a novel application for reading lessons in a specific EFL class This innovative approach appears to be unfamiliar to intermediate EFL students, as it is tailored for English majors and advanced learners, highlighting a gap in the field However, due to the limited sample size, the findings are not generalizable but are relevant to the context of the research.
Organization of the study
The research comprises five main chapters, including (1) Introduction, (2) Literature Review, (3) Methodology, (4) Findings and Discussion, and (5) Conclusion
The first chapter outlines the study's background, including the rationale for its conduct, research aims, questions, significance, scope, and organization The subsequent chapter delves into the theoretical foundations of reading comprehension, teaching strategies in EFL classrooms, and the annotating strategy, while also reviewing previous studies Lastly, a conceptual framework is established to guide the research collection and analysis process.
The article outlines the research design of a case study, detailing the research site, participants, and instruments used It further explains the procedures for data collection and analysis The results of tests and interviews are presented in the fourth chapter, along with a discussion of the findings Finally, the article concludes by summarizing key points, addressing limitations, and offering recommendations for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Reading comprehension
Comprehension is a crucial language skill that emphasizes input understanding, defined by the Oxford English Dictionary (2010) as the complete mental grasp of ideas According to Brown (2007), comprehension involves receiving language through listening or reading, aiming to analyze and present information coherently This skill is essential for developing learners' reading proficiency Sweet and Snow (2003) further describe comprehension as the simultaneous extraction and construction of meaning through engagement with written language, highlighting the importance of interpreting word meanings in context Ultimately, readers must decode words to fully understand a text (Oakhill, Berenhaus, & Cain, 2015).
Reading comprehension is understood in various ways by different authors It is described as the process of extracting and interpreting information from printed English texts, where readers utilize their background knowledge and language skills to understand the material (Koda, 2005) Additionally, Vaughn (2003) emphasizes that reading comprehension involves the ability to understand the content effectively.
8 learnt text thanks to utilizing a variety of strategies, including activating one’s prior knowledge, monitoring understanding, self-questioning, distinguishing the main ideas, supporting details, and summarizing
Reading comprehension is defined as the process of understanding meaning from written texts (Birsch, 2011; Woolley, 2011) It is a complex process involving various elements and procedures aimed at improving learners' reading skills (Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016) Grabe and Stoller (2013) emphasize that this cognitive process varies based on the motivation, goals, activities, and linguistic techniques of EFL students, highlighting the importance of focusing on key factors to effectively decode printed texts.
Learners often face significant challenges when it comes to reading comprehension, including issues related to background knowledge, text type, and cultural understanding (Chawwang, 2008) To enhance their reading skills, it is crucial for learners to discover effective strategies for improving comprehension Reading comprehension is fundamentally a two-way interaction between the reader and the author, where prior knowledge and reading strategies play a vital role (Klingner, Vaughn, & Broadman, 2007) Yukselir (2014) echoes this sentiment, emphasizing the importance of dynamic learning cooperation and active engagement for learners to effectively construct mental images of the text.
Reading comprehension is typically categorized into four levels: literal comprehension, interpretive comprehension, critical reading, and creative reading (Heilman, Blair, & Rupley, 1988; Burns et al., 1984) Subsequent research by Hafez (2008), Yussof et al (2013), and Ulum presents alternative perspectives on reading comprehension.
(2016), the reading comprehension skills are classified by literal comprehension, inferential comprehension and critical comprehension
Literal comprehension is the basic level of understanding text, focusing on the perception of information Key sub-skills that aid readers in achieving literal comprehension include understanding word meanings, identifying main ideas, and recognizing the sequence of events or details (Basaraba, Yovanoff, Alonzo, & Tindal, 2013).
(2017) adds that this level emphasizes particularly the learners’ schemata and experience in terms of recognizing text meaning explicitly, identifying main ideas and determining the sequence of a passage
The second level of reading comprehension involves understanding the deeper meanings within the text, often referred to as "reading between the lines." This skill enables readers to anticipate outcomes and formulate tentative conclusions (Basaraba et al., 2013; Yoonji, 2014) Essential sub-skills at this level include making generalizations and reasoning through cause and effect relationships Readers must utilize context clues, decipher unfamiliar words, and predict outcomes, highlighting the need for a solid foundation in reading comprehension.
The final level emphasizes the ability to critically assess the quality, value, and truthfulness of information in printed texts It involves evaluating the relevance, validity, logic, and reliability of the content while recognizing the author's intent and distinguishing between fact and fiction Additionally, this level requires questioning the writer's purpose, clarifying figures of speech, identifying propaganda techniques, and assessing the credibility of the material source.
