370358 Print indd 123 S P R I N G E R B R I E F S I N M O L E C U L A R S C I E N C E C H E M I S T RY O F F O O D S Marcella Barbera Giovanni Gurnari Wastewater Treatment and Reuse in the Food Indust[.]
Food Industry and Generated Industrial Ef fl uents
In most industrial processes, water is the most extensively used raw material for the production of high-value products Water use has more than tripled globally since
As of 1950, one in six individuals lacks regular access to safe drinking water, with over 700 million people currently affected globally Water quality and scarcity are increasingly recognized as critical environmental threats, impacting the health of 1.2 billion people annually Economic development, particularly in emerging markets, has heightened the demand for diverse diets, including meat and dairy, further straining water resources The food and beverage processing industry is the third largest industrial user of water, with 75% of its consumption deemed suitable for drinking Alarmingly, over two-thirds of global freshwater abstraction is directed towards food production, leading to depletion in many regions Projections suggest that by 2025, 35% of the global population will reside in areas facing water stress or scarcity, necessitating the food industry to enhance water use efficiency Water consumption in food production varies based on factors such as manufacturing diversity, plant capacity, and cleaning processes Additionally, wastewater generated from food industries poses significant challenges, as it varies in composition due to different industrial processes and is often contaminated with microorganisms, organic materials, and chemicals.
Water and Wastewater Reutilisation
In urban areas, demand for water has been increasing steadily, owing to population growth, industrial development and expansion of irrigated peri-urban agriculture.
As a consequence, an increment of the pollution of freshwater can be observed due to the inadequate discharge of wastewater, especially in developing countries [11].
The rise in industrial activities and the release of high-strength wastewater from diverse industries pose significant challenges for effective water contamination remediation methods, necessitating strategies to mitigate environmental impact.
Current water management practices are causing significant depletion of both surface and groundwater resources, prompting the food industry to seek optimization in water usage The reuse of water within this sector is becoming increasingly vital due to rising costs associated with water and its treatment The potential for wastewater reuse varies across industries, influenced by factors such as waste volume, concentration, treatment technologies, operational costs, and regulatory standards To effectively address the challenges of dwindling resources, environmental concerns, and public health risks, substantial changes in industrial wastewater reuse practices are essential.
Water quality requirements are a function of the type of food, processing con- ditions and methods offinal preparation in the home (cooked/uncooked products)
Water and wastewater reutilization, along with treatment and disposal costs, are vital for sustainable water use in the food and beverage industries Continuous access to significant water resources necessitates urgent improvements in water consumption efficiency and the exploration of more sustainable water alternatives.
Modern and traditional methods for enhancing efficiency include various cleaner production strategies, such as internal recycling and the reuse of treated wastewater from industrial or municipal sources Wastewater reuse presents a cost-effective solution and serves as a vital strategy for preserving resources for future generations Additionally, careful management of wastewater reduces the volume of waste sent to treatment facilities, thereby decreasing overall treatment costs.
Companies invest in wastewater treatment and reuse not only to meet effluent standards but also to enhance their reputation through product recycling and raw material recovery Unlike agriculture, where a significant amount of water is consumed, most industrial water is discharged as wastewater The capacity to reuse water, whether to increase water supplies or manage nutrients in treated effluent, offers numerous positive benefits that drive the implementation of reuse programs.
(b) Reduced energy consumption associated with production, treatment and dis- tribution of water
(c) Significant environmental benefits, such as reduced nutrient loads to receiving waters due to reuse of the treated effluents [12].
Industrial wastewater treatment has evolved from direct discharge to recycling and reuse, driven by environmental concerns, public pressure, and stricter regulations The increasing scarcity and cost of raw water are compelling industries to adopt recycling technologies, focusing on reducing potable water intake and minimizing polluted effluent discharge Wastewater reuse is gaining importance in water resource management for both environmental and economic reasons, with historical applications in agriculture and expanding uses in industrial, household, and urban settings However, the risks and benefits of using raw or treated wastewater must be carefully evaluated based on local conditions, as wastewater quality and water use vary by region To optimize water use and cost reduction, it is essential to analyze the quality and quantity of source effluents in relation to potential reuse applications and water quality requirements, while also considering the availability of appropriate technology and the need for continuous improvement in existing practices The level of treatment required for reclaimed water is determined by its intended use.
Water reuse can be categorized into indirect and direct applications, with reclaimed water primarily utilized for non-potable purposes Common uses include irrigation for agriculture, landscapes, and parks, as well as greywater applications in cooling towers, power plants, and oil refineries Additional significant applications encompass toilet flushing, dust control, construction activities, concrete mixing, and the creation of artificial lakes.
