Quy nhon university efl students language learning strategies = chiến lược học tập ngôn ngữ của sinh viên anh ngữ tại trường đại học quy nhơn

These language learning strategies clusters are: Memory, Cognitive, Compensation, Metacognitive, Social, and Affective strategies with a high level of frequency use for over-all strategi

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

QUY NHON UNIVERSITY

BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC QUY NHƠN

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify that the thesis entitled Quy Nhon University EFL Students’

Language Learning Strategies is my own original work I further declare

that I have not submitted this paper for the award of any other degree or diploma Any works of other authors consulted in this thesis are listed in the reference

Quy Nhon, 2022

The completion of this graduation thesis is the result of not only my own efforts but also other of organizations and individuals to whom I would like

to express my deepest gratitude

First of all, I am sincerely grateful to my supervisor, Assoc Prof Dr Nguyen Thi Thu Hien, who has devoted her time and effort to giving valuable comments and precious advice for me in spite of her huge workload Without her patience and constant encouragement during the procedure of conducting this study, the work would never have been accomplished

Secondly, my warmest thanks go to all lecturers from the Department of Foreign Languages and the staff of the Department of Postgraduate Training for their critical courses and endless assistance during my study at the university

Thirdly, I would like to extend my special thanks to 200 the students from classes Without their help, I could not gather enough qualitative and quantitative data to conduct this study

Last but not least, I would like to take this opportunity to thank my beloved family and friends, who have always believed in me and given me power to overcome all the challenges I encountered while carrying out this

research

ABSTRACT

Language learning strategies play a significant part in learning a second

or foreign language These strategies support and simplify the process of language learning for students Therefore, this study endeavors to investigate language learning strategies applied by students at the Department of Foreign Languages, Quy Nhon university in learning English language as a foreign language To fulfill the aim, the study was carried out with the enthusiastic participation of 200 English majors from first year to fourth year The study used the language learning strategy questionnaire established by Oxford (1990) to collect data of 200 students, 20 out of 200 students from different courses then participated in interviews, and later the data was both qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed The study discloses that EFL students at Quy Nhon university were accustomed to the whole six language learning strategies clusters These language learning strategies clusters are: Memory, Cognitive, Compensation, Metacognitive, Social, and Affective strategies with a high level of frequency use for over-all strategies (M = 3.60) The most repeatedly applied strategies by students from these six strategies are as follows from the top Metacognitive, Social, Memory, Cognitive, Compensation and Affective strategies, particularly EFL students prioritized the strategy of paying attention when someone is speaking English (item of Metacognitive strategies) as this significantly contributes to improving their second language acquisition The findings would help teachers and students to

be aware of language learning strategies while in teaching and learning English as a foreign language

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF TABLES vi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION vi

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Aims and objectives 3

1.2.1 Aims 3

1.2.2 Objectives 3

1.3 Research questions 3

1.4 Scope of the study 4

1.5 Significance of the study 4

1.6 Organization of the study 4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Language Learning Strategies 6

2.1.1 Definition of Language Learning Strategies 6

2.1.2 Classification of Language Learning Strategies 9

2.2 Oxford‟s Language Learning Strategy Classification (1990) 13

2.2.1 Direct Language Learning Strategies 17

2.2.2 Indirect Language Learning Strategies 22

2.3 The Previous Studies on Language Learning Strategies 27

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 30

3.1 Research Methods 30

3.2 Research Participants 30

3.3 Research Instruments 31

3.3.1 Questionnaire 31

3.3.2 Semi-structured interview 32

3.4 Procedure for Data Collection 33

3.4.1 Questionnaire 33

3.4.2 Semi-structured interview 34

3.5 Procedure for Data Analysis 35

3.6 Ethical Consideration 36

3.7 Chapter Summary 36

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 38

4.1 Reliability Test 38

4.2 Overall Language Learning Strategies Used by EFL Students at Quy Nhon University 39

4.2.1 Memory Strategies 43

4.2.2 Cognitive Strategies 46

4.2.3 Compensation Strategies 49

4.2.4 Metacognitive Strategies 52

4.2.5 Affective Strategies 55

4.2.6 Social Strategies 57

4.3 Most and least frequently used language learning strategies 60

4.3.1 Most frequently used language learning strategies 60

4.3.2 Most frequently used language learning strategies 62

4.4 Chapter Summary 64

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 65

5.1 Conclusions 65

5.2 Implications 66

5.3 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research 68 REFERENCES

APPENDICES

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Oxford‟s Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies (Oxford,

1990, p 17) 16

Table 4.1 Reliability Test 38

Table 4.2 Oxford‟s (1990) Guidelines for Understanding Average Scores on the SILL 39

Table 4.3 The students‟ responses to the use of the six strategy categories (N=200) 40

Table 4.4 Memory strategies 43

Table 4.5 Cognitive strategies 46

Table 4.6 Compensation strategies 50

Table 4.7 Metacognitive strategies 53

Table 4.8 Affective Strategies 55

Table 4.9 Social strategies 58

Table 4.10 The 3 most frequently used language learning strategies 60

Table 4.11 The 3 least used language learning strategies 62

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The chapter introduces the topic of this thesis: language learning strategies used by a group of EFL students at Quy Nhon university learning English as a foreign language More specifically, it provides the rationale, the aim and objectives, research questions, the scope, the significance, and the organization of the study The relevance of the present study to the overall contemporary field of EFL (English as a Foreign Language) research is also considered