Reading comprehension, as defined by Woolley (2011), is the process of deriving meaning from text, highlighting the importance of overall understanding Pressley (2000) introduces a model that identifies three key components influencing reading comprehension: the text, the reader, and the context The ultimate goal of this model is to enhance comprehension.
10 what printed texts contain The model given by Pressley (2000) is displayed precisely in the figure 2.1
Figure 2.1 The model of reading comprehension components (Pressley, 2000, p.556)
According to Snow (2002), the RAND Reading Study Group (RRSG) defines reading comprehension as "the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language" (p.13) This definition encompasses three key elements: the reader, the text, and the activity or purpose for reading The RAND developed a heuristic to illustrate the close interrelationship among these components, which occur within a broader sociocultural context.
Figure 2.2 A Heuristic for Thinking About Reading Comprehension (Snow, 2002, p.14)
The text, the reader, and the context share similar features, as illustrated in two diagrams The second model enhances this understanding by incorporating the factor of activity, thereby providing a more comprehensive view of the reading comprehension process.
Effective reading comprehension relies on various text features, including structure and vocabulary Students lacking these skills often struggle with understanding texts Two key processes influence comprehension: the top-down and bottom-up approaches The top-down approach involves readers utilizing their reading skills, cognitive processes, background knowledge, and goals to engage with the text Conversely, the bottom-up approach focuses on the reader's ability to navigate textual features such as content, style, and linguistic elements.
2011) to determine the comprehensive level of difficulty The readers in this case need to combine two approaches wisely and skillfully to cope with reading texts effectively
Reading tasks are essential in reading lessons, as they foster interaction and interdependence, according to Bos and Vaughn (2002) Learning is a dynamic process where students are central and engage with their environment and peers To enhance students' success in reading activities, it is crucial to identify and address their reading comprehension challenges Teachers play a key role by providing suitable reading tasks that promote a supportive learning atmosphere and actively involve students in the lessons.
The reader plays a crucial role in the reading process, with skilled readers effectively utilizing reading features to grasp the meaning of texts (Woolley, 2011) In contrast, less proficient readers struggle to identify key reading elements, leading to inefficient text comprehension.
Woolley (2011) emphasizes that the classroom context and lesson objectives create a socio-cultural environment essential for meaning construction (p.21) Students' experiences, background knowledge, and socio-cultural identities significantly influence their reading tasks Additionally, the reader's cultural beliefs and values play a crucial role in reading comprehension, as they utilize their beliefs and schemata to understand and interpret the writer's message.
Teaching reading comprehension in EFL classes
To enhance reading comprehension, learners can adopt effective strategies that offer clear guidance for improving their skills (Cain & Oakhill, 2009) Recommended techniques include predicting, forecasting, deducing, summarizing, examining, and evaluating (Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016) Additionally, Harmer (2008) identifies four key reading strategies—skimming, scanning, intensive reading, and extensive reading—that are beneficial for skill development.
To enhance learners' reading comprehension, various strategies can be employed Sharpe (2005) highlights techniques such as identifying main ideas, locating references, and extracting detailed information Diyanni (2002) emphasizes critical reading strategies like annotating, inferencing, and summarizing Similarly, Axelrod and Cooper (2002) expand on these strategies by including previewing, contextualizing, outlining, analyzing opposition, paraphrasing, synthesizing, questioning, and reflecting, all of which are deemed essential for effective reading.
In conclusion, various reading comprehension strategies are identified to improve students' reading skills This research highlights annotating as an effective method for enhancing learners' comprehension and managing reading assignments, which will be detailed in the following section.
2.2.2 Teaching reading comprehension through stages
Reading comprehension relies on the interaction between the text, the reader, the task, and the context To enhance students' understanding of reading passages, it is essential to implement three key stages: pre-reading, while-reading, and post-reading.
The pre-reading phase is crucial for activating learners' schemata and allowing them to explore their prior knowledge about a topic According to Brown (2001), foreign language teachers should introduce topics and encourage skills like skimming, scanning, and predicting, which help students feel more comfortable when reading Lee and Abraham (2002) support this by stating that teachers can activate students' existing knowledge during the pre-reading stage Vanpatten (1995) emphasizes that this stage not only prepares students but also motivates them before they begin reading.
14 becomes an invisible bridge between readers and text information Similarly, Ajideh
Pre-reading activities are essential for helping learners link their existing knowledge to new information found in reading texts Various effective pre-reading strategies are utilized in classrooms to enhance students' learning experiences, with several highly recommended by Auerbach.