Direct Reuse
Direct reuse of treated wastewater as potable or process water is a viable option for agricultural and certain industrial applications, either with or without treatment to meet specific quality standards Wastewater often contains valuable materials, including organic carbon and essential nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, which can reduce the need for chemical fertilizers in agriculture and landscaping Globally, approximately 30 million tons of wastewater are produced annually, with 70% utilized for agricultural fertilization and irrigation This practice has gained acceptance as a cost-effective alternative to meet the nutrient and water requirements of crops.
In India, the area irrigated with wastewater has increased from 73,000 hectares in the early nineties If the wastewater quality is unsuitable for direct use, it must be treated or diluted with clean water or higher quality wastewater Advances in treatment technology have significantly contributed to the development of indirect water recycling applications.
Indirect Reuse
Indirect reuse refers to the reclamation and treatment of wastewater, which is then reintegrated into the natural water cycle or a receiving body, allowing for potential re-treatment within a facility This method offers significant control over receiving waters through dilution, provided that contaminant levels in the receiving water are lower than those in the recycled water Consequently, water quality requirements must be specifically tailored, emphasizing the importance of minimizing risks and implementing essential control measures, such as water safety plans and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) plans Monitoring is crucial to ensure that the management system and treatments operate as designed, with expectations clearly defined in accordance with HACCP or water safety plan methodologies.
The Codex Alimentarius framework for risk analysis is recommended as the foundation for this document This process includes three key components: risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication Effective risk assessment relies on accurately identifying hazards, utilizing quality data, and making sound assumptions to estimate risk levels Continuous information exchange among all parties is essential for effective risk communication throughout the process Additionally, the monitoring program must adhere to existing regulatory norms and ensure compliance with established requirements, addressing both product water verification and overall production efficiency.
Wastewater Reuse Guidelines
The primary aim of reuse criteria is to safeguard communities and reduce environmental harm Various countries, including the USA, South Africa, Australia, Japan, and several Mediterranean nations, along with the European Union, have established reuse guidelines Among these, the guidelines from the United States Environmental Protection Agency are the most widely recognized Additionally, the World Health Organization's 2006 guidelines advocate for a flexible risk assessment and management approach, emphasizing health-based targets that are achievable within local contexts, supported by rigorous monitoring measures.
Wastewater poses risks from both pathogenic agents and chemical contaminants resulting from industrial discharges and stormwater runoff The World Health Organization (WHO) has established maximum tolerable soil concentrations for various toxic chemicals, considering human exposure through the food chain For assessing irrigation water quality, WHO relies on guidelines from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) However, these guidelines do not specifically outline methods for reducing chemical contaminants in wastewater intended for irrigation use.
Exposure to untreated wastewater significantly contributes to the global burden of diarrhoeal diseases Epidemiological studies indicate that using wastewater for irrigation poses substantial infection risks to consumers and communities near these sites Individuals in proximity to untreated wastewater may be exposed to harmful aerosols, increasing their risk of bacterial and viral infections Research has shown that farmers and their families who come into direct contact with wastewater face heightened risks of parasitic infections, diarrhoea, and skin diseases Additionally, outbreaks of diarrhoeal diseases, including cholera, typhoid, and shigellosis, have been linked to the consumption of uncooked vegetables irrigated with wastewater.
Chemical and Physical Features of Wastewater from Food-
Slaughterhouses and Related Wastewater
Slaughterhouses Wastewater (SWW) is classified as industrial waste within the agricultural and food industries and is recognized by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) as one of the most environmentally harmful types of wastewater.
Slaughterhouses play a crucial role in the global meat industry, which is vital in many countries where meat serves as a primary source of animal protein In the USA, meat consumption reached an estimated 101 kg per capita in 2007, with a notable increase in demand, especially in developing nations Over the past three decades, global meat production has doubled, reflecting the rising trend in meat consumption worldwide.
Between 2007 and 2015, global beef production rose by 29%, with significant increases observed in India and China This growth is largely attributed to rising incomes and a growing preference for protein-rich, Western-style diets.
The anticipated rise in slaughterhouse facilities will lead to an increase in the volume of high-strength wastewater requiring treatment Additionally, the slaughterhouse industry is the largest consumer of freshwater within the food and beverage processing sector.
In meat processing, water plays a crucial role in various operations, including carcass washing after hide or hair removal, cleaning and sanitizing equipment and facilities, and cooling mechanical equipment like compressors and pumps Significant water is also utilized for hog scalding and carcass blood washing The rate of water usage and wastewater generation can vary greatly, as meat-processing facilities typically operate in two distinct phases: the killing and processing shift, followed by extensive cleaning operations.
The meat-processing industry is characterized by a high demand for quality water, which is crucial for food safety The composition of slaughterhouse wastewater (SWW) varies significantly based on different industrial processes and specific water needs Abattoirs generate substantial amounts of wastewater from slaughtering and cleaning operations Notably, the meat-processing sector accounts for 24% of the total freshwater usage in the food and beverage industry and up to 29% in the agricultural sector globally.