1.1 Rationale

Language learning strategies have played a critical role in the acquisition

of foreign languages Therefore, several types of language learning strategy research were published and flourished in the 1970s with the theory of cognitive revolution, and a number of researches have shown an adjacent association between language learning strategies, language learning, and

achievements Oxford explains language learning strategies as “specific

action taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, and more effective and more transferable to new situations” (1990:8) She also continues saying that learning strategies take a

substantial part for language learners to enhance their foreign language abilities Furthermore, when it comes to studying a foreign language, students

or learners must be mindful of using appropriate learning strategies (Meshyan & Hernandez, 2002; Al-Wazzan, 2020; Salma, 2020) Consequently, not having appropriate language learning strategies turns out to

be a problem for students and learners to develop their foreign language

As far as the previous studies on the use of language learning strategies

are concerned, Anida (2003) has effectively confirmed that EFL students are capable of developing their performances, interests, self-confidence, and attitude towards the learning English by following significant language learning strategies The study further shows a connection between language learning strategies and language skills Another study by Qingquan et al (2008) examined differences in the language learning strategies use by the first-year students at a Chinese university The findings indicated that the high achievers employed a wider range of language learning strategies at a higher level and more various types of language learning strategies than the low achievers did In another EFL context, Osman and Manan (2010) conducted a survey with 20 successful and 20 less successful language students from an urban school in Ipod, Perak, to explore the most frequently used strategies and any differences in language learning strategies use between the successful learners and the less successful ones Furthermore, it was shown that Affective, Compensation, and Metacognitive strategies used at a moderate level were preferred by the participants

In the context of Vietnam, there are also studies on language learning strategies of Bui (2018), Duong (2019), Ngo (2019), and Vo and Duong (2020) More precisely, Bui (2018) conducted the study to investigate the language learning strategies used by Vietnamese EFL first-year students at Hanoi University of Business and Technology, as well as how these strategies differed depending on the students' English level Besides, Ngo (2019) and Duong (2019) conducted studies with the same aim of exploring language learning strategies, and the subjects of both studies are high school students Meanwhile, Vo and Duong (2020) conducted a study with a new approach addressing only Metacognitive strategies at a Ho Chi Minh City-based college with the participation of non- English majors It was indicated that the participants recognized the importance of Metacognitive strategies in their

English learning As a result, there have also been numerous studies on language learning strategies in the Vietnamese context in terms of research subject and research site However, there has not been a significant research related to language learning strategies on the research site at Quy Nhon university and for students of this university – a university in Vietnam's central region Admittedly, specific language learning strategies will be used differently in different contexts and with different backgrounds This has generated my motivation to conduct a study on “ Quy Nhon University EFL Students’ Language Learning Strategies” with the aim of determining

appropriate language learning strategies for students at a university situated in the middle of Vietnam, where the majority of students come from the mountains and countryside

1.2 Aims and objectives

1.2.1 Aims

The primary goal of this study is to determine language learning strategies which are used by English language majors in the Department of Foreign Languages at Quy Nhon University

1.2.2 Objectives

The study was conducted in an endeavor to:

1 Investigate language learning strategies applied by English language majors in the Department of Foreign Languages

2 Categorize the most and least common language learning strategies applied by English language majors in the Department of Foreign Languages

2 What are the most frequently and least frequently used language learning strategies by English language majors?

1.4 Scope of the study

The scope of the research in the present study is to investigate the language learning strategies which English language majors in the Department of Foreign Languages employ in learning English Because of time, ability, and data availability constraints, this study focuses primarily on students' usage of language learning strategies and classification of the most common ones used by these students Furthermore, the participants in this study are restricted to English language majors from the Department of Foreign Languages at Quy Nhon university As a result, the study's generalizability should be limited, and the findings may not be representative of all Vietnamese English majors

1.5 Significance of the study

While many researchers have conducted studies on language learning strategies, there have been only a few studies conducted in a university setting The current study may also be useful for EFL teachers in raising their awareness of their students‟ use of language learning strategies Teachers can help students learn languages by raising awareness of these strategies, training and encouraging them to use the strategies that work best for their individual learning styles Similarly, students must be conscious of the wide range of strategy options available to them, as well as how to use such strategies to improve their English learning Furthermore, the study's findings may assist EFL curriculum developers and program administrators in selecting or producing EFL textbooks and materials that adapt to various individuals with different language learning strategies

1.6 Organization of the study

The thesis includes five chapters: Introduction, Literature Review,

Research Method, Results, and Conclusion

Chapter 1 provides the rationale, the aims and objectives of the study

and research questions, the scope of the study, the significance, and the organization of the study

Chapter 2 deals with the literature on language learning strategies,

definitions, characteristics, and classifications of language learning strategies This literature review provided a comprehensive overview of Oxford‟ (1990) typology for language learning strategies Additionally, this chapter also discusses the importance of language learning strategies and review some of the research studies on language learning strategies that have been conducted

in different contexts

Chapter 3 presents the methods by which the study is carried out Then,

it provides the questions Following that, it describes the research design and the study's participants The research instruments and materials used for data analysis are then mentioned Finally, this chapter discusses the study's data collection and data analysis procedures

Chapter 4 provides a detailed presentation and analysis of collected data

in order to answer research questions regarding types of language learning strategies used by English language majors

Chapter 5 consists of the summary of main findings on which

conclusions are based, implications, limitations of the research and suggestions for further studies