& Paxton (1997, as cited in Ajideh, 2003) demonstrated as follows:
2 Writing your way into reading (writing about your experience related to the topic)
3 Asking questions based on previewing
5 Making predictions based on previewing
8 Reading the introduction and conclusion
9 Writing a summary of the article based on previewing
(Auerbach & Paxton, 1997, as cited in Ajideh, 2003, p.8) The two authors, Auerbach and Paxton (1997), mention a weird activity which is called “semantic mapping” This one is basically similar to brainstorming (Anderson,
In 1999, learners are provided with a key word from the text and tasked with generating sub-headings and related concepts Semantic mapping allows students to connect familiar ideas with new concepts presented in the text Lee and Vanpatten (1995) also highlight additional techniques utilized during this phase.
Brainstorming occurs prior to presenting the text to readers, enabling students to engage in discussions about related questions that enhance their understanding and bridge gaps between themselves and the text According to Wallace (2003), brainstorming offers three significant advantages: it provides students with opportunities to prepare for lessons, encourages them to freely access their prior knowledge, and fosters involvement in a collaborative classroom environment.
Titles, Headings and Illustrations: Teachers require students to have a look at the titles of the reading passages and outline some ideas they hope to appear in the reading texts
Each reading passage may include illustrations and photographs that relate to its content Students are tasked with thoroughly exploring this information to enhance their understanding and support their learning in subsequent phases.
Scanning for specific information helps students develop appropriate schemata and gain insights into content Additionally, teachers can encourage learners to interpret challenging key terms before reading an entire passage.
To conclude, this stage is indispensable for learners to stimulate their mind and trigger schemata to the reading comprehension process
According to Lee and Vanpatten (1995), the while-reading stage is considered as
"Guided interaction" involves providing students with instructions to assist them in managing reading tasks effectively While-reading tasks encourage students to become active and efficient readers, enhancing their ability to grasp coherence and logical flow in texts According to Wallace (1992), these activities are crucial for fostering active, flexible, and reflective learning Wallace (1995) and Abita (2001) identify several effective while-reading activities that promote interaction between readers and writers, such as skimming, scanning, predicting, identifying key sentences, organizing jumbled sentences, group cloze exercises, information gap tasks, multiple-choice questions, reciprocal teaching, graphic organizers, and content or process questions.
Furthermore, the following while-reading activities are useful for learners to grasp contents of reading passages quickly:
1 Note the key words in the first sentences of the paragraph or text
2 Decide which word announces the main topic of the paragraph or text
3 Decide which words announce the specific aspect of this topic of the paragraph
4 Note if there is a sentence that states a probable main idea
5 Note the most important words from each sentence as you read
6 Ask yourself how this information relates to the information that came before it
7 Look for examples that illustrate the ideas stated before
8 Look for details that provide more specific information on the topic
9 Look for a sentence that concludes this particular aspect of this topic
10 Look for the words that indicate a change in the kind of information
11 Look for a sentence that provides information about a new aspect of this topic
Generally, the while-reading stage combined with useful strategies helps students understand the contents of reading passages better The more students can understand, the more motivation students can achieve
Post-reading is the last stage in which students use what they have learnt to review or summarize the reading passages by using other words through paraphrasing (Henry,
Summarizing is an essential post-reading activity that allows students to distill key points into concise sentences This process is complemented by follow-up questions that enhance speaking and listening skills The post-reading phase is also an opportune moment for students to review new vocabulary and integrate it into their writing Various engaging activities, as highlighted by Karakas (2002), such as question and answer sessions, drawing conclusions, discussions, summarizing, follow-up writing, and role-playing, significantly aid in text comprehension.
This phase offers students an excellent opportunity to deepen their understanding and acquire additional insights from the text once they have fully comprehended its content Aebesold and Field (1997) suggest several post-reading activities designed to engage students in meaningful learning experiences.
1 Identify the topic of the reading
2 Have a general idea of what the text says about its topic
3 Understand the main ideas put forth in the text
4 Discern the relationships among the main ideas
5 Understand the details given in the text support the main ideas
6 Recognize the structure of the information in the text
8 Identify the language used to show the organization of ideas
9 Assess the value of the information presented in the text
10 Recognize language use, such as irony or satire
To sum up, the post-reading stage is to consolidate everything that students have learned to produce new things and develop other skills.
Annotating strategy
Annotating strategy, as defined by various authors, involves marking important ideas or examples in the margins of a text Nist-Olejnik and Diehl (2002) describe it as a technique frequently employed by language learners to enhance reading comprehension Similarly, Zywica and Gomez (2008) emphasize that annotation helps readers organize and manage core information in a text, making it easier to reference later.