Slaughterhouse wastewater (SWW) is globally recognized as harmful due to its intricate mixture of fats, proteins, and fibers This type of wastewater is characterized by elevated levels of organic matter, leading to significant biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) values, primarily caused by the presence of blood, tallow, and mucosal tissues.
Wastewater from the meat industry is often rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, and total suspended solids (TSS), leading to potential deoxygenation of rivers and groundwater contamination The use of detergents and disinfectants during cleaning introduces pathogenic and non-pathogenic microorganisms, as well as parasite eggs Additionally, meat-processing wastewaters contain various mineral elements, with hog manure being a significant source of copper, arsenic, and zinc due to additives in hog feed This wastewater typically harbors high microbial loads, including total coliforms and faecal coliforms, which, while generally non-pathogenic, suggest the possible presence of enteric pathogens like Salmonella spp and Escherichia coli O157:H7, as well as gastrointestinal parasites Furthermore, antibiotics used in livestock management can also be present, released during the evisceration process.
Beverage Industries and Related Wastewater
The beverage industry, a significant segment of the food sector, encompasses a wide array of products, including both alcoholic beverages like wines and spirits, and non-alcoholic options such as fruit juices and soft drinks With global soft drink consumption reaching 687 billion liters in 2013 and a market value of $830 billion, the industry's impact is substantial Wastewater in this sector arises from various processes, including bottle washing, product filling, and cleaning systems A major contributor to freshwater wastage is the extensive water use in the glass bottle reuse process, which involves multiple washing stages to ensure safety from microorganisms and chemicals Notably, approximately 50% of the beverage industry's total wastewater is generated from bottle washing Furthermore, wastewater parameters such as COD, BOD, TSS, and total nitrogen are typically elevated, influenced by the chemicals used in the cleaning processes.
Alcoholic Beverages Industries and Related
Distilleries, wineries, and breweries share similar manufacturing processes, including fermentation and separation operations, leading to high freshwater consumption and significant wastewater production The untreated wastewater from these industries poses a global environmental threat, as its discharge can result in salination and eutrophication of freshwater resources.
Distillery Companies and Related Wastewater
Distillery wastewater is the byproduct generated from alcohol distilleries, producing an average of 8–15 liters of wastewater for every liter of alcohol produced This wastewater, resulting from the distillation of fermented mash, is characterized by its dark brown color, high organic matter content, acidity, and unpleasant odors The level of pollution in distillery wastewater varies based on factors such as the quality of molasses, feedstock, distillery location, and the specific distillation process used for ethanol production A BOD/COD ratio greater than 0.6 indicates a high level of organic pollution in the wastewater.
Winery Companies and Related Wastewater
Wine production is a significant agricultural activity today, encompassing two main sub-categories: the generation of winery wastewater and by-products, and the recycling of these by-products within wine distilleries This process demands substantial resources, including water, energy, fertilizers, and organic amendments, while simultaneously generating a considerable volume of wastewater The wastewater arises from various activities, such as cleaning tanks, washing floors and equipment, rinsing transfer lines, barrel cleaning, losses during bottling, filtration processes, and rainwater captured in the wastewater management system.
Each winery generates a unique volume of wastewater influenced by various factors, including the working period (vintage, racking, bottling), winemaking processes, and technology used for red and white wine production On average, a winery produces 1.3–1.5 kg of residues per liter of wine, with approximately 75% of this being wastewater Additionally, the generation of winery wastewater is seasonal, and these effluents are generally biodegradable, exhibiting a higher BOD/COD ratio during the vintage period due to the presence of sugars and ethanol.
The wine industry's wastewater significantly affects the environment, leading to water pollution, eutrophication, soil degradation, and harm to vegetation These issues stem from improper wastewater disposal practices and are exacerbated by the high organic load and substantial volumes of wastewater generated Additionally, the management of this wastewater contributes to unpleasant odors and air emissions.
Non-alcoholic Beverages Production and Related
The non-alcoholic beverage industry produces wastewater that contains a complex mixture of chemicals Notably, syrups are identified as the primary pollutants in this wastewater, largely due to their high sucrose content, which is often a byproduct of various processes such as juice production and the cleaning of equipment and facilities.
Dairy Industry and Related Wastewater
The dairy industry is a significant contributor to industrial effluent production in Europe It involves the processing and manufacturing of raw milk into various products, including yoghurt, ice cream, butter, cheese, and desserts, utilizing processes like pasteurisation and coagulation.
The dairy industry has a significant demand for water, which is utilized in various processes including sanitization, heating, cooling, milk processing, packaging, and cleaning of milk tankers Filtration, centrifugation, and chilling are essential techniques employed in these operations.