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

The aim of chapter 2 is to review the literature relevant to this study The chapter contains an overview of language learning strategies, definitions, different classifications of language learning strategies, and the most popular classification, that of Oxford (1990) The recent findings of language learning

strategies - related research are also discussed in this chapter

2.1 Language Learning Strategies

2.1.1 Definition of Language Learning Strategies

Language learning strategies have received a considerable concern since early 1970s due to the crucial role they are playing in language learning

When it comes to defining language learning strategies, “different researchers

use different terms and different concepts” (Oxford and Crookall, 1989, p

414) Therefore, there are a variety of definitions for language learning strategies that have been utilized by key figures within the field of second and foreign language education According to Hardan (2013), citing Rubin's (1975) definition, learning strategies are the approaches or instruments that a learner may use to gain knowledge Rigeney (1978) later considers language learning strategies as the conscious steps or behaviors used by language learners to improve the acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of new information Oxford, Lavine, and Crookall (1989) have the same idea as Rigeney (1978) concerning language learning strategies They stated that language learning strategies are employed to enhance and to facilitate

language acquisition They described language learning strategies as “actions,

behaviors, steps, or techniques such as seeking out target language

conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language task used by learners to enhance learning” (1989: 29)

As said by Hardan (2013), referencing Rubin's definition (1975), language learning strategies are contributions to the development of the language system that the learner creates Additionally, he said that a language learner's strategies for acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using knowledge could include any collection of activities, phases, plans, or routines

Zarei (2015) defines a language strategy as an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language to incorporate these into one's interlanguage competence - citing Taron's (1983) definition Richards, and Platt (1992) stated that learning strategies are deliberate actions and mental processes employed by learners to better grasp, learn, or recall new knowledge The concept of learning strategies, as shown by Stern (1992),

is dependent on the assumption that “learners consciously engage in activities

to achieve certain goals, and learning strategies can be regarded as broadly conceived intentional directions and learning techniques” (p 261) Cohen

(1998) emphasized that learning strategies are processes that learners consciously select and that may result in action taken to improve the learning

or use of a second or foreign language through the storage, preservation, recall, and application of language information

Chamot (1987), O'Malley and Chamot (1990), and Oxford (1990) have also discussed language learning strategies Language learning strategies, according to Chamot (1987), are techniques or deliberate actions that students take to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information She recommended that some language learning strategies are visible, while others may not be Similarly, O‟Malley and Chamot (1990)

viewed language learning strategies as “the special thoughts or behaviours of

processing information that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn,

or retain new information” (p 1) They discovered that while strategies can

be used on purpose, they can also become habitual and mechanical with practice The following is a description of language learning strategies from O'Malley et al (1985) She claimed that there is no agreement on what qualifies as a second language learning strategy or how these differ from other kinds of learner activities When talking about language learning, teaching and communication strategies are frequently applied to the same behavior and are connected Furthermore, there is a lot of misunderstanding regarding what constitutes a specific strategy as well as the hierarchical relationship between strategies, even within the category of activities that is most frequently

referred to as learning strategies

Oxford (1990) claimed that “learning strategies are steps taken by

students to enhance their own learning” (p 1) She proposed a more specific

definition of learning strategies as “specific actions taken by the learner to

make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (p 8) She defined

learning strategies as a set of behaviors used by students to help them learn, store, and retrieve information more effectively Oxford (1990) also considered learning strategies as the specific tactics used by an individual to complete a learning task

As can be seen, despite the fact that the concept of a learning strategy is central to educational research, particularly second and foreign language acquisition research, there is no general agreement on what a learning strategy is or the nature of its impact on the learning process According to the above-mentioned definitions, I represent language learning strategies from the perspectives conducted by Oxford‟s (1990) which are applied

widely in almost other researches It is clear that Oxford‟s classification is regarded as the most comprehensive classification and has been used by many researchers Particularly, there are six categories of direct and indirect strategies Direct strategies are defined as strategies involving mental process and directly influencing the target language, while indirect strategies are those supporting and managing language without directly involving the target language

Language learning strategies have been classified by many scholars The majority of their efforts to categorize language learning strategies, however, reflect more or less the same categorization, without significant modifications Tarone's (1980), Rubin's (1987), O'Malley's (1985), Oxford's (1990), and Stern's (1992) taxonomies of language acquisition strategies will

be discussed in this section These authors‟ work in the field of language learning strategies research has been fundamental for all subsequent studies, and their classifications are still regarded as the most valid and influential ones in SLA (Second Language Acquisition) research

In previous studies on language learning strategies, some strategies other than learning strategies were found as being applicable to second language learning For example, Tarone (1980, p 419) suggested two kinds of

strategies: the “strategy of language use” and the “language learning

strategy” Within the “strategy of language use”, she identified two types of

strategies: Communication strategies and Production strategies Tarone (1980)

defined Communication strategy as “a mutual attempt of two interlocutors to

agree on a meaning in situations where requisite meaning structures do not seem to be shared” (p 419) She noticed language learning as an attempt to

develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language

Although her distinction between strategies makes sense as a classification method, it is difficult to distinguish between the two in practice However, Tarone‟s (1980) classification is well-explained with a sound classification of language learning strategies, which draws on the learner‟s purpose in using strategies Sometimes, however, a learner has more than one purpose in using strategies, and, in such a case, it is very difficult to delineate these strategies O'Malley (1985) divided language learning strategies into three main sub- categories: Metacognitive strategies, Cognitive strategies and Socio-

affective strategies Metacognitive strategies is a term to express executive

function, strategies which require planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of one's production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed

Cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and they

involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself Repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note taking, deduction, recombination, imagery, auditory representation, key word, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, inferencing are among the most important Cognitive strategies

Socio-affective strategies can be stated that they are related with

social-mediating activity and transacting with others

Rubin (1987), who is pioneered in the field of strategies, makes the distinction between strategies contributing directly to learning and those contributing indirectly to learning According to Rubin, there are three types

of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or indirectly to language learning These strategies are:

 Learning Strategies

 Communication Strategies

 Social Strategies

Learning Strategies are of two main types, being the strategies contributing directly to the development of the language system constructed

by the learner:

 Cognitive Learning Strategies

 Metacognitive Learning Strategies

Cognitive Learning Strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that requires direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials Rubin identified 6 main cognitive learning strategies contributing directly to language learning:

self-Communication Strategies are less directly related to language learning since their focus is on the process of participating in a conversation and getting meaning across or clarifying what the speaker intended Communication strategies are used by speakers when faced with some difficulty due to the fact that their communication ends outrun their communication means or when confronted with misunderstanding by a co-speaker

Social strategies are those activities learners engage in which afford them opportunities to be exposed to and practice their knowledge Although these

strategies provide exposure to the target language, they contribute indirectly

to learning since they do not lead directly to the obtaining, storing, retrieving, and using of language (Rubin and Wenden 1987:23-27)

According to Stern (1992), there are five main language learning

strategies These are as follows:

 Management and Planning Strategies

 Decide what commitment to make to language learning set himself reasonable goals

 Decide on an appropriate methodology, select appropriate resources, and monitor progress

 Evaluate his achievement in the light of previously determined goals and expectations

Cognitive Strategies are steps or operations used in learning or problem solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials In the following, some of the Cognitive strategies are exhibited:

 Clarification / Verification

 Guessing / Inductive inferencing

According to Interpersonal strategies, learners should monitor their own development and evaluate their own performance Learners should contact with native speakers and cooperate with them Learners must become acquainted with the target culture

As Affective Strategies, it is evident that good language learners employ distinct Affective strategies The learners are more or less conscious of these emotional problems Therefore, they try to create associations of positive affect towards the foreign language as well as towards the learning activities involved Learning training can help students to face up to the emotional difficulties and to overcome them by drawing attention to the potential frustrations or pointing them out as they arise

It can be seen that there have been a couple of classifications, however, the classification that has gained the most popularity and is the most commonly used one in SLA research and practice is that of Rebecca Oxford (1990) A detailed overview of her classification is presented in the next section

2.2 Oxford’s Language Learning Strategy Classification (1990)

Since the late 1980s, Oxford (1990) has expanded the classification system devised by O‟Malley et al (1985) According to Wakamoto (2009), Oxford's contribution to the study of language learning strategies is immense,

as the six-scheme strategy classification system she proposed, as well as the strategy questionnaire she developed, are still used globally today Oxford

first distinguishes between direct language learning strategies, “which directly

involve the subject matter,” and indirect language learning strategies, which

“do not directly involve the subject matter itself, but are essential to language learning nonetheless” (1990, p 71) Each of these broad categories of

language learning strategies is further subdivided into clusters According to Oxford, there are three major types of direct language learning strategies:

Memory, Cognitive, and Compensation strategies Memory strategies “aid in

entering information into long-term memory and retrieving information when needed for communication.” Cognitive strategies “are used for forming and revising internal mental models and receiving and producing messages in the target language” Compensation strategies “are needed to overcome any gaps in knowledge of the language” (Oxford, 1990, p 71)

Oxford (1990) also describes three types of indirect language learning strategies: Metacognitive, Affective and Social strategies Metacognitive

strategies “help learners exercise „executive control‟ through planning,

arranging, focusing, and evaluating their own learning” Affective strategies

“enable learners to control feelings, motivations, and attitudes related to language learning” Finally, Social strategies “facilitate interaction with others, often in a discourse situation” (Oxford, 1990, p 71) These six categories which

underlie the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) are used by Oxford (1990) and later scholars for a great deal of research in the learning strategy field In addition, Oxford‟s model outlines a comprehensive, multi- levelled, and theoretically well-conceived taxonomy of language learning strategies For these reasons, the classification of language learning strategies in this study will be based on Oxford‟s (1990) classification system

Oxford developed the SILL as a means for promoting foreign language

learning for the Department of Defense and other governmental institutions The initial version of SILL included 121 strategies, which was too lengthy and inconvenient, so the strategies were revised to include 80 and then 50 items in the seventh final version of SILL This version has thus become the embodiment of Oxford‟s language learning theory, that is, the division of language learning strategies into direct and indirect ones (Flemens, 2009) According to Ellis (1994), Oxford's theory of language learning strategies was built on previous classifications with the objective of making a taxonomy that would include practically every strategy previously mentioned in SLA research The level of strategies‟ involvement with the target language, rather than their contribution to the language learning process, is regarded as the main guiding principle of Oxford's classification

At present, there are two versions of SILL available for researchers: version 5.1 consists of 80 items, while version 7.0 includes 50 items Numerous SLA studies using SILL have resulted in the instrument achieving

a high level of validity, and factor analysis of SILL has also been confirmed

by prior research Empirical research has revealed a moderate level of intercorrelation between the items of SILL, thus creating scientific evidence for SILL‟s ability to facilitate more in-depth understanding of language learning strategies (Fazeli, 2012)