Annotating is a reading strategy where students make brief notes on assigned materials, such as essays and articles (Simpson & Nist, 1990) This technique involves readers interacting with the text through words, symbols, or marks (Porter-O’Donnell, 2004) Additionally, Blachowicz and Ogle (2008) emphasize that annotation can include comments, notes, and the underlining of challenging words or phrases Overall, annotating serves as an effective method for readers to record their understanding of the text.
18 by writing down brief notes in the margins, underlining key words or phrases, and using marks or symbols in a reading text
2.3.2 The features of annotating strategy
Annotation in reading involves summarizing key points of a text based on the reader's understanding, emphasizing brevity and conciseness (Holschuh & Aultman, 2009) It is essential for readers to use their own words rather than those from the original text Zywica and Gomez (2008) describe the annotating strategy as a method for simplifying the authors' language, which aids readers in tracking important ideas throughout different sections of the reading material.
Annotating strategies often involve marking key ideas with symbols, a distinctive feature highlighted by Milan (2000), who notes that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to this method Readers are encouraged to develop their own symbol systems that suit their needs Additionally, Holschuh and Aultman (2009) provide a list of potential symbols that readers can utilize for effective text annotation.
Table 2.1 The list of symbols for annotation proposed by Holschuh and Aultman (2009)
Numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.) numbering ideas, showing the list of items, etc
Question marks (?) noting confusing ideas or new vocabulary
Circle/ underline marking key words or concepts
Exclamation marks (!) marking surprising or important ideas Ticks/ pluses (✓/ +) marking good or interesting ideas
Crosses/ minuses (✗/ -) marking negative ideas
Liu (2006) argues that the methods for annotating a reading text are adaptable and depend on individual readers' preferred styles He suggests that readers have the freedom to create personalized icons or drawings that align with their intentions during the reading process.
Annotations serve as effective reading strategies primarily utilized during the while-reading stage, as noted by Eabersold and Field (1997) These techniques are designed to assist students in successfully completing reading assignments Supporting this view, Zywica and Gomez (2008) emphasize that annotations enhance text comprehension and improve performance in reading tasks.
2.3.3 The benefits of annotating strategy in reading comprehension
The annotating strategy is an effective method for enhancing reading comprehension, as demonstrated by Porter-O’Donnell (2004) This approach fosters students' metacognitive self-awareness and encourages thoughtful reading According to her findings, students not only strive to understand the texts fully but also develop the ability to reflect on their reading processes and engage more meaningfully with the material.
A study from 2009 highlights a positive relationship between annotation and metacognition, indicating that independent readers excel in interpreting challenging texts They effectively employ strategies such as recognizing the author's intentions, relating the content to their personal experiences, using contextual clues to infer the meanings of unfamiliar words, and critically questioning the material.
Research indicates a strong link between annotation strategies and enhanced comprehension Ngovo (1999) found that students utilizing annotation as a learning tool significantly outperformed their peers using alternative strategies on multiple-choice tests Additionally, Zywica and Gomez (2008) observed improved achievement scores in their students following the implementation of annotation strategies in reading assessments With comprehensive instructional support through annotation, students transition from passive to active readers, thereby boosting their reading comprehension skills.
In addition, Porter-O’ Donnell (2004) indicates that not only does annotation help her students to think more consciously about their reading processes, it also helps them
Research highlights the significant role of annotation in enhancing reading comprehension and critical thinking Monte-Sano (2008) asserts that annotation aids students in content absorption, writing practice, and critical analysis Similarly, Liu (2006) emphasizes that students' annotations in narrative texts reveal their thought processes and foster effective strategies for deeper understanding of the material.
In general, the mentioned benefits of annotating strategy can conclude to its probability and utility performing on the improvement of learners’ comprehensive ability in reading
Various authors suggest multiple methods for annotating texts Flippo and Caverly (2009) identify three key techniques to improve reading comprehension: summarizing key sections, marking the text with symbols, and writing comments They emphasize that summarizing in the margins using the reader's own words is the most common practice, which can be facilitated by breaking the text into smaller parts Similarly, Kustaryo (1988) classifies annotating strategies into techniques such as numbering key ideas, marking keywords with symbols, writing brief summaries, and posing questions about the author's perspective Additionally, Clarke et al (2014) categorize annotating strategies into two main groups: writing and marking, as detailed in the accompanying table.
Table 2.2 Clarke et al.’s classification of annotating strategy (2014)
Writing Writing questions or comments in the margin
Writing personal experiences related to the text content Writing summaries of key text sections
Writing synonyms/ antonyms of key words Marking Using symbols/ icons for important ideas/ words
Underlining key terms Numbering ideas Circling key concepts
In an EFL academic setting, researchers identify three effective techniques to enhance students' reading comprehension: writing brief summaries, using symbols to mark the text, and adding notes or comments (Ikhsan, 2017) This study focuses on instructing participants in a chosen EFL class to apply these strategies to improve their reading comprehension performance.