The dairy industry is subdivided into several sectors associated to the production of contaminated wastewaters These effluents have different features, depending on
The substances used in production include fructose, glucose, sucrose, lactose, artificial sweeteners, fruit juice concentrates, flavoring agents, dissolved carbon dioxide, bicarbonates, coloring additives like caramel and synthetic dyes, preservatives such as phosphoric and tartaric acids, and mineral salts.
The volume of wastewater generated in the dairy industry varies significantly due to factors such as industry type, manufacturing techniques, and equipment used A substantial portion of this wastewater arises from the cleaning of transport lines, tank trucks, and milk silos between production cycles Additionally, dairy wastewaters exhibit considerable fluctuations in inflow rates, which are linked to the discontinuity in production cycles of various products.
The dairy industry produces substantial amounts of wastewater, estimated at 0.2–10 liters for every liter of processed milk This wastewater is characterized by high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) values, indicating significant organic content Cheese effluents, in particular, pose a considerable environmental threat due to their physicochemical properties, with BOD/COD ratios typically ranging from 0.4 to 0.8, resulting in elevated dissolved oxygen consumption in aquatic ecosystems.
Lactose and fat are the primary contributors to high Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) values in industrial dairy wastewaters Nitrogen in these wastewaters primarily comes from milk proteins and exists in various forms, including organic nitrogen (such as proteins, urea, and nucleic acids) and inorganic ions like ammonium nitrate and nitrite Phosphorus is predominantly present in inorganic forms, including orthophosphate and polyphosphate compounds, as well as in organic forms.
Effective waste control is crucial for resource management and dairy food plant operations The high organic matter concentration in dairy effluents can significantly burden local sewage treatment systems Additionally, the elevated levels of nitrogen and phosphorus in cheese effluents pose a serious risk of eutrophication in nearby lakes and slow-moving rivers.
Agro-industrial Wastewater
In recent years, the demand for higher agricultural productivity has surged due to the growing global population However, intensified agricultural practices have resulted in significant environmental challenges, including land degradation, excessive water consumption, and pollution from eutrophication Additionally, monocultures have led to a loss of biodiversity, while the use of synthetic pesticides and mineral fertilizers has introduced hazardous chemicals into ecosystems Agriculture remains the largest consumer of the world's limited freshwater resources.
On a global scale, 80±10% of all freshwater withdrawals (from lakes, rivers, underground aquifers, etc.) are used in agriculture More than 40% of the food
The presence of carbohydrates, particularly lactose, along with biodegradable proteins, lipids, minerals, and high levels of suspended solids, oils, and grease justifies these values Approximately 70% of freshwater sourced from rivers and groundwater is utilized for irrigation It is projected that food production will need to increase by 60% between 2016 and 2050 to meet the demands of a population expected to surpass nine billion.
Agricultural water use is exacerbating water scarcity in various regions, even those with ample water resources A significant contributor to this issue is the point-source contamination from fruit and vegetable packaging plants, which generate large amounts of effluents and solid waste The water demand in these facilities is concentrated during specific, short timeframes, leading to substantial variations in pollution loads throughout the year due to the seasonal nature of processed products.
Fourth Range products are minimally processed foods that include cleaned, peeled, washed, and cut vegetables, packaged in bags or trays for convenient use The entire processing and packaging cycle heavily depends on water, resulting in a significant amount of freshwater being utilized relative to the final product's weight Ultimately, this high volume of freshwater is classified as wastewater at the end of the processing cycle.
Wastewaters from the fruit-packaging industry are a significant source of pesticide contamination Without effective treatment methods, these wastewaters are often released into municipal wastewater treatment plants or disposed of on land Common pesticides used in this industry include thiabendazole, imazalil, and ortho-phenylphenol, along with antioxidants like diphenylamine and ethoxyquin, which help reduce production losses caused by fungal infestations and physiological disorders during storage.
Postharvest treatments of fruits generate significant volumes of wastewater that typically exhibit low BOD/COD ratios but contain elevated pesticide concentrations Therefore, it is essential to implement preliminary detoxification processes before releasing this wastewater into the environment.
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Introduction to Chemical Wastewater Remediation in the Food Industry Objectives and Conditions
in the Food Industry Objectives and Conditions
Water sources are currently a critical issue across various economic sectors, particularly in relation to the supply of water for food and beverage production and packaging.