Interestingly, Oxford was one of the first to introduce and extensively use the term language learning strategies in SLA research In this context, language learning strategies were defined as techniques used by students to improve their learning In Oxford‟s study, language learning strategies were characterized as naturalistic practices facilitating the acquisition of language skills, including guessing and Memory strategies that have also been shown to

be useful in the language learning process (Flemens, 2009) These strategies

are commonly understood as being operations used by learners for assistance

in the acquisition, storage and retrieval of information relevant to the learning process Oxford‟s (1990, p 17) taxonomy of language learning strategies can

be summarized as follows:

Table 2.1 Oxford’s Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p 17)

Direct Strategies Indirect Strategies

Memory

A Creating mental linkages

B Applying images and sounds

C Analyzing and reasoning

D Creating structure for input

C Evaluating your learning

B Cooperating with others

C Empathizing with others The process of developing terminology, definitions, and classification systems for language learning strategies is complicated by overlapping ideas and opposing viewpoints Because there is no consensus on what constitutes a

feature of a language learning strategy, whatever term is used, and however it

is defined or classified, it will invariably clash with one or more of the opposing terms, definitions, and classification systems Oxford (1990) acknowledges the following in her conclusion:

“There is no complete agreement on exactly what strategies are; how many strategies exist; how they should be defined, demarcated, and categorized; and whether it is or ever will be possible to create a real, scientifically validated hierarchy of strategies Classification conflicts are inevitable (p 17).”

The major benefit of classification offered by Oxford (1990), in comparison with the previously used classification of O‟Malley and Chamot, is the inclusion of Memory and Compensation strategies Purpura (1999) comments that Oxford‟s (1990) taxonomy of language learning strategies is interesting for a number of reasons; first, it was the first classification to indicate the directionality of the learning process and the impact of strategies

on learning Moreover, Oxford‟s (1990) classification presented strategies organized hierarchically into levels, and its appearance was comprehensive and impressive enough to be distinguished from other taxonomies of the time The following subsections contain a more detailed overview of the direct and indirect strategies formulated by Oxford (1990)

2.2.1 Direct Language Learning Strategies

Direct strategies are of assistance to the learners because they assist to store and recover information These strategies help learners to produce language, even when there is a knowledge gap They also help learners to comprehend and apply the new language Direct strategies are classified into the following:

2.2.1.1 Memory strategies

Memory strategies (including 9 items) are used for entering new information into memory storage and for retrieving it when needed for communication: e.g., grouping, representing sounds in memory, structured reviewing, using physical response

Memory strategies are based on simple principles, such as laying things out in order, making associations and reviewing These principles are employed when a learner faces vocabulary learning challenges The words and phrases can be associated with visual images that can be stored and retrieved for communication Many learners make use of visual images, but some find it easy to connect words and phrases with sound, motion or touch According to Samida (2005), the main advantage of Memory strategies is that they are based on simple principles such as making associations, laying things out in a specific order, and reviewing the learned material These types of strategies are the most efficient tools in learning the vocabulary in a foreign language The use of Memory strategies is also associated with the early stages of language learning, the beginning process of SLA Learners advance to a higher level of proficiency by employing these strategies, whereas Memory strategies are used less frequently at later stages of SLA The present diminishing frequency of their use does not manifest refusal to use Memory strategies, but rather denotes a reduction in the learners‟ awareness about using them

Sung (2009) mentions flash cards and grouping words with similar functions or form to help learners remember newly learned vocabulary as examples of Memory strategies used in SLA Walker (2008) characterized Memory strategies as mnemonics, and stated that this type of strategy is commonly used to help learners in the acquisition of knowledge about the vocabulary and grammar of the second language Oxford (1990) gave some

examples of Memory strategies, noting the skills of storytellers who manage

to keep long stories in mind by linking different parts of speech by association with different rooms of a house or temple, thus making a walk about that house from room to room in the process of story‟s retrieval Another Memory strategy used in SLA is linking words to a certain tune, grouping, elaborating and putting new words into context For instance, words denoting various food items can be grouped into categories of breakfast, lunch and dinner to simplify the process of remembering words for the learner

2.2.1.2 Cognitive strategies

Cognitive strategies (11 items) are used for linking, analyzing, and classifying new information with existing schemata Cognitive strategies are responsible for deep processing, forming and revising internal mental models, and receiving and producing messages in the target language (e.g., repeating, getting the idea quickly, analysing, and taking notes) The target language is manipulated or distorted by repeating, analysing, or summarizing

As noted by Takac (2008), Cognitive strategies are used to denote the mental steps and actions a learner employs for learning and problem-solving during SLA These strategies require direct analysis, transformation and synthesis from the learner regarding the materials being learnt Cognitive processes such as processing a language in the human mind and mental processes related to the obtaining, storage and retrieval of linguistic information also belong to this category Mokhtari (2007) stated that Cognitive strategies refer to the manipulation and transformation of learning materials such as practicing, receiving and sending messages, performing actions of analysis and reasoning, and creation of a certain structure for input and output

Walker (2008) pointed out that Cognitive strategies are the most

frequently used ones in the process of SLA This category is varied and abundant, ranging from analyzing expressions to summarizing and repeating received information The cognitive type of strategies also relates to the concept of practicing that encompasses five distinct actions within the SLA process:

1 Repeating, that is, saying or doing something over and over, listening

to some linguistic material several times with further rehearsal; it may also involve imitation of the native speaker‟s speech

2 Formally practicing with sounds and writing systems, that is, practicing the pronunciation of sounds, intonation, register and other elements

of speech; however, this practice is not a naturalistic communicative practice;

it may involve practicing the new writing system of the target language

3 Recognizing and using formulas and patterns involving the awareness

of, and the use of routine formulas (that is, single unanalyzed units) and unanalyzed patterns in the foreign language practices

4 Recombining, i.e., the combination of known elements in a variety of ways for production of new, longer sequences

5 Practicing naturalistically, that is, using the new language in natural, realistic settings such as a participation in a conversation, reading an authentic book or article, or writing letters (Walker, 2008, p 48)

Sung (2009) underlined that the major function of Cognitive strategies is to help learners to understand and produce oral and written language in the foreign language, and that the majority of second language learners use Cognitive strategies for skimming and locating the main idea of the text Samida (2005) also added that adult learners frequently use such Cognitive strategies as analyzing and reasoning to understand meaning and expression of the target language Moreover, Cognitive strategies are the only effective means of

producing new expressions in the target language For instance, the example of learning words with the -ough spelling may be considered: such words as through, though, and trough all have this fragment, but sound different Therefore, to learn them more quickly and effectively, learners can employ phonetic spelling for them such as throo, thow, tuff, etc (Samida, 2005)

Compensation strategies (6 items) include strategies such as guessing and using gestures These strategies are needed to fill in any gaps in the knowledge of the language, such as switching to the mother tongue, using other clues, getting help, and using synonyms Learners use Compensation strategies for comprehension of the target language when they have insufficient knowledge of the target language These strategies make up for their deficiencies in grammar and vocabulary When learners do not know new words and expressions, they guess the meaning A learner brings his or her own life experience to the interpretation of data by guessing

There are two types of Compensation strategies in SLA delineated by Oxford (1990): guessing strategies and overcoming strategies Guessing strategies include the use of linguistic clues such as more familiar elements of language or elements approximately similar to one‟s native language According to Walker (2008), such cases include the use of cognates for guessing the meaning of words An additional guessing strategy involves the usage of numerous nonverbal cues such as watching the speaker‟s gestures and expressions, and guessing the meaning of a linguistic message from them Overcoming strategies include switching to one‟s mother tongue in case of necessity, getting help, using mime and gesture, avoiding communication partly or totally, selecting the topic, adjusting or approximating the message, coining new words, and using a circumlocution or synonyms for the

expression of certain ideas in the target language (Walker, 2008)

Therefore, one can assume that the prime goal of Compensation strategies is to make up for an inadequate repertoire of grammar and vocabulary on the part of learners of a foreign language, thus allowing them

to use additional linguistic clues, something which results in greater comprehension despite gaps in the language learnt (Sung, 2009) Samida (2005) also added that Compensation strategies are used by the learner through bringing his or her own life experience to interpret data by guessing, and that these strategies are frequently used in the production of grammatical knowledge in cases where the learner‟s command of second language grammar is incomplete

2.2.2 Indirect Language Learning Strategies

Indirect language learning strategies work together with direct strategies

by helping the learner to regulate the learning process These strategies support and manage language learning without direct engagement and are, therefore, called indirect strategies Indirect strategies are classified into the following:

2.2.2.1 Metacognitive strategies

Metacognitive strategies (9 items) are techniques used for organizing, planning, focusing, and evaluating one‟s own learning: e.g., linking new information with already known information, seeking practice opportunities, and self-monitoring Oxford (1990) gave the following definition of

metacognitive strategies: “actions which go beyond purely cognitive devices,

and which provide a way for learners to coordinate their own learning process” (p 136) The subcategories into which Metacognitive strategies

were divided include centring, arranging, planning and evaluating one‟s learning, which helps learners to plan their language learning in an efficient

way Centring one‟s learning is inseparably connected with adopting a focus on learning tasks such as attention to specific language-related details

Arrangement and planning of one‟s learning relate to the efficient organization of the study space, buying a dictionary, finding out the ways in which language is learnt Evaluation of learning involves the learner‟s conscious noticing of errors that he or she makes, and doing corrective work not to repeat those mistakes in future, as well as subsequent evaluation of progress on corrective work (Walker, 2008) When new vocabulary, rules and the writing system confuse the learner, these strategies become vital to successful language learning

In the opinion of Takac (2008), Metacognitive strategies presuppose

“planning of learning, setting the goals, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of performance and comprehension, as well as evaluation of results and the learning process” (p 53) Metacognitive strategies, in

correspondence with human metacognition, are known to operate at a substantially different level as compared to Cognitive strategies; their unique distinction is in allowing the learners to look at their learning process from the outside Thus, Metacognitive strategies make a feasible contribution to increasing learners‟ awareness of their own strategy use, their conscious control of their own strategy use, the regulation of its adequacy in various learning situations, and a conscious analysis of their own learning processes Johnson (2013) also pointed out the exceptional value of Metacognitive strategies in the process of SLA According to the researcher, benefits delineated by O‟Malley and Chamot (1990) include directed attention (the ability of the learner to decide beforehand to direct attention to a specific learning task, as well as to ignore irrelevant distractions mitigating the process of learning This also involves maintenance of attention during task

execution), self-management (the learner‟s skill to understand and employ conditions helping him or her to successfully accomplish language tasks and arrange the presence of those conditions for more effective learning) It also involves conscious control over one‟s linguistic performance to maximize the use of already known linguistic material, and problem identification (the skill

of explicit identification of central points needing resolution in a task to identify an aspect of the task potentially preventing its successful completion) Therefore, Metacognitive strategies are generally very important

in the SLA process because they contribute to academic success in general Students with better Metacognitive awareness are considered to have more control over their learning, greater understanding, and more effective storage

of information, as well as being able to search for the best ways of practicing and reinforcing the linguistic material they have already learnt (Johnson, 2013) Sung (2009) noted that the main function of Metacognitive strategies

is the organization of learning so that learners may coordinate their own learning process more easily In this way, by employing Metacognitive strategies, they set goals and identify purposes for the language tasks they set for themselves