Review of previous studies
Numerous studies have focused on reading comprehension strategies aimed at enhancing students' reading skills, highlighting the annotating strategy as a particularly effective method for reading classes.
The first study carried out by Nasrollahi et al (2015) described the application of action research cycle (i.e Look, Think and Act) (Stringer et al., 2010) combined with
The article outlines 22 critical reading strategies implemented in a structured approach consisting of three phases: Planning, Instruction, and Evaluation The Planning Phase, lasting four weeks, focused on selecting effective reading strategies to enhance student learning During the ten-week Instruction Phase, students utilized these strategies—such as Annotating, Previewing, Scanning & Skimming, and Questioning—through worksheets designed to facilitate reading tasks The Evaluation Phase is crucial as it provides feedback on students' strengths and weaknesses, allowing for both cooperative and individual practice of critical strategies Ultimately, the effective application of these reading strategies significantly improves student learning outcomes.
In 2015, Talebi and Marzban explored the impact of critical reading strategies, including annotating, on EFL learners' vocabulary retention Their study involved eight teaching sessions where strategies such as annotating, questioning, summarizing, and inferencing were applied to 48 students Statistical analysis of pretest and posttest results revealed a positive effect of these strategies on intentional vocabulary learning Additionally, three Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) tests were conducted to assess the retention of inferred meanings after a two-week interval The results indicated a significant improvement in vocabulary learning from the VKS pretest to the immediate posttest, while no significant changes were observed between the immediate and delayed posttests Overall, the findings confirm that teaching critical reading strategies positively influences vocabulary retention among EFL learners.
O’Flaherty (2021) explored the impact of annotation on reading comprehension in primary immersion education, focusing on second-grade students The study involved 145 participants, including 87 from Spanish classes and 58 from English classes, who practiced annotating texts over four weeks Students engaged in ten units with varied content, following teacher instructions and applying strategies such as marking texts with symbols and writing summaries in their own words Results indicated that after three units, students effectively used hand signs and symbols to highlight key points, enhancing their reading comprehension and enabling them to apply these techniques in future lessons.
In a study by Nguyen (2018) focusing on Vietnamese EFL and ESL university students, it was found that ESL students (n=164) utilized reading strategies more effectively than EFL students (n=122) when engaging with General English texts The research employed a questionnaire assessing four types of reading strategies: metastrategies, cognitive strategies, affective strategies, and socio-cultural interactive strategies Statistical analysis revealed that ESL students excelled in the application of these strategies, with the exception of the affective category Notably, a T-test indicated a significant difference in the use of cognitive strategies between the two groups Overall, the findings suggest that the application of reading strategies is crucial for enhancing students' reading comprehension.
Hoang's study (2014) examined the teaching of critical reading skills for 11th graders at Tran Phu High School, revealing significant benefits for both teachers and students Among the four critical reading strategies utilized, annotating emerged as a key method The data collected from questionnaires indicated that both teachers and students had positive experiences with this approach.
A significant 98% of students recognize the importance of critical reading skills, with 82.3% favoring lessons that integrate these skills Various reading activities were introduced to enhance student engagement, and teachers utilized observation sheets to document students' application of critical reading skills during all phases of the lessons The data collected from observations aligned with questionnaire results, indicating that students can enhance their reading competence by employing these critical reading strategies.
The studies highlight reading comprehension challenges faced by learners and explore effective reading strategies to help them achieve specific learning outcomes While annotating is briefly mentioned alongside other strategies, it is recognized as a valuable method for enhancing students' reading comprehension By using symbols and taking notes on confusing aspects of the text, students can better understand both the explicit and implicit meanings This strategy is particularly effective when facilitated by teachers However, there is a notable lack of research on the annotating strategy specifically for intermediate EFL learners, prompting the current study to address this gap.
The reading comprehension components were adapted from Pressley’s model (2000) and Snow’s heuristic (2002) to highlight their correlation in enhancing learners' reading abilities Three effective annotation strategies—marking the text, adding comments, and writing summaries—are essential for helping students achieve a deeper understanding of reading materials The conceptual framework illustrating the relationship between annotation strategies and reading comprehension components is presented in the accompanying figure.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
The study employed a case study design utilizing both qualitative and quantitative methods, aligning with Mackey and Gass's (2005) definition of a case study as a "holistic description" of a phenomenon, particularly in second language learning Yin (2009) further emphasizes that a case study is an empirical inquiry that explores a contemporary phenomenon in depth within its real context This scientific approach is ideal for gaining insights into current practices, specifically the investigation of annotating strategies in reading classes among intermediate EFL students.