M Barbera and G Gurnari, Wastewater Treatment and Reuse in the Food Industry ,
Chemistry of Foods, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68442-0_2
Water reuse systems are increasingly recognized as promising technologies, allowing for the recycling of discharged water from processing plants through advanced treatments The selection of an appropriate strategy depends on various factors, including the volume of wastewater, the chemical characteristics of pollutants, and physical-chemical parameters such as biological oxygen demand Different systems are available for the food industry, and the choice of strategy should be based on chemical and biological tests conducted on the initial wastewater, as well as the intended final use of the water Additionally, various chemical treatments may be necessary for wastewater from food industries, particularly for non-food reuses, often requiring a preliminary adsorption stage due to the presence of resistant pollutants.
When discussing water reuse systems, it is essential to differentiate between technologies aimed at reducing wastewater and methods that lower the contamination levels of existing wastewaters This distinction serves as a foundational concept for wastewater treatment processes.
Preventive measures against the increase of existing wastewaters are relatively inexpensive and can be implemented in food and beverage plants of any size The focus shifts to wastewater remediation systems, which can be categorized based on the specific type of liquid being treated In the food and beverage industries, wastewater can either be reused within the plant or directed to publicly owned treatment works The destination of the wastewater plays a crucial role in determining the most suitable treatment method, taking into account the unique chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of the fluids prior to treatment.
Food wastewaters are generally considered less toxic compared to industrial wastewater from sectors like metals and chemicals However, they present challenges due to high levels of specific contaminants such as minerals, ammonia salts, fats, oils, sugars, and starch These wastewaters are evaluated using chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) metrics, which provide insights into their contamination levels Consequently, wastewater data is typically reported in terms of BOD and COD values, both for incoming and treated effluents Selecting the appropriate remediation treatment requires consideration of the COD and BOD values of the incoming wastewater, the target removal efficiency, treatment costs, and the desired quality of the treated water, including pH and mineral content Additionally, remediation processes can be categorized based on the amount of gross removed matter.
(1) Primary processes These systems are basically the separation of suspended solids from wastewaters The aim should be an effluent with notable organic matters and remarkable BOD values
Secondary treatments focus on minimizing organic loads and residual suspended materials in wastewater following primary processes Consequently, the average Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) levels in the effluents should remain low, ideally not exceeding specified limits.
30 mg/l) and similar values should be obtained when speaking of suspended solids In general, secondary processes are based on the biological activity and degradation of pollutants
Tertiary processes, also known as advanced treatments, are designed to significantly improve the chemical and biological quality of effluents The goal is to achieve water effluents with low biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) values and other parameters that surpass those produced by secondary processes alone.
Anyhow, the easier classification of remediation techniques may be offered when speaking of the meaning of the peculiar removal operation Consequently, remediation systems may be subdivided in [3,4]:
(a) Physical removal (e.g.filtration) This is a primary process
(d) Biological removal (e.g biomass fermentation) Basically, these systems are
The main difference between biological systems and the other strategies (with the exclusion of separation/concentration, other technologies are substantially
Advanced or tertiary systems utilize microorganisms to degrade contaminants These systems effectively break down both soluble and non-soluble pollutants, as well as nutrients containing nitrogen and/or phosphorus, transforming them into less hazardous compounds.
This chapter focuses exclusively on physical-chemical wastewater remediation systems, excluding biological methods It discusses various physical-chemical techniques and their potential applications.
‘hybrid’solutions including biological treatments, if applicable.
Physical – Chemical Remediation Systems
Gravity Separation or Concentration
The techniques for wastewater treatment focus on separating solid and semi-solid materials using bar screens and sedimentation basins, leveraging the density differences of pollutants The goal is to remove at least 50% of total suspended solids and over 60% of oils and grease, leading to a significant reduction in BOD5 values While these methods effectively reduce nitrogen, phosphorus, and heavy metals, they do not eliminate colloidal and dissolved compounds Additionally, primary processes can be integrated with chemical and biological treatments, where anaerobic digestion of the resulting sludge can produce and recover methane Other treatment solutions are also available.
Evaporation
The concentration process is essential for treating wastewaters containing significant amounts of inorganic salts This method allows for the recovery of salts and heavy metals for reuse, while producing high-quality distilled water that is reusable Various evaporation systems, such as mechanical equipment and evaporator ponds, can be employed, though costs may escalate based on the volume of fluids treated Additionally, these systems often necessitate maintenance and supplementary treatment to address potential issues like fouling.
Centrifugation
The separation process is effective for wastewater containing significant oil levels and particle sizes below 5000 µm It involves a straightforward centrifugation method, utilizing various machines with costs that vary based on design and the volume of fluids treated However, wastewater with particle sizes greater than 5000 µm can also be processed, provided that larger particles and compounds are removed beforehand.
In the Fourth Range sector of minimally processed products, various water treatment systems are employed to reduce pollution These systems include automatic spin dryers, such as cyclones, as well as blowing washed and cascade washing methods.