The role of Metacognitive strategies is usually confined to successful language learning, so their use is of considerable importance in SLA because such strategies help learners to remain focused on their language learning process, and allow them to consciously control their learning progress (Takac, 2008) Moreover, the use of Metacognitive strategies is intricately connected with the employment of the concept of strategic competence in SLA

Strategic competences are defined as “a set of metacognitive components, or

strategies, which can be thought of as higher order executive processes that provide a cognitive management function in language use” (Bachman &

Palmer, 1996, p 70) It is also necessary to keep in mind that Metacognitive

strategies include the procedures of goal setting, assessment of SLA progress and planning, which differ from compensatory strategies in many linguistic aspects (Takac, 2008)

2.2.2.2 Affective strategies

Affective strategies (6 items) are used for handling feelings, attitudes and motivations: e.g., lowering anxiety by the use of music, encouraging oneself, and discussing feelings with others Affective factors, such as emotion, attitude, motivation and values, influence learning in an important way Three sets of strategies are included in this group: lowering anxiety, self-encouragement, and taking own‟s emotional temperature

According to Samida (2005), good language learners should possess an ability to control their attitudes and emotions about learning, which presupposes conscious comprehension of the disadvantageous effect of their negative feelings about the learning process In this context, teachers can assist second language learners in creating a favorable atmosphere for the generation

of positive feelings in the class, which may be accomplished by means of giving students more responsibility for their studying process, increasing the amount of natural communication within the SLA process, and teaching effective language learning strategies for overall facilitation of the learning process

Sung (2009) delineated such effective Affective strategies as giving oneself a valuable, meaningful reward for successful SLA performance, and keeping a diary in which feelings regarding the SLA process may be recorded Oxford‟s (1990) research contains a more varied set of Affective strategies that can be employed for increasing the effectiveness of a language learning process: using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or meditation; using music, laughter, and making positive statements about the learning

process; taking risks wisely; rewarding oneself for good performance; listening to one‟s body; using a checklist for reasonable evaluation of performance; writing a language learning diary; and discussing one‟s feelings with someone else (p 141) Walker (2008) admitted that the importance of Affective language learning strategies is explained by the critical role played

by an Affective domain in the language learning field The same opinion was shared by Takac (2008) who stated that Affective strategies denote learners‟ attempts to understand and control their own feelings, which are an essential component in relaxation and self-encouragement

2.2.2.3 Social strategies

Social strategies (6 items) are used for facilitating interaction by asking questions and cooperating with others in the learning process: e.g., asking for clarification, cooperating with others, and developing cultural understanding Social strategies are very important in learning a language, because language

is used in communication, and communication occurs between people Three sets of strategies are included in this group: asking questions, cooperating with others, and empathizing with others

Social strategies are employed to increase cooperation between learners, and to intensify contact between the teacher and second language students (Takac, 2008) Therefore, Social strategies immerse learners into the environment where an SLA practice is possible without their direct participation Walker (2008) added that learning a language is generally a social process, second language students should pay specific attention to asking native speakers to clarify meaning, slow down their rate of speech, and repeat words for enhancement of their language learning experience Cooperation as a Social strategy involves working together with other language learners to increase one‟s understanding of second language

Empathizing with other people involves looking at the new culture through the eyes of native speakers, and trying to understand it from other people‟s viewpoints, not only from the individual‟s position in his or her own culture Samida (2005) pointed out that among these Social strategies, asking questions is the key SLA skill because it assists the learners in understanding the meaning of second language, and helps in conversation by generating a response from the partner, gaining an expression of interest and involvement

2.3 The Previous Studies on Language Learning Strategies

Over the years, many academics have focused on language learning strategy research, and it has a long history in linguistics From the previous studies in the relationship among language learning strategies and factors, the researcher found that the previous studies were designed to investigate language learning strategies between the English language proficiency level, ethnicity, field of study, gender, beliefs, and nationality in both second and foreign language contexts

With reference to the language learning strategies and the English language proficiency level, Gerami and Baighlow (2011) conducted study, examining the application of language learning strategies by successful and unsuccessful Iranian EFL students Similarly, Afdaleni's (2013) carried out a study with the aim of finding out the language learning strategy used by successful and unsuccessful learners in English reading comprehension, and the factors that influenced the learners in using certain language learning strategy in English reading comprehension The findings of both are the language learning strategy used by learners are all Memory, Cognitive, Compensation, Metacognitive, Affective and Social strategies but Metacognitive strategies in particular were applied most frequently Moreover, the competent EFL learners used a broader variety of learning

strategies and different from the struggling learners

Regarding the relationship between language learning strategies and gender, Alhaisoni (2012) carried out a study whose aim is to investigate the type and frequency of language learning strategies used by male and female Saudi EFL students enrolled in an intensive English language program at the University of Ha'il and Tam (2013) conducted study, examining the connection between gender, second language competency, socioeconomic position, and language learning methods The mutual result was that males and females had a significant difference in using Memory, Compensation, Cognitive, Metacognitive, Affective and Social Strategies to learn English, with females using all of these strategies more frequently than males and the students used strategies on a medium to high frequency