According to Yin (2009), utilizing a case study enables researchers to explore the "how" and "why" of a phenomenon This approach is evident in the current study, which investigates how annotating strategies are implemented in EFL reading classes Additionally, the study clearly articulates the rationale behind using this strategy: to enhance students' reading comprehension performance.
Creswell (2008) identifies three main types of case studies: intrinsic, collective, and instrumental An intrinsic case study focuses on a specific instance that interests the researcher, while a collective case study examines multiple cases to understand a broader context In contrast, an instrumental case study explores a particular issue within a context, serving as a representation of the overall situation rather than aiming to generalize findings about a current phenomenon.
27 reason, the current study was specifically an instrumental case study where the researcher focused on her own class to explore the application of annotating strategy in reading lessons
This research utilized a mixed-method approach, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative methods to leverage their unique advantages and address their limitations, as noted by Denzin and Lincoln.
Quantitative methods provide objectivity in research findings through statistical and numeric data, while qualitative methods utilize non-numerical data to explore perceptions and behaviors in natural contexts (Bryman & Bell, 2015) Flick (2014) advocates for a mixed-methods approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative data to enhance the reliability of research outcomes Therefore, the researcher opted to use both methods to effectively address the research questions Quantitative data measured the effectiveness of the annotating strategy in reading comprehension through pretest and posttest scores, while qualitative data examined the annotating practices of EFL students.
Research site
Van Lang University (VLU) is one of Vietnam's pioneering private educational institutions, operating under the Ministry of Education The university has three campuses, all located in Ho Chi Minh City, with the headquarters in District 1, where the current research study was conducted.
Founded in 1995, VLU has gone through certain turning points in stages of development, taking steps to gradually prove its high quality education and training
In October 2021, VLU received a prestigious 4-star rating from Quacquarelli Symonds (QS), reflecting its commitment to enhancing the educational environment This recognition signifies VLU's dedication to its vision of becoming one of Asia's most sought-after young universities by 2030, with a mission focused on quality education.
The school is dedicated to educating and nurturing talents, aiming to empower individuals to reach their full potential and make a positive impact on society.
The university offers 15 faculties with over 20 majors, encompassing a wide range of social and economic disciplines Currently, more than 20,000 students are enrolled in full-time tertiary programs, alongside a number of part-time and postgraduate students.
To enhance reading comprehension among selected samplings at VLU, an effective strategy is essential This case study focuses on the use of annotating strategies to engage students and improve their understanding of lengthy texts, aiming to evaluate the practicality and success of this approach.
English courses at VLU
At VLU, English courses are mandatory for all students, but those with an IELTS certificate scoring 5.5 or higher can opt out The courses are structured into seven levels, from AV0 to AV7, designed to provide essential English skills in preparation for the IELTS exam Each level, worth 3 credits, spans 11 weeks, including a week dedicated to midterm and final tests Classes meet twice a week for three periods each, totaling 30 in-class periods throughout the course.
Table 3.1 Summary of background information about English courses at VLU
Course levels 7 levels (from AV0 to AV7)
Number of credits per course 3 credits
Number of class meetings per week
2 meetings Total of in-class lessons
Total of self-study time
21 lessons (one lesson = three 50- minute periods)
Before the academic year begins, all students enrolling in training at VLU must complete a computer-based placement test to determine their appropriate English course levels This test, known as the Preliminary English Test (PET), includes two sub-tests that assess students' competencies in Listening, Reading, and Writing Upon completion, the test results are instantly displayed on the computer screen, allowing for the arrangement of students into suitable course levels based on their scores.
The coursebook used in general English courses (AV1 - AV6) at VLU is the series of
"Pathways: Reading, Writing, and Critical Thinking," edited by Mari Vargo and Laurie Blass (2018), offers a comprehensive curriculum across three levels, from Foundation to Level 2 This series is complemented by "Get Started" (AV0) authored by Nancy Douglas and James R Morgan, providing essential resources for learners.
(2017) and “The Complete Guide to IELTS” (AV7) by Bruce Rogers and Nick Kenny (2015)
Table 3.2 Coursebooks used in English courses at VLU
AV7 The Complete Guide to IELTS
The study utilizes the coursebook “Pathways 2: Reading, Writing, and Critical Thinking (2nd Edition),” which features structured lessons alongside explicit reading and writing exercises By incorporating authentic materials from National Geographic, including readings, videos, charts, and infographics, the coursebook fosters effective collaboration and confidence in academic settings These resources are instrumental in enhancing language skills, critical thinking, and learning strategies vital for academic achievement.