Filtration and Flotation
Filtration serves as a crucial pre-treatment or tertiary process, utilizing various filters such as cartridges and membrane systems for wastewater treatment This method is commonly employed in the food industry, particularly for filtering brine solutions in cheese production, and is effective when particle sizes exceed 1 µm Different filter types, including granular-media, cartridge, and pre-coated filters with diatomaceous earth, are available for these applications.
In the production of Fourth Range foods, the intermediate processing system can utilize clean water treated through natural methods, such as filtration on natural sand beds By applying Darcy's equations, it is possible to calculate the flow speed and transit time of fluids, ensuring the water is free from contaminants.
Another separation treatment uses the adherence of oils and grease to gas bubbles when pumped in wastewaters (dissolved or induced airflotation systems);superficial agglomerations may be eliminated by skimming [1].
Membrane Technologies
Emerging filtration technologies utilize various membranes, such as polymeric compounds like polyamides and polycarbonates, tailored to the size of pollutants Microfiltration is ideal for particles smaller than 10 mm, targeting colloidal compounds and microbial agglomerations For particles under 100 nm, ultrafiltration systems employ a simple diffusion method to recover effluents while removing or incinerating concentrated substances Common target molecules include colloids, proteins, and various emulsions.
For pollutant sizes less than 10 nm, nanofiltration is advisable, although it can be costly In wastewater treatment, this method is effective for removing antibiotic substances and demineralizing treated waters Reverse osmosis is suitable for particles smaller than 1 nm, while electrodialysis is preferred for obtaining pure water However, the stringent requirements of the food and beverage industries may not accommodate all these solutions.
1 Anonymous (1997) Wastewater reduction and recycling in food processing operations State of the Art Report — Food Manufacturing Coalition for Innovation and Technology Transfer.
R J Philips & Associates, Inc., Great Falls
2 Nini D, Gimenez-Mitsotakis P (1994) Creative solutions for bakery waste ef fl uent American Institute of Chemical Engineers Symposium Series 300, 90:95 – 105
3 Henze M, van Loosdrecht MCM, Ekama GA, Brdjanovic D (eds) (2008) Biological wastewater treatment Principles, modelling and design The International Water Association (IWA) Publishing, London
4 Munter R (2000) Industrial wastewater treatment In: Lundin LC (ed) Water use and management Uppsala University, Uppsala
5 Pescod MD (1992) Wastewater treatment and use in agriculture — FAO Irrigation and DrainagePaper 95 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome Available http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e00.htm Accessed 29 Mar 2017
Wastewater Treatments for the Food
This chapter offers an overview of biological wastewater remediation systems in the food industry, highlighting the growing interest in water reuse technologies These systems are evaluated based on quantitative estimations and the physical and chemical characteristics of pollutants, which can vary weekly The remediation systems can be categorized into four types, focusing on specific removal operations, including biological methods Biological techniques are designed to minimize organic loads and suspended materials in wastewater from primary processes, following the initial removal of oils and solids These methods utilize aerobic, anaerobic, or hybrid solutions to biologically degrade soluble and non-soluble pollutants, as well as nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, converting them into less hazardous compounds.
Keywords Aerobic metabolism Anaerobic metabolism BOD COD
Introduction to Wastewater Bioremediation in the Food Industry
in the Food Industry: Objectives and Conditions
Water sources are critical in various economic sectors, particularly in food and beverage production and packaging This highlights the growing interest in water reuse systems, which utilize advanced treatments to recycle discharged water from processing plants Such technologies promise to enhance sustainability and efficiency in water management.
M Barbera and G Gurnari, Wastewater Treatment and Reuse in the Food Industry ,
Chemistry of Foods, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68442-0_3
There are 23 strategies for managing wastewater in the food industry, which rely on quantitative estimations, chemical characteristics of pollutants, and physical-chemical parameters that can vary weekly Selecting the appropriate strategy requires conducting chemical and biological tests on the initial wastewater, as the intended final use of the treated water is also essential Additionally, various chemical systems can be employed for non-food reuse of wastewater from food industries Due to the presence of resistant pollutants, many treatment processes often necessitate a preliminary adsorption stage.
A crucial distinction exists between technologies aimed at reducing wastewater and methods that lower the contamination levels of existing wastewaters This distinction serves as a foundational concept for wastewater treatment processes The first category focuses on preventive measures to curb the increase of wastewater, which can be implemented in food and beverage plants of any size The second category, known as 'wastewater remediation,' can be further divided based on the type of fluid treated and the final destination of the effluents The treatment method is determined by the characteristics of the wastewater, including its chemical, physical, and biological properties prior to treatment.
Food wastewaters are primarily classified based on chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) Input data for these wastewaters is typically represented by BOD and COD values, which also apply to the output data of treated waters Selecting the most effective remediation treatment requires consideration of the COD and BOD values of the incoming wastewater, the target removal levels, associated plant costs, and the desired BOD and COD values for the treated effluent.