In the context of Vietnam, Bui (2018) conducted a study with the intention of examining the language learning strategies employed by Vietnamese EFL first-year students as well as the variations in these strategies according to the students' English level The major findings of the study showed that the success of language teaching and learning are determined by the effective choices of language learning strategies In the same context of high school, Vo and Duong (2020) carried out a study addressing Metacognitive strategies at a Ho Chi Minh City-based college with the participation of 243 non- English majors It was indicated that the participants recognized the importance of Metacognitive strategies in their English learning Moreover, Ngo (2019) employed the SILL questionnaire constructed by Oxford (1990) to assess the language learning strategies use of

83 Vietnamese tenth graders The findings demonstrated that these high school students employed a variety of language learning strategies at a moderate level It was also indicated that Metacognitive strategies were the

most used, whereas Affective strategies were the least used Meanwhile, Duong (2019) conducted a study with the purpose of exploring language learning strategies used by high school students and underlying reasons at a high school located in Ho Chi Minh City The results of the study indicated the EFL high school students‟ moderate use of language learning strategies Remarkably, Metacognitive strategies were the most commonly used category, compared to Memory strategies – the least employed category

In general, previous studies indicated that when learning English, students used a variety of language learning strategies In light of the aforementioned phenomenon, this current study focuses on English language majors at Quy Nhon University' Department of Foreign Languages, with the aim of knowing about the strategies that English language students employ frequently while learning English It enables students to understand the approaches to English learning that are appropriate for their personalities

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

This chapter is devoted to giving a clarification to the research methods the selections of participants, and an overview of the research instruments used in the research It also mentions the study procedures, data collection, data analysis, and validity and reliability of the study

3.1 Research Methods

As mentioned earlier, the purpose of this study is to investigate types of language learning strategies in learning English language of EFL students For this purpose, this research utilized both qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis Quantitative method was applied to reveal the type and regularity of strategies accomplished by students in 50 items the frequency as well as the distribution of language learning strategies used by students when they learn English language Moreover, qualitative method was also used to examine closely students‟ perceptions of relationship between language learning strategies and language skills Thanks to both qualitative and quantitative approaches, the researcher could proceed to describe, analyze, make comparisons and generalizations in order to reach the goals already set

In addition, a descriptive analysis was employed simultaneously to analyze and interpret the data collected to sketch an overall picture of the distribution of language learning strategies in learning English language

experience learning English in a formal context in Vietnam Besides, there are

20 out of 200 students from different courses to participate in interviews who are under ID number from S1 to S20 for the sake of confidentiality

3.3 Research Instruments

In this study, data is gathered using two research instruments: a questionnaire and an interview A questionnaire is used to gather quantitative data, while semi-structured interviews are used to acquire qualitative data

3.3.1 Questionnaire

In this study, the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) questionnaire version 7.0 (50 items) was used to examine the types and frequency of use of language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990) The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) was the most well-known strategy scale and has been used all over the world in the past 30 years (Oxford, 1990,

p 294-296) The SILL version 7.0 (50 items) was designed for non-native English speaking students who use English as a second or foreign language Moreover, the SILL has been used with learners with varied native languages, such as Chinese, French, Germen, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Spanish, Thai, and Turkish (Oxford, 1990) In addition, Oxford (1996) claimed the SILL reliability has been high, and the reliability remains very acceptable

The questionnaire on language learning strategies use assessed the participants‟ self- reported English learning strategies The questionnaire consisted of three parts The first part concerned the participants‟ demographic background information The second part was a 50 questionnaire-item measure developed from Oxford‟s (1990) taxonomy of language learning strategy to investigate Quy Nhon university learners‟ self-reported learning strategies in different academic learning clusters This part had three direct language learning strategies and three indirect language learning strategies which were: Memory

strategies (9 items), Cognitive strategies (14 items), Compensation strategies (6 items), Metacognitive strategies (9 items), Affective strategies (6 items), and Social strategies (6 items) The third section contained one open-ended question

in order to find out about any strategies that students had been using but did not appear on the SILL

The respondents‟ opinions were measured using a five-point scale that represents the different scales of importance that they placed on each of the English language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990)

The numerical representations of each scale are as follows:

(1) means never or almost never true of me

(2) means usually not true of me

(3) means somewhat true of me

(4) means usually true of me

(5) means always or almost always true of me

3.3.2 Semi-structured interview

According to Ritchie and Lewis (2003), an interview is a managed verbal exchange (Ritchie & Lewis, 2003) Therefore, the effectiveness of an interview depends on the skills of communication of the interviewer and the responses of the interviewee (Clough & Nutbrown, 2007) Cohen further emphasizes that the quality of the results depends on the ability of the interviewer to structure questions clearly, be an attentive listener, probe, pause and prompt questions appropriately (Cohen et al., 2007) This makes it easy to engage the participants in the research by creating a welcoming atmosphere The former uses a close-ended form of questionnaire while the latter is open and is almost similar to observation In the middle lies the semi-structured form of interview which fulfills the aims of the study For the aims