The reading section of this coursebook is structured into three distinct stages: Pre-reading, While-reading, and Post-reading During the pre-reading phase, students engage with vocabulary related to the text and answer guided questions to build background knowledge This stage also enhances their predictive skills through relevant images and numbers, boosting their confidence before tackling the reading tasks In the While-reading phase, students focus on identifying main purposes, ideas, and specific details, employing skimming and scanning techniques to efficiently complete reading tasks.
Enhancing critical thinking involves comprehending vocabulary in relation to its usage and meaning, which aids in gap-filling and note-taking from reading materials Once these tasks are completed, students can apply their acquired skills and knowledge to summarize the texts or engage in further discussions about the reading topic.
Participants
The study involved 36 students from class AV5, aged between 18 and 20, comprising 20 females (55.6%) and 16 males (44.4%) Survey data indicated that only three students had less than 7 years of English learning experience, while 75% had studied the language for 8 to 10 years, and 16.7% had over 10 years of experience Detailed information on the participants' English learning backgrounds is provided in the accompanying table.
Table 3.3 Demographic characteristics of participants
Total number of student participants (N = 36) Characteristics Frequency Percentage
Research tools
Observation is a vital research method that involves collecting open-ended, first-hand information by watching people and places in their natural environment (Creswell, 2014) This approach allows researchers to gain valuable insights into participant behavior and reactions within specific settings, making it an effective way to gather detailed data about a phenomenon in case studies.
The researcher conducted a series of four observations on specific teaching days—Day 1, Day 6, Day 11, and Day 17—to investigate the application of annotating strategies in English reading lessons at the selected research site.
Table 3.4 The details of classroom observations
No Day Date Teaching content
Reading section: Is there a recipe for happiness? (p.5)
2 6 Wednesday, December 23, 2021 Unit 2: Inventive Solutions
Reading section: The power of creativity (p.25)
3 11 Monday, January 10, 2022 Unit 4: Saving our seas
Reading section: Where have all the fish gone? (p.65)
4 17 Monday, February 21, 2022 Unit 5: Memory and Learning
The researcher directly visited the class on the scheduled dates and wrote field notes to record teacher and students’ activities as well as their interaction during the class meetings
Cresswell (2014) states that documents include handwritten notes and optically scanned materials, which are primarily utilized in qualitative research to improve the reliability of research findings (p 214).
In this study, the researcher collected a set of documents to validate the data obtained from observations and interviews, facilitating a thorough analysis to cross-check the findings from these two research methods.
Creswell (2014) highlights that documents exist in various forms, including field notes, diaries, and emails In this research, the collected documents comprised students' pretest and posttest papers, as well as their group work posts on Padlet The students' test papers were analyzed to assess their reading comprehension performance before and after implementing the annotating strategy Additionally, the group work posts on Padlet provided supplementary observational data to illustrate the application of the annotating strategy in EFL reading lessons.
The pretest and posttest were extracted from the test series “Preliminary English Test
The article discusses the "PET" published by Cambridge University Press in 2010, focusing on the reading pretest and posttest The pretest was derived from Test 2 of PET 4, while the posttest was taken from Test 3 of PET 6, both featuring three specific parts Notably, there were exact similarities in the reading structures across all test parts A total of 20 reading questions were accurately represented in both the revised pretest and posttest, with detailed test information provided in accompanying tables.
Table 3.5 Descriptions of reading parts in PET series
Part Reading description Questions Revised questions in the pretest and posttest
2 Match people (6 to 10) with text descriptions
3 Read the long text and mark the sentence correct (A) or incorrect
4 Read the long text and choose the correct answer
A pretest and posttest were administered to 36 students at the start and conclusion of the course, respectively To prevent cheating, the tests were conducted under the close supervision of the teacher The students' test papers were scored, and the results were analyzed to assess the effectiveness of the annotating strategy by comparing the differences in test scores.
3.5.3.2 Reliability and validity of tests
The pretest and posttest are crucial for ensuring the reliability and validity of assessments Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement instruments (Mackey & Gass, 2005; Creswell, 2014) According to Mackey and Gass (2005), tests achieve reliability by addressing factors such as test-retest and equivalence of forms The test-retest method involves administering identical tests to the same group at two different times to assess learning progress In this study, the PET tests effectively fulfill the reliability requirements.