In addition, there is a simple classification which subdivides all processes in three basic categories depending on the desired amount of gross removed matters (Sects.2.1):
(1) Primary processes These systems are basically the separation of suspended solids from wastewaters The aim should be an effluent with notable organic matters and remarkable BOD values
Secondary treatments focus on minimizing organic loads and residual suspended materials in wastewater following primary processes Consequently, the average Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) levels in the effluents should remain low, ideally not exceeding specified limits.
30 mg/l) and similar performances should be obtained when speaking of sus- pended solids In general, secondary processes are based on the biological activity and degradation of pollutants
(3) Tertiary or advanced treatments (for high-standard effluent waters).
Bioremediation systems are secondary processes that utilize microorganisms to degrade contaminants, distinguishing them from other remediation strategies These systems effectively convert both soluble and non-soluble pollutants, along with nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients, into less hazardous compounds This chapter focuses exclusively on bio-based wastewater remediation systems, excluding physical-chemical and mechanical techniques.
Preliminary Removal of Oils and Solids
Biological remediation of wastewater utilizes bioreactors filled with specific active microorganisms, which can either be suspended in culture media or attached to physical supports This biological activity leads to the conversion of pollutants through aerobic or anaerobic metabolism, resulting in the production of carbon dioxide and other byproducts.
The effectiveness of wastewater treatment processes is significantly influenced by the quality of the incoming wastewater Lighter fluids entering the bioreactor lead to improved effluent quality, characterized by lower BOD values, optimal pH levels, and the absence of specific pollutants, while ensuring that living microorganisms are removed in subsequent steps Therefore, a preliminary or primary treatment step is essential to eliminate overly viscous or rheologically incompatible materials that could disrupt the treatment process.
Effective treatment of oils and grease typically involves sedimentation or filtration systems, which aim to remove over 50% of total suspended solids and more than 60% of oils and grease, leading to a significant reduction in BOD values after five days of testing However, these methods are limited in their ability to eliminate colloidal and dissolved compounds, although they can significantly reduce nitrogen- and phosphorus-associated organic molecules and heavy metals.
After primary treatment, wastewater must undergo biological remediation to transform it into high-quality water This process primarily utilizes aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms, with the methods named accordingly Additionally, hybrid processes can be employed, yielding significant results in specific circumstances.
Aerobic Treatments
These systems are well known because of their efficiency and related results: the
Aerobic activity results in the production of inorganic molecules, primarily carbon dioxide and water, while also promoting the growth of living microorganisms However, this overview does not capture the full complexity of aerobic treatment, as various factors must be taken into account.
(a) The different supply technology of oxygen
(b) The different rapidity of aerobic metabolism (in other terms, the rapidity of microbial spreading into bioreactors)
The size of bioreactors is inversely related to the concentration of active aerobic microorganisms, meaning that smaller reactors can effectively support high rates of processes while maintaining a significant presence of active life forms.
On these bases, three different aerobic treatments are known and used at present [5]:
The activated sludge technique is a discontinuous system that utilizes a bioreactor containing wastewater and suspended microorganisms, along with a continuous supply of gaseous oxygen through aeration devices This process results in effluents of acceptable quality, while microorganisms are removed through sedimentation and partially recycled for further use.
Biofiltration systems utilize unique surfaces such as stones, plastics, and wood that are infused with living microorganisms These active biofilms treat wastewater that is supplied either continuously or intermittently, requiring air for optimal function The process involves two stages of clarification, with the second stage producing high-quality water, part of which is recycled back into the system.
(3) Rotating biological contactors This technique is based on the same concept of biofilters, but supports for biofilms are rotating discs with a slow speed rate.
Biofilm-based systems outperform activated sludge in delivering predictable results; however, they are limited in their ability to remove nitrogen, phosphorus compounds, and non-biodegradable substances.
Residual chemicals, including pesticides and artificial substances, typically remain at levels of 70±30 mg per liter Therefore, it is advisable to combine these with non-biological techniques for effective treatment In some cases, more aggressive chemical methods, such as oxidation systems, may be necessary.
At the conclusion of the treatment process, biological sludge, which consists of living microorganisms, must be effectively separated from the effluent using basic sedimentation methods This sludge can be repurposed by combining it with the mass collected prior to secondary treatment, followed by any necessary processing.
Anaerobic Treatments
Anaerobic treatments differ from aerobic digestion as they rely on the biodecomposition of organic pollutants without oxygen, resulting in the production of biogas, which consists of methane and carbon dioxide Three specific types of bacteria have been identified as beneficial for the anaerobic digestion of wastewaters.
Fermenting microorganisms play a crucial role in producing simple organic molecules, including alcohols, carbon dioxide, and ammonia Among these, acetic acid bacteria, which are gram-negative, can convert carbohydrates or ethyl alcohol into acetic acid, generating molecular hydrogen and carbon dioxide as by-products.
(c) Methane-producing microorganisms These extremely important bacteria turn molecular hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane Alternatively, acetate ion may be metabolised instead of carbon dioxide.
Anaerobic treatment is a three-stage process, where the final stage generates significant amounts of methane The initial stages are crucial due to the absence of carbon dioxide (or acetate) and molecular hydrogen Given the complexity of these processes, various solutions are available, including high-rate reactors utilizing technologies such as fluidized bed, anaerobic filter, and up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket processes.
Anaerobic treatments outperform aerobic systems due to their effective conversion of insoluble pollutants at elevated temperatures and concentrations While aerobic systems are ideal for soluble pollutants, anaerobic microorganisms require longer contact times for effective conversion due to their slower growth rates Furthermore, attached bioactive microorganisms enhance the efficiency of anaerobic processes, making them a superior choice for treating specific pollutants.
Hybrid Solutions
Due to the varying outcomes of aerobic and anaerobic systems and the need for additional treatments, a 'pure' biological treatment cannot serve as a standalone remediation process Consequently, it is essential to integrate various chemical systems with biological strategies for effective results.
One effective solution for treating challenging wastewaters involves combining conventional biological digestion with advanced oxidation techniques and chemical systems like chlorination Pre-treatment through the oxidation of complex compounds can enhance the biodegradability of pollutants before biological systems are applied Additionally, advanced chemical oxidation processes, such as ozonation and Fenton-assisted methods, can be utilized post-biological treatment to eliminate persistent compounds, particularly in the food industry However, further research is essential to address gaps in toxicology and biodegradability data related to these coupled strategies, as well as to assess their economic viability The management of water effluents is critical for reuse in food industries, as the introduction of potentially contaminated waters can lead to irreversible changes in food products, complicating the production of safe and durable foods according to Parisi’s Law of Food Degradation.
1 Anonymous (1997) Wastewater reduction and recycling in food processing operations State of the art report — Food manufacturing coalition for innovation and technology transfer.
R J Philips & Associates, Inc., Great Falls
2 Henze M, van Loosdrecht MCM, Ekama GA, Brdjanovic D (eds) (2008) Biological wastewater treatment Principles, modelling and design The International Water Association (IWA) Publishing, London
3 Munter R (2000) Industrial wastewater treatment In: Lundin LC (ed) Water use and management Uppsala University, Uppsala
The article titled "Technology Transfer Manual of Industrial Wastewater Treatment" by Hogetsu A, Ogino Y, and Takemika T (2003) provides essential guidelines for managing industrial wastewater Published by the Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center in Tokyo, Japan, this manual spans pages 107 to 110 and serves as a valuable resource for environmental management practices The document is accessible online, although the link is currently unavailable.
I don't know!
The FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 47, authored by Marchaim U in 1992, discusses biogas processes that contribute to sustainable development This document, published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in Rome, is accessible online at the FAO website The information was last accessed on March 29, 2017.
7 Oller I, Malato S, S á nchez-P é rez J (2011) Combination of advanced oxidation processes and biological treatments for wastewater decontamination — a review Sci Total Environ 409 (20):4141 – 4166 doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.08.061
8 Marco A, Esplugas S, Saum G (1997) How and why combine chemical and biological processes for wastewater treatment Water Sci Technol 35(4):321 – 327 doi:10.1016/S0273- 1223(97)00041-3
9 Parisi S (2002) I fondamenti del calcolo della data di scadenza degli alimenti: principi ed applicazioni Ind Aliment 41, 417: 905 – 919
Quality Standards for Recycled Water:
Opuntia ficus - indica as Sorbent Material
In recent years, the surge in industrial and agricultural activities, coupled with population growth, has led to the overexploitation of natural resources and an increase in various pollutants Consequently, hazardous wastewater pollution has emerged as a critical global environmental issue While numerous wastewater treatment technologies exist, many come with notable disadvantages, highlighting the ongoing need for efficient, low-cost alternatives Recently, biosolids, including Opuntia ficus-indica, have gained attention for their potential in pollutant removal from wastewater This chapter emphasizes wastewater treatment strategies that target sewage with high levels of chemical oxygen demand, turbidity, heavy metals, and pesticides.
Keywords Coagulation Flocculation Heavy metal Opuntia fi cus-indica
DDT Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane ΔH Enthalpy change
FT-IR Fourier-transform infrared ΔG Gibbs free energy change
OFI Opuntiaficus-indica © The Author(s) 2018
M Barbera and G Gurnari, Wastewater Treatment and Reuse in the Food Industry,
Chemistry of Foods, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-68442-0_4