36 forms equivalence and are delivered to the same participants to assess learners’ comprehensive ability before and after applying the strategy
Cresswell (2014) defines test validity as the extent to which evidence supports the intended interpretation of test scores (p.159) Valid tests must satisfy content, face, and construct validity (Mackey & Gass, 2005) Content validity ensures that the assessment instrument accurately represents the targeted construct (Rusticus, 2014, p.52), meaning that test contents must effectively assess reading comprehension with relevant questions aligned to the reading texts Face validity relates to the familiarity of test types that students have encountered in prior lessons, while construct validity assesses how well the tests measure the intended content Overall, the PET tests utilized in this study demonstrate both reliability and validity.
A focus group interview, as defined by Cresswell (2014), is a method for gathering data by interviewing a group of individuals to capture their collective insights on a specific topic (p.218) This approach is highly effective for collecting qualitative data, as it allows researchers to obtain diverse perspectives in a single session (Dawson).
To effectively conduct focus group interviews, the researcher acts as a moderator to engage participants in discussions on specific topics (Mackey & Gass, 2005; Dawson, 2009) An optimal focus group size is typically four to six individuals, allowing for balanced participation and interaction (Creswell, 2014) In this study, we adhered to Creswell’s recommendation, organizing two focus groups with six participants each.
37 groups formulated in the current study with 12 students, in which there were seven females and five males
With the teacher's help, the researcher organized interviews with volunteer students, who chose various locations and times for their meetings Both participant groups agreed to conduct the interviews on weekends after the course concluded The first focus group interview was held at a coffee shop near the university campus, while the second took place in the teacher's room in Building C.
Highlands coffee - Dang Thuy Tram street, Binh Thanh district
Two focus group interviews were conducted to gather in-depth insights into students' perceptions of the effectiveness of the annotating strategy in reading lessons The researcher moderated both discussions, guiding the conversations to extract valuable ideas from participants Conducted in Vietnamese, the students' native language, the interviews aimed to prevent confusion and misunderstandings that could arise from using English The students' responses were subsequently translated and transcribed for analysis in Chapter 4.
Data collection procedure
The data collection was conducted throughout the second semester of the school year
From 2021 to 2022, an English class comprising 36 students participated in a study The research utilized four main tools for data collection: observation, document analysis, tests, and focus group interviews with students.
A series of class observations were carried out to examine the implementation of annotating strategies in English reading lessons The researcher conducted four observations on separate days, aligning the data collection with the course outline provided by the teacher.
The study employed two reading tests—a pretest and a posttest—to evaluate the impact of the annotating strategy on students' reading comprehension performance The pretest was administered at the course's onset, prior to students learning the annotating strategy, while the posttest was conducted on the final observation day, after students had become familiar with the technique Both tests were designed with similar formats, question counts, difficulty levels, and time limits Analyzing the results from these tests will highlight the practical effects of the annotating strategy on enhancing students' reading comprehension skills.
After completing four observations, two focus groups were conducted with 12 students to discuss the use of annotating strategies in reading tasks The students were assured of confidentiality regarding their identities, leading to open and honest feedback To maintain anonymity, participants were assigned codes from S1 to S12 for reference in the subsequent chapter.
Table 3.7 The summary of the research procedures
Instruments Teaching days Time of administration
Day 11 Monday, January 10, 2022 Day 17 Monday, February 21, 2022
Students’ focus groups Saturday, February 26, 2022
Data analysis procedure
In this study, both qualitative and quantitative data was collected and analyzed by means of students’ focus groups, class observations, and tests
The analysis of observational data provided insights into the implementation of the annotating strategy in an EFL classroom Detailed on-site notes were meticulously recorded to capture the specific application of this strategy The findings were then presented descriptively to address the first research question.
Quantitative data were collected from two tests and analyzed using SPSS version 2020 The Wilcoxon matched-pairs test was employed to compare scores from the same group of individuals at two different times, aiming to identify significant differences between the posttest and pretest (Howitt & Cramer, 2000) The means of each test were presented along with the p-value to assess correlation with the significance level of 005 Overall, descriptive statistics from the test analyses were clearly displayed, focusing on the effectiveness of the annotating strategy used in reading lessons.
Students' responses from two focus group interviews, coded as FG1 and FG2, were organized into classified themes to enhance the previously mentioned data sources The validity and reliability of the interview analysis were established through triangulation, demonstrating significant improvements in students' performance This was evidenced by various types of data, including observational field notes and interviews, as well as methods of data collection such as documents and interviews, all of which contributed to the qualitative descriptions and themes following the implementation of the annotating strategy.
The quantitative data was analyzed independently, while the qualitative data was organized into themes for presentation in the thesis Initially, observations were collected and synthesized to describe the implementation of the annotating strategy in the selected class Subsequently, focus group interviews were conducted to gain deeper insights into students' self-reported responses regarding the strategy's